UNIVERSITY
OF FLORIDA
LIBRARIES
GUIDE TO TEACHING
Sfeec
IN
FLORIDA SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Bulletin No. 34-A
(Revised)
STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Tallahassee, Florida
1954
THOMAS D. BAILEY, State Superintendent of Public Instruction
-,/
WORKSHOP PRODUCTION GROUP
DR. DOUGLAS EHNINGER, Director
University of Florida, Gainesville
DR. VINCENT McGUIRE, Assistant Director
University of Florida, Gainesville
Dr. Henry P. Constans, University of Florida, Gainesville
Dr. Thomas Lewis, Florida State University, Tallahassee
Dr. Wayne Minnick, Florida State University, Tallahassee
Mrs. Mallory Cox, Brooklyn College, Brooklyn, New York
Dr. T. Q. Srygley, State Department of Education, Tallahassee
Miss Sarah Adams, Miami Jackson School, Miami
Miss Eunice Home, Robert E. Lee High School, Jacksonville
Mr. F. S. McGowan, Marion County Schools, Ocala
Miss Mildred Shepherd, Anona School, Largo
Miss Marjorie Southern, Pompano High School, Pompano Beach
Copyright 1954
FLORIDA STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
TALLAHASSEE, FLORIDA
FOREWORD
Inasmuch as approximately eighty-five percent of the high schools
in Florida do not offer separate courses in speech, major responsibility
for educating pupils in oral communication skills must rest largely with
teachers of other subjects. The teaching of speech cannot be confined
to one classroom or to a single teacher without educational loss. Ideally,
speech should become an integral part of the school curriculum, with
each teacher presenting much of his subject material through oral
exercises.
Bulletin 34 A, "A Guide to Teaching Speech in Florida Secondary
Schools," cooperatively produced by Florida public school teachers, the
University of Florida and the State Department of Education, should
provide considerable help for teachers in planning development of pupil
skills in oral language command. The study has as its central theme the
development of pupil ability to communicate effectively with others.
Moreover, the procedures which have been proposed if followed should
arouse pupil interest and encourage pupil participation.
We are grateful to all who have had a part in production of the
study. Especial thanks are due the committee membership, who worked
faithfully and effectively in production of the publication. Names of the
committee are set out in full on the page of acknowledgments. We are
conscious also of an obligation to Dr. Douglas Ehninger, Director, and
Dr. Vincent McGuire, Assistant Director, both of the University of
Florida, for their fine leadership in the project.
Members of the Department of Education to whom acknowledgment
should be made for special contributions are: Mr. J. K. Chapman, Deputy
Superintendent, Dr. T. Q. Srygley, Director, Division of Instruction, and
Mr. T. George Walker, Director, Division of Publications and Textbook
Services.
It is my hope and belief that "A Guide to Teaching Speech in Florida
Secondary Schools" can be of significant help to teachers in their efforts
to develop pupil understanding, skill, and competence in the art of
effective oral communication.
State Superintendent of Public Instruction
DEFINITION OF SCOPE AND SEQUENCE
This revision of Bulletin Number 34 A, "A Guide to Teaching Speech
in Florida Secondary Schools," Part II, is the result of a request made
by speech teachers at the 1950 meeting of the Florida Education Asso-
ciation. It attempts to aid in the establishment of an active, effective
speech program throughout Florida by proposing objectives, plans, and
procedures helpful to teachers of speech as well as to teachers in other
specialized areas.
Included in the bulletin are separate units on developing speech
awareness, voice and diction, listening, conversation, group discussion,
parliamentary law, extempore speaking, debate, oral reading, radio, and
dramatics. When introduced in sequence, according to the time schedule
outlined below, they constitute a course in the fundamentals of speech.
Moreover, the units may serve another purpose. They may be used
separately by teachers interested in providing additional opportunities
for oral participation in classwork. Pupils should benefit from a cor-
relation of the principles of speech awareness and oral reading ability
with the study of literature, civics, and history. The units on group
discussion, debate, and parliamentary law should prove to be of especial
interest to teachers of the social studies. For the teacher who is unex-
pectedly asked to supervise a forensic program or to direct a play, the
units on group discussion, debate, and dramatics provide suggested
procedures.
In addition to the eleven unit program the bulletin includes sugges-
tions concerning speech in the extra-class activities program and a pro-
posed outline for a speech program in the seventh and eighth grades.
Specific exercises are discuss in an outline for a one-semester course
in public speaking. Finally, there is included in the bulletin valuable
information concerning the means of obtaining materials and supplies
for activities and instruction in speech and dramatic arts.
When the units are used in sequence to constitute a fundamentals
speech course, time restrictions will obviously make it impossible for
the teacher to present all of the exercises and projects suggested; nor
is it intended that he do so. In each case an abundance of materials
has been provided so that the teacher may choose those materials most
suitable for his needs.
The suggested schedules for both a one- and a two-semester funda-
mentals course are outlined as follows:
Recommended Content and Time Schedule for a
One-Semester Fundamentals Course
Unit Weeks
Developing Speech Awareness ....................... 1
Voice and D iction .................................. 2
Listening ................................. ....... 3
Conversation .................................... 4-5
Group Discussion ................................. 6-7
Parliamentary Law ................................. 8
Extempore Speaking .............................. 9-10
Debate .......................................... 11-12
Oral Reading ..................................... 13
Radio ................... ..................... 14-15
Dramatics ........................................ 16-18
Recommended Content and Time Schedule for a
Two-Semester Fundamentals Course
First Semester
Unit Weeks
Developing Speech Awareness ....................... 1-2
Voice and Diction ................................. 3-4
Listening ........................................ 5
Conversation ....................... .. ............ 6-8
Group Discussion ................................... 9-11
Parliamentary Law ............................... 12-13
Extempore Speaking .............................. 14-18
Second Semester
Unit Weeks
Debate ......................................... 1-6
Oral Reading ................................... 7-9
R adio ............................... ......... 10-13
Dramatics .......................... ............. 14-18
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD ................. ...............................
DEFINITION OF SCOPE AND SEQUENCE.................
CHAPTER I. Developing Speech Awareness ....................
CHAPTER II.
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
CHAPTER
Voice and Diction.
III. L listening ....................................
IV. Conversation ..................................
V. Group Discussion ..............................
VI. Parliamentary Law. .........................
VII. Extempore Speaking............................
V III. D ebate .....................................
IX. Oral Reading .................................
X Radio .........................................
XI. D ram atics ....................................
XII. Speech in the Extra-Class Activities Program.....
CHAPTER XIII. Speech in the Junior High School Seventh and
Eighth Grades ............................... 75
CHAPTER XIV. A suggested Outline for a One-Semester Course
in Public Speaking............................ 79
APPENDIX. Obtaining Materials and Supplies for Activities and
Instruction in Speech and Dramatic Arts............ 95
CHAPTER I
DEVELOPING SPEECH AWARENESS
I. INTRODUCTION
Speech is the most common and probably the most important means
of communication. It is not surprising, therefore, that the study of
speech has had a place in the curriculum for nearly twenty-five-hundred
years. Initiated by the Greeks, kept alive through the Middle Ages,
and flowering anew in the Renaissance and eighteenth century, speech
training is today spreading to the new fields opened to it by modern
means of mass communication.
As taught at the present time in our high schools and colleges, speech
includes all of those various forms and processes which find a common
core in the fact that they are means of communicating ideas through
the audible symbols and cues of voice and the visible symbols and
cues of body. The most important of these forms and processes are
conversation, extempore speaking, group discussion, debate, radio, oral
reading, and dramatics.
A fundamentals course in speech, which has for its purpose laying
the groundwork for training in all of the more specialized forms of
oral communication as well as developing minimum speech efficiency
for general purposes, samples each of these seven areas. In addition,
it deals with the related areas of listening, voice and diction, and par-
liamentary law, and attempts to increase the student's understanding
and appreciation of the role which speech plays in his own life and in
the life of society as a whole. It is with the two last named functions
that the present section of the "Guide" is specifically concerned.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To help the student better understand the meaning of speech
B. To help the student better appreciate the role which speech
plays in his personal life
C. To help the student better appreciate the role which speech
plays in the life of society as a whole
III. PROCEDURES
A. What is speech?
1. Of what is speech composed?
a. Verbal symbols (in the form of words and sentences)
b. Visible symbols (the easily discernible movements of the
head, arms, legs, torso; facial expression; eye contact)
c. Audible cues (vocal quality, inflection, rate, habitual pitch
level, regional pronunciations)
d. Visible cues (the slightly discernible movements of the
1
skeletal muscles; muscle tension; convert movements in
the face, especially around the mouth and eyes)1
(1) Play recordings of public speakers or actors for the
class; ask the students to evaluate the role played by
the various audible cues in communicating ideas,
emotions, and moods. Have students study these
cues in selected radio speakers.
(2) Have students bring in newspaper and magazine pic-
tures of speakers who exhibit various visible symbols
and cues.
2. Why do we use speech?
To communicate ideas and emotions to others.
Communication is more than mere self-expression. Com-
munication is purposeful. It implies the presence of at least
two persons one giving rise to stimuli and the other re-
ceiving and reacting to those stimuli. We communicate in
order to get the world's business done.
3. If the purpose of speech is to communicate ideas and emo-
tions to others, how shall we define good speech? Broadly
speaking, good speech achieves its purpose it wins the
response sought by the speaker. In order to do this, however,
speech must generally be:
a. Audible
b. Clear
c. Pleasant to the ear
d. Free from errors of grammar and pronunciation
B. Speech and the individual
1. In how many different situations have you used speech today?
a. Asking for information
b. Telling a joke
c. Reciting in class
d. Calling football plays
2. In how many additional situations have you used speech
during the past week?
a. Telling a story in Sunday School
b. Cheering at a ball game
c. Introducing a speaker at an assembly program
8. Compare the number of times you use speech each day in
order to communicate with the number of times you use
writing.
4. Of the various speech situations in which you have engaged
during the past week, which were easiest for you? Which
were the hardest? Which were most enjoyable? Least enjoy-
able? Tell why in each case.
SFor a full discussion of the nature and importance of the various audible and
visible cues in speech see L. R. Sarett and W. T. Foster, Basic Principles of
Speech (Revised. New York: Houghton, 1946), 80-7 and 135-7.
5. What voice qualities do you like most in a person who is
talking to you? Which do you like best? Which do you like
least?
a. Have each student ask one of his parents, another teacher,
or some other adult to tell him the three voice qualities
he likes most in a speaker and the three he likes least.
List the likes and dislikes in two columns on the board.
Discuss them in class in order to determine which voice
qualities are most generally liked and disliked.
b. What are the reasons for these likes and dislikes?
6. Discuss the role which speech plays in the various profes-
sions which students may enter.
7. Speech has been called "a mirror of personality." Do you
agree or disagree with this statement? Why?
C. Speech and society
1. Could society exist without speech? What are some of the
various forms of speech which we use or encounter in our
daily lives?
a. Conversation
b. Discussion
c. Interviews
d. Oral reading
e. Public speaking
f. Acting
2. What part does speech play in the government of our
schools? Our city, state, and nation? What part does it play
in international government through the United Nations?
3. What part does speech play in business? In education? In
the arts?
4. Have radio and television increased the importance of speech?
Have they introduced new problems for the speaker and
listener?
5. Name some great historical figures who are remembered as
famous speakers. What use did they make of speech in their
careers?
6. Discuss the role which speech played in the American Revo-
lution. Discuss its role in other wars or in great social and
political movements.
7. What do we mean by freedom of speech? Why is freedom
of speech important?
8. Can speech be used for evil as well as beneficial social ends?
What social and moral responsibilities rest upon the speaker?
IV. SUGGESTIONS
If recording equipment is available, the teacher may make a short
recording of each student's speech. The student may read a para-
graph or two of prose, give a brief speech, or just converse with
the instructor. This should be done on an individual appointment
basis with only the student and instructor present. Let the student
hear himself and discuss with him whatever questions he may have
about how he sounds. Do not undertake, however, to present de-
tailed criticisms and be especially careful to avoid any harsh or
adverse comments in discussing his weak points. The purpose of the
recording is merely to give the student a chance to hear himself.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bachus, Ollie L. Speech in Education. New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1943.
Fessenden, Seth. Speech and the Teacher. New York: Longmans, Green and Co.,
1946.
Hager, Cyril F. "Speech and Effective Communication," Quarterly Journal of Speech,
XXXII (February, 1946), 26-30.
Lee, Irving. Language Habits in Human Affairs. New York: Harper, 1949.
McBurney, J. H. and Hance, K. G. Discussion in Human Affairs. New York: Harper,
1950.
CHAPTER II
VOICE AND DICTION
I. INTRODUCTION
"Voice is the tool by means of which all of the activities involving
speech in any form, whether it be public speaking, acting, business
speaking, or conversation, are performed."' A pleasing and effective
voice is, therefore, essential to good speech, and voice improvement
constitutes an important aspect of speech education.
While training in voice and diction may be isolated into a separate
unit such as this one for purposes of special study, it is also a continuing
matter which should receive attention in every aspect of speech work.
For this reason, we recommend that it be integrated with all of the
other units presented in this "Guide," especially those on oral reading
and dramatics.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To develop an understanding of how the working parts of the
voice function
B. To develop an appreciation of and a desire for an effective
speaking voice
C. To develop effective habits of articulation
D. To develop a pleasing vocal quality
E. To develop a flexible and responsive voice adequate to convey
the speaker's thoughts fully and effectively
III. PROCEDURES
A. Understanding the working parts of the voice
Sketch on the board the profile cross-section of a man from head
to shoulders and a front view outline from head to waist. This
will aid considerably in helping the class understand how the
voice works. Block in general areas and label the various work-
ing parts as you explain their function in speech. It is advisable
to explain the following and their function by means of lecture
and demonstration exercises: lungs, diaphragm, trachea, larynx,
pharynx, nasal cavities, and the mouth containing the lips,
tongue, teeth, jaws, hard and soft palates, and the uvula.2
B. Developing an interest in voice improvement
1. Discuss with the class the characteristics of an effective
speaking voice:
1 Virgil A. Anderson, Training the Speaking Voice (New York: Oxford University
Press, 1942), xv.
2 Hedde, Wilhelmina G. and Brigance, William N. American Speech (Chicago:
J. P. Lippincott Co., 1946), pp. 103-11.
Watkins, Rhoda and Frost, Eda B. Your Speech and Mine (Chicago: Lyons and
Carnahan, 1949), pp. 1-7.
a. Suitability for the speaker's age and sex
b. Adequacy of volume
c. Clarity and purity of tone
d. Flexibility that is, capability of making those changes
in pitch, volume, and rate which help to express meaning
e. Clarity and ease of articulation
2. Give examples of actual persons and situations and show how
each of these characteristics determines the effectiveness of
their speaking voice.
3. Explain and define for the class each of the four basic ele-
ments of voice:
a. Pitch- what you hear; the perception of the frequency
of vibration of the vocal folds; habitual pitch -
that pitch established by you in the normal in-
stance of speaking
b. Rate the over-all pace of utterance per unit of measure
c. Volume sometimes called loudness and dependent upon
the amplitude and frequency of vibration of the
vocal folds; often called force or vocal energy
d. Articulation the production of individual speech sounds
and the tying of these together in continuous
speech
4. If possible, make a recording of the student's voice, having
him read a short passage of prose and deliver a short ex-
temporaneous speech. Analyze this recording with him, noting
his vocal strengths and weaknesses, and setting certain goals
of improvement toward which he should strive.
C. Overcoming common vocal faults
1. The four principal vocal faults commonly found among high
school students are:
a. Inadequate projection
b. Monotony of pitch and rate
c. Indistinct articulation
d. Tight throat
2. Inadequate projection or carrying power
a. Several causes of inadequate projection are:
(1) Poor articulation
(2) Poor breathing habits resulting in insufficient breath
production
(3) Poor posture
(4) A shy and withdrawing personality
(5) A tight throat
(6) The notion that it is impolite to speak above a whisper
(7) Some organic defect of voice
b. Suggestions for improving projection
(1) Point out to the student that it is just as impolite to
speak so softly that one may not be heard as to speak
too loudly.
(2) Have the student read or speak in a large room or
auditorium. Sit in the back of the room and raise
your hand whenever you cannot hear him distinctly;
or have the members of the class scatter out through
the room, asking each of them to signal whenever he
cannot hear.
(3) As a variation of the preceding exercise, have the
student direct his speech first to someone sitting in
the front row, then to someone sitting half way back,
then to someone in the last row. Tell the student
consciously to increase his vocal energy and the
movements of his lips, tongue, and jaw in response
to the clear cut purpose of being heard easily and
effortlessly by the particular person to whom his
speech is directed.
(4) By suggesting exercises help the student work for
clarity of articulation.
(5) Have the student practice giving military commands.
(6) Have the student read aloud passages from speeches
and poems, the mood and purpose of which encour-
age him to speak more loudly and to project his voice.
WARNINGS:
(1) Unless you have had specialized training, do not at-
tempt to change the student's breathing pattern. Even
if you have, do not try this until all other methods
have failed.
(2) If the student's efforts to project are unsuccessful or
result in pain or soreness of the throat, cease training
at once and refer him to a physician. There may be
some organic or some deep-rooted psychological
cause of the difficulty.
3. Monotony of pitch
a. If possible, make recordings of students' voices so that
they may hear and criticize objectively their pitch changes
known as inflection. If recording equipment is not avail-
able, assign identification numbers to several students
and have them read selections while hidden from the
class audience. Then have the entire class discuss the
pitch variety or monotony of each voice.
b. Have the student listen to skilled speakers and actors to
observe the pitch changes in their voices.
c. Have the student see how many different meanings he
can express with the single word "Yes" or "No".
d. Attempting to hold his volume constant, and using pitch
change alone, have the student see how many different
meanings he can get out of the question, "Where do you
live?"
e. Encourage the student to read poetry aloud, striving to
bring out the full meaning through appropriate pitch
changes.
4. Monotony of rate
a. Read aloud for the student various passages which dem-
onstrate how altered rate may emphasize ideas. Show
him that such emphasis is not gained merely by slowing
down, but that it may also result from speeding up at
certain points.
b. Have the student practice changes in rate by reading
aloud passages of prose and poetry that have a broken
rhythm. NOTE: Frequently monotony of both pitch and
rate are caused by the student's lack of interest or inade-
quate intellectual and emotional understanding of the
ideas he is speaking or reading. Help him to increase his
understanding of and emotional responsiveness to these
ideas. Stimulate him to desire to show his listeners that
he is interested in what he is saying and to make his
speaking a satisfying and pleasurable experience for both
himself and his audience.
5. Indistinct articulation
a. While indistinct articulation may be caused by a speech
defect, it may also result from laziness or from the influ-
ence of poor speech models.
b. In either case, have him practice producing various diffi-
cult sounds in isolation especially "s", "th", the blends,
for example. Then put these sounds into nonsense syllables.
(1) Arrange these nonsense syllables according to three
patterns. In some place the sound being worked on
first ("saba"); in others put it in the medial position
("kasaba"); in others at the end ("bakas"). Then
give him syllables in which the sound occurs in all
three positions ("sabaskas").
c. Give him lists of practice words in which the difficult
sounds occur.
d. Have him underline certain sounds in a passage of prose
and then have him read aloud from the marked copy,
paying special attention to producing the underlined
sounds clearly.
e. Constantly urge lip, tongue, and jaw mobility. Showing
him specifically how these parts are used in producing
various sounds is helpful. Ask him to watch the lips of
professional speakers actors or announcers on television,
for example.
f. Have him practice the various standard tongue-twisters.
6. Tight throat
Have the student hold his head erect. Tell him to "think" a
large, relaxed throat; to "think" how his throat feels at the
end of a yawn. Have him yawn several times and note the
relaxed feeling upon inhalation and after exhalation. Instead
of trying to project his voice with the delicate throat muscles,
encourage him to "stand tall" and try to support his voice
with the "big muscles" around the middle of his body.
IV. EVALUATION
Call the student's vocal errors to his attention in all of the speech
activities in which he engages- oral reading, extempore speaking,
discussions and debates, for example, but encourage him to improve,
rather than make him reluctant to speak because of continuous ad-
verse criticism. Praise improvement.
V. SUGGESTIONS
A. As many of the foregoing procedures have suggested, the normal
speaker's voice is improved not only through actual oral exer-
cises, but also by ear training. Therefore, help the student select
good models to imitate. Provide a pattern of the desired qualities
in your own speech.
B. Those students whose voices are colorless and lack variety be-
cause of shy and withdrawing personalities should be given help
in the form of individual counseling. Also, assign as subjects for
speeches topics in which the student is particularly interested
or about which he has deep convictions. The motivation to
communication thus provided may bring him out of his shell
and help him develop improved vocal habits.
C. Insist upon good posture when practicing vocal exercises. The
weight should be balanced on the balls of the feet; the shoulders
erect and thrown back; the body supported by the large muscles.
The chin should be parallel to the floor to aid in maintaining a
relaxed throat.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fairbanks, Grant. Voice and Articulation Drillbook. New York: Harper, 1940.
Fields, V. A. and Bendor, J. F. Voice and Diction. New York: Macmillan Co., 1949.
Grim, H. E. Practical Voice Training. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.,
1948.
LeBoer, John J. Building Better English Grade Twelve. Evanston, Illinois: Row,
Peterson & Co., 1948.
Needleman, Morriss H. A Manual of Pronunciation. New York: Barnes and Noble,
Inc., 1949.
Thompson, W. N. and Fessenden, S. A. Basic Experiences in Speech. New York:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951.
I
CHAPTER III
LISTENING
I. INTRODUCTION
Communication implies the presence of one person giving rise to
symbol-stimuli and the presence of one or more others receiving, in-
terpeting, and reacting to those stimuli. Therefore, speaking is only
half of the communication cycle; listening completes it.
In any speech class, as in most other classroom situations, students
spend more time on the listening than on the speaking phase of the
cycle. Moreover, with the development of radio and television, skill in
listening is becoming increasingly important. For these reasons, the
teacher of speech should seek to cultivate habits of critical and ap-
preciative listening in his students.
It is no exaggeration to say the preservation of our democratic insti-
tutions depends not only upon the ability of the average citizen clearly
to express his own ideas, but also upon his ability discriminately to listen
to the ideas of others. The good citizen is both an effective speaker and
an effective listener.
Instruction in listening training as a part of the secondary school
program is based upon at least two assumptions. The first is that listen-
ing is a significant medium of learning; the second, that listening habits
can be improved through training methods. The English and speech
courses will be chiefly responsible for the training skills to be realized.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. General objectives
1. To develop an awareness of the importance of good listening
2. To promote the development and improvement of techniques
in listening
B. Specific objectives
1. To learn to listen accurately
2. To learn to listen with a definite purpose in mind
3. To evaluate persuasive and argumentative speaking
4. To appreciate speech in poetry and drama
III. PROCEDURES
A. Class discussion questions for motivation and understanding
1. Have you ever "lost out" because you didn't listen carefully?
2. Do you make it a habit to listen carefully all the time?
3. Do you listen only td that part of a speech which amuses you?
4. Do you try to get the main ideas of the speech?
5. Do you half-listen and let your mind wander?
6. Do you listen carefully to analyze the supporting points and
repeat them to yourself as you go along?
7. Do you try to do your homework and listen to a radio talk
at the same time?
8. Do you let your prejudices and feelings concerning the
speaker or his ideas affect your thinking?
9. Do you create a situation that allows you to concentrate fully
on what is being said?
10. Do you try to follow the thoughts of the speaker?
11. Do you listen critically in order to decide on the trustworthi-
ness of what you hear?
12. Did you ever see a football team that "snaps" out of the
huddle and runs plays smoothly?
13. Have you seen a football team that constantly has to re-
check its signals?
14. Do you know girls who constantly ask for repeated directions
in homemaking class?
15. Do you know girls who proceed rapidly and accurately with
work after the homemaking teacher gives directions?
16. Are you befuddled as to what to do when the fire alarm rings?
17. Do you know exactly what to do when the fire alarm rings?
18. Do you like a person who doesn't listen when you speak to
him?
19. What are your feelings concerning a person who listens at-
tentively to you?
B. Habits that can be developed to improve listening ability
1. Prepare to listen.
a. Have a physically comfortable and alert posture.
b. Try to be physically fit.
c. Make certain you can see and hear everything.
d. Be aware of any hearing defects you may have and make
provisions- such as sitting near the speaker, getting a
hearing aid, for example.
e. Eliminate distracting influences.
f. Have a purpose for listening.
(1) Secure information.
(2) Evaluate argument.
(3) Enjoy communication.
g. Try to review what you have heard, read, or know
through experience about the subject to be presented.
h. Try to be aware of and eliminate prejudices and narrow-
mindedness.
i. Forget your worries and personal problems and concen-
trate on the speech.
2. Listen with care.
a. Be careful of loaded" words and name calling such as,
"dictator," "Communist," "Un-American," or the like.
b. Be careful of meanings of words do you and the speaker
have the same ideas for the words expressed? Insist upon
a definition of terms.
c. Be careful of impelling motives which appeal to the
emotions, such as unscrupulous advertising, political cam-
paigning, and sales talks.
d. Be careful of the "either or" situations guard against a
speaker's contention that only one of the two things is
ever possible and never a third.
3. Listen with a purpose.
a. Listen to the first sentence of the speaker.
b. Note the speaker's outline.
c. Listen for the key ideas.
d. Listen for the speaker to clarify any obscure ideas or
questionable statements.
e. Listen continuously.
f. Show proper respect for and courtesy to the speaker.
(1) Laugh only at things that are funny.
(2) Do not talk and disturb those around you.
(3) Show disapproval through silence.
(4) Learn when and how to applaud.
g. Take notes on the speech.
(1) Make them brief.
(2) Write them in outline form.
C. Methods of attaining good listening habits through exercises
1. Ask a student to explain "How to get to the library," "where
to find the principal," for example. Then call on someone to
report the directions.
2. Explain "How to make a dress," "how to build a model air-
plane," for example, and have students repeat the explanation.
3. During a "practice" listening period in class, have a student
raise his hand when he thinks the speaker takes up a new
'point. Check with the speaker after all have responded.
4. Have students tell in a sentence or two the main ideas of a
speech.
5. Have students give their reactions to a speech and explain
their reasoning.
6. Have students write down main ideas and supporting ideas of
auditorium speakers for discussion in class.
7. Assign radio programs such as "Town Meeting of the Air"
and have students state the main ideas of each side in
outline form.
IV. EVALUATION
A. Constant evaluation during the class discussion of the previous
exercises.
B. Test a student's ability to select the main and subsidiary ideas
by reading orally to the students and later testing them on the
reading.
C. Student self-evaluation by answering questions such as the
following:
1. Do I listen with a definite purpose in mind?
2. Do I listen accurately?
3. Do I listen critically? Or do I "swallow" everything I hear
without thinking?
4. Do I listen responsively in order to retain and use what I
have heard?
V. FINAL RESULTS TO BE ACHIEVED
A. The good listener has acquired a definite pattern of behavior.
1. He shares with the speaker the responsibility for the success
of communication by making an effort to grasp ideas pre-
sented to him.
2. He is motivated to comprehend and evaluate, to assimilate,
and to retain.
3. He understands the relationship between a speaker and a
listener in a particular listening situation.
B. The good listener develops a systematic method for listening.
1. He prepares for listening before he hears the speaker.
2. He concentrates on the material during the speech.
3. He reviews the material after the speech.
C. The good listener is able to concentrate on what he is hearing.
1. The efficient listener is able to keep his mind on the subject
at hand.
2. The good listener keeps his mind functioning by thinking
actively about the subject discussed.
a. He anticipates the speaker.
b. He can differentiate between fact and opinion.
c. He can recognize the speaker's personal prejudices.
d. He reviews the main points already made.
e. He constantly evaluates the speaker's ideas.
3. The good listener fights away distractions which cause his
mind to wander.
4. He ignores noises inside and outside the classroom and fixes
his attention on the speech or discussion.
D. The good listener exercises emotional control.
1. If he has a strong dislike for the subject or the speaker, he
is able to control this attitude while absorbing the facts being
presented.
2. If he has personal problems at the moment, he is able to
leave them at the door and pick them up again on his way
out.
E. The good listener is able to follow the outline of the speaker's
ideas.
1. He grasps the central idea of the lecture.
2. He understands the speaker's main points; he is able, after
the lecture, to summarize the lecture briefly to anyone.
3. He will recognize the speaker's technique in using transi-
tional devices as he leaves one point and moves to another.
F. The good listener arranges favorable physical surroundings to
secure the maximum benefit from the listening situation.
1. He places himself within easy hearing range of the speaker.
2. He takes a seat which allows him to see the speaker.
3. He avoids seating himself near noisy neighbors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, Harlen M. "Teaching the Art of Listening," Nations Schools, XXXIV (No-
vember, 1944), 51-2.
Anderson, Harold A. "Teaching the Art of Listening," School Review, LVII (Feb-
ruary, 1949), 63-7.
Arndt, C. 0. and Husband, J. D. "Listen," English Journal, XXIX (May, 1940), 371-8.
Chisholm, Francis P. "Communications Course in General Education,' Teachers Col-
lege Journal, XX (Indiana, May, 1949), 98-9.
DeBoer, John J. Building Better English. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson & Co.,
1948.
Dias, Earl J. "The Three Levels of Listening," English Journal, XXXVI (May, 1947),
252-4.
Ewbank, H. L. and Auer, J. J. Discussion and Debate. New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts, Inc., 1941.
Finch, Mildred M. "Just Listen," Clearing House, XX (May, 1946), 534-6.
Frederick, Robert W. How to Study Handbook. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
Inc., 1938.
National Council of Teachers of English. The English Language Arts. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1952.
Weaver, T. W. et al. The Teaching of Speech. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952.
CHAPTER IV
CONVERSATION
I. INTRODUCTION
Informal conversation is the speech form that everyone uses most
frequently. Moreover, the development of skill in conversation provides
a foundation for the study of more complex types of speech activities
such as group discussion, public speaking, and dramatics. For these
reasons, training in conversation should have a definite place in the
speech curriculum.
Experience has shown that despite the fact that conversation is
generally spontaneous and unrehearsed, it may be improved by syste-
matic study and practice. In general, the best way to develop the stu-
dent's conversational skill is to develop the student's background of
interests and information as well as teaching him specific techniques of
participation.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To teach the student how to analyze his weaknesses and strengths
as a conversationalist
B. To develop general conversational skill and facility
C. To develop skill in the special forms of conversation
D. To create a desire for continued improvement
III. PROCEDURES
A. Developing the student's desire to increase his skill as a con-
versationalist
1. Discuss with the class the following questions:
a. Can the art of conversation be analyzed and improved?
b. Do you know people with whom you like to converse?
Do you know others with whom you do not like to con-
verse? What are the reasons you like to talk with the
former and dislike talking with the latter?
c. Do you know people who:
(1) "Hog" the conversation?
Speak judiciously and only when they have some-
thing to say?
(2) Talk a lot but don't say anything worthwhile?
Talk with assurance and meaning?
(3) Listen impassively with no reactions?
Listen attentively with stimulating reactions?
(4) Change the conversation constantly?
Contribute pertinent remarks?
(5) Blithely enter a conversation with no idea of what
has been said?
Adjust themselves to a conversation by waiting until
they are sure they know what the topic is?
d. Discuss in each case which of the types of persons de-
scribed above makes the better conversationalist. Why?
e. What are some of the special uses of conversation? What
is the importance of each in our daily lives?
(1) Ordering merchandise
(2) Making introductions
(8) Inviting guests
(4) Asking favors
(5) Using the telephone
(6) Taking a message for others
(7) Interviews
f. What are the principal goals we need to establish in
order to develop our ability as conversationalists?
(1) Participation
(2) Self-evaluation
(8) Sensitivity to the reactions of others
(4) Broad background of information
(5) Courteous and cooperative attitude
(6) Wide personal interests
(7) Proficiency as a listener
B. General class activities
1. Divide the class into committees to work on those goals es-
tablished by the entire class, in order to develop conversa-
tional ability.
a. Have each committee "teach" the entire class, using the
method it thinks best to demonstrate the idea which it
wishes to convey. The presentation of each committee
should be discussed by the entire class.
(1) One committee may demonstrate through a sample
conversation how lack of courtesy and/or an antago-
nistic attitude spoils conversation.
(2) One committee may work out a check sheet for self-
evaluation.
2. Activities in some of the special forms of conversation
a. Interviews
(1) How to request an interview
(a) Choosing the right time to request an interview
(b) Making the initial contact by telephone or letter
and including the pertinent data about yourself
and the reason for the request.
(2) How to obtain an interview without previous contact
(a) Approaching person at proper time
(b) Approaching person at proper place
(3) How to proceed with an interview
(a) Introducing yourself
(b) Stating business briefly and clearly
(c) Asking questions logically and courteously
(d) Answering questions specifically
(e) Knowing in advance the exact result you wish
to achieve from the interview
(4) How to close an interview
(a) Knowing when to stop
(b) Thanking other person for his time
(c) Making statements or decisions clearly
(d) Terminating interview courteously and tactfully
b. Using the telephone
(1) How to use a phone without a dial
(a) Giving number to operator
(b) Giving specific information about number of
person wanted
(2) Etiquette in telephoning
(a) Courtesy to operator
(b) No interruption on party line conversation ex-
cept in emergency
(c) Conversation kept to reasonable limit
(d) Answering phone by announcing name
(e) Getting full data for a return call
(f) Giving your name when calling someone else
c. Additional practice situations in the special uses of con-
versation
(1) Interviews for school paper
(2) Inviting speakers for assembly programs
(3) Acting as a receptionist in principal's office
(4) Acting as a hostess at P.T.A. meetings
IV. EVALUATION
A. Continuing evaluation through class discussions following each
project
1. In what skills and attitudes are we improving?
2. In what respects are we still weak?
V. SUGGESTIONS
As in all types of speech activities practice in conversation must
be closely geared to the student's actual needs and interests. The
situations created by practice must be as realistic as possible. If
these rules are not observed, conversational practice becomes little
more than "play acting" without results.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Brewton, J. E. et al. Expanding Literary Interests. New York: Laidlaw Brothers, 1950.
Commission on the English Curriculum of the National Council of Teachers of
English. The English Language Arts. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
Inc., 1952.
Daken, Dorothy. How To Teach High School English. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co.,
1947.
DeBoer, J. J. et al. Teaching Secondary English. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1951.
-----. Building Better English 12. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson & Co., 1948.
Freeman, Bernice. "Listening Experiences in the Language Arts," English Journal,
XXXVIII (December, 1949), 572-76.
19
CHAPTER V
GROUP DISCUSSION
I. INTRODUCTION
Group discussion is the cooperative deliberation on problems by per-
sons thinking and conversing together under the direction of a leader.1
Its purpose is to pool the experiences and judgments of the participants
in an effort to arrive at a mutually satisfactory solution to a problem.
The central assumption underlying group discussion is that "two
heads are better than one." At the same time, it must be recognized that
uninformed persons who meet to "pool their ignorance" do little except
waste one another's time. Even the least formal types of discussion, if
they are to have fruitful results, require careful preliminary investigation
and thinking. A sense of responsibility to the group, as well as a knowl-
edge of the specific techniques of participation, is essential if discussion
is to reach its highest level of attainment.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To teach students an orderly group procedure for solving prob-
lems through the cooperative exchange of information and
opinions
B. To develop habits of accurate investigation, logical thinking,
and the effective presentation of ideas
C. To teach students to hold opinions tentatively and to be willing
to change them when they are shown to be in error
D. To develop leadership in a democratic process
E. To develop listening attitudes that are attentive, tolerant, and
constructively critical
III. PROCEDURES
A. Developing an interest in discussion
1. Have students report on the origins of the terms round table,
forum, symposium, and lyceum.
2. Assign reports on the role which public discussion played in
Greece and Rome, in Colonial America; on the role which it
plays today in the conduct of national and international
affairs.
3. Explain how discussion is used in the home, in the school,
and in business (especially in the area of labor-management
relations).
4. Have reports on some of the discussion programs which are
heard on radio and television. How can they be improved?
5. Consider how a knowledge of the principles and methods of
1 James H. McBurney and Kenneth G. Hance, Discussion in Human Affairs (New
York: Harper & Bros., 1950), 10.
group discussion might be used to make student government
work more efficiently.
6. Have students analyze the techniques and values of the class
discussions carried on in their various courses.
7. Suggest ways in which practice in discussion will tend to
make the student a better conversationalist; a better public
speaker.
B. Preparing for discussion
1. Organize the class into discussion groups of four to seven
members each.
a. Help each group select a problem which it is interested
in discussing.
(1) A problem for discussion may have for its purpose
merely increasing the group's understanding or ap-
preciation of a certain subject; or it may call for
some program of action in the form of a solution.
The former give rise to what are called "learning" sit-
uations; the latter, to "policy determining" situations.
(a) Examples of problems giving rise to "learning"
situations: "What Are the Basic Causes of War?"
"What Makes a Book Great?" Examples of prob-
lems giving rise to "policy determining" situa-
tions: "How Can We Combat Inflation?" "How
Can We Improve Student Government?"
(b) For beginners in the field of discussion it is
usually better to use "policy determining" sit-
uations since these lend themselves to a more
definite and systematic plan of attack and
procedure.
(2) In selecting a subject for a "policy determining"
choose one:
(a) Based on conflicting opinions held by different
members of the group
(b) Specific enough so that it may profitably be
discussed in the time allowed
(c) For which group members do not have deep-
seated emotional biases and unshakeable prej-
udices
b. Direct the students in studying the problem and gather-
ing information on it.
c. Work out an orderly pattern of discussion for the group
to follow.
(1) Suggested patterns for "policy determining" groups:
(a) Delimit problem and definition of terms
Analyze problem its nature, causes, history,
and scope
Suggest possible solutions
22
Evaluate the solutions suggested
Choose the one which seems best
Consider ways and means for putting it into
operation
(b) Delimit problem and define terms
Examine the facts out of which the problem
arises
Consider the criteria to be used in evaluating
solutions that is, what requirements must a
satisfactory solution meet
Propose, examine, and appraise solutions
Consider the steps to be taken in carrying out
the solution adopted.2
d. Have each participant draw up a discussion outline based
upon the steps in the selected plan of procedure. The
major heads of the outline should be the same as the
steps in the discussion plan.
e. Select a discussion leader.
f. Working from the individual outlines previously devel-
oped, have the leader and the participants agree upon
a "master outline" which they will use in the discussion.
g. If time allows, have the group hold a practice discussion
at least a day before they are scheduled to present their
discussion to the class.
C. Participating in discussion
1. Consider with the students the attitudes and techniques of
effective participation in discussion. Stress the following:
a. Ideas must be held tentatively, with a willingness to sur-
render them when they are shown to be in error.
b. Each participant must follow the trend of the discussion
closely, and adhere to the point under consideration.
c. Contributions should be as brief as possible, and each
member of the group should be given an opportunity to
participate frequently.
d. Good contributions are based upon evidence, not mere
opinion.
e. While conflict is the heart of good discussion, it must be
held on a rational level and not allowed to degenerate
into emotional bickering. The conflict of individual per-
sonalities, in particular, must be avoided.
f. Speak distinctly, with animation, sincerity, and directness.
Do not "make speeches"; preserve the natural pattern of
good conversation.
2. Discuss some of the obstacles to good discussion and some of
the undesirable persons encountered in discussion groups.
2William E. Utterback, Group Thinking and Conference Leadership (New York:
Rinehart & Co., Inc., 1950), 34.
a. Lack of preparation
b. Intolerance of another's point of view
c. Unwillingness to cooperate with others
d. Undesirable types of persons:
(1) Mr. Know-It-All
(2) Mr. Wordy
(3) Mr. Smug
(4) Mr. Smart Aleck
(5) Mr. Suspicious
(6) Mr. Prima Donna
(7) Mr. Doom3
D. Leading discussion
1. Consider with the class the duties of the discussion leader:
(See V, F.)
a. To get the discussion started
b. To keep it "on the track"
c. To see that all have an equal chance to participate
d. To inject appropriate internal summaries during the
course of the discussion
e. To resolve areas of conflict
f. To bring out all points of view and insure a well-
rounded consideration of the problem
g. To keep the discussion moving forward
h. To bring the discussion to close at the time agreed
i. To summarize the thinking of the group (not his own)
at the close of the discussion
j. To remain neutral and not take sides
k. To tell the group how to think, not what to think
1. To speak as little as possible, and yet make his presence
felt
2. Discuss the personal qualities of a good discussion leader
and why each is important:
a. Ability to think and act quickly
b. Ability to get along with others
c. Respect for the opinions of others
d. Willingness to remain in the background
e. Knowledge of the subject being discussed
f. Knowledge of the principles and techniques of good dis-
cussion
E. Types of discussion
1. Round table a group of four to twelve persons conversing
informally in a face-to-face situation under the direction of
a leader and without an audience.
2. Panel- a round table of four to six persons presented in
front of an audience with participants facing not one another
but the listeners.
8 McBurney and Hance, op.cit., 260-5.
a. A panel discussion may be followed by questions and
comments from the audience.
(1) A popular and effective panel discussion may be
built around a film related to the topic under con-
sideration. Regular panel techniques should be used
with the following specific adaptations:
(a) Preview of the film by the participants
(b) Introductory remarks to prepare the audience
for an intelligent observation of the film
(c) The moderator introduces the film.
(d) The participants suggest questions on specific
issues the film will present.
(e) The moderator outlines the procedures to be fol-
lowed for the remainder of the program.
(f) Showing of the film
(g) The moderator with the panel members con-
tributing provides transition from film to open
discussion
(h) A general discussion with both panel and audi-
ence participating
(i) Audience participation will be stimulated if a
few questions have been "planted." This pre-
vents a deadly pause, relieves the tension, and
starts the panel members answering questions
with which they are familiar.
3. Symposium a form of discussion in which three or four
persons present prepared speeches on various phases of a
problem, or advance and defend different solutions. America's
Town Meeting of the Air, for example, is a typical symposium.
a. The speeches are usually followed by an informal (i.e.
panel) discussion among the speakers and/or by ques-
tions and comments from the floor.
b. The leader or moderator of a symposium has the duties
of: introducing the topic for discussion, introducing the
speakers, tying the speeches together with, appropriate
transitional remarks, presiding over the panel period, con-
ducting the audience question period, and summarizing
the entire program. (See V, C)
4. Forum a prepared speech by an expert, followed by ques-
tions and comments from the audience.
a. The purpose of the forum speaker is not to persuade the
audience, but to stimulate their thinking so that they will
ask questions.
5. The committee
a. Discuss the functions of committees.
(1) Handling complex or technical problems that cannot
well be handled in the group as a whole
(2) Carrying out certain policies decided upon by the
group
(3) Studying particular matters assigned them by the
group and reporting back their findings.
b. Discuss the organization and personnel of a committee.
(1) The chairman
(2) Persons with special knowledge or experience
c. Appoint committees to investigate problems of immedi-
ate interest to the class and have them report their
findings.
(1) Work out with these committees an organized form
which will efficiently report their findings to the
class.
(2) Discuss the proper wording and procedure that the
committee should follow in making its report.
IV. EVALUATION
As is true of all speech activities, experiences in discussion, if they
are to be of maximum value, must be carefully evaluated by the teacher
and the students. In broad outline, this evaluation should consider both
what is good about the discussion and how it might have been improved.
A. Subject
1. Was it interesting?
2. Was it suitable to the occasion, to the time limits, to the
participants?
3. Do you have a better understanding of the subject than you
had before the discussion?
B. Participation
1. Did the participants exhibit the attitudes and techniques
necessary for effective participation? (See III, C, 1)
C. Leadership
1. Did the leader exhibit the attitudes and skills outlined in
section III, D?
D. General questions
1. Did the discussion continue lively until the very end, or did
it begin to lag?
2. Were the participants eager to continue the discussion, or
were they ready to discontinue it?
3. Did the discussion stimulate questions and informal con-
versation in the audience?
4. Did the discussion produce a better solution to the problem
than anyone had prior to the discussion?
5. Did the discussion result in changed opinions on the part of
the participants and the audience?
a. Changes in opinions and attitudes may conveniently be
measured by having the students check a linear scale be-
fore the discussion and a similar one after the discussion.
The following is an example of such a linear scale:
26
MY ATTITUDE TOWARD A
FOUR YEAR ENGLISH REQUIREMENT
Please indicate by a check mark that position on the scale which
represents your present attitude toward this requirement.
I I I I I I I I
Extremely Extremely
favorable Neutral unfavorable
b. Another way to measure attitude change easily is by a
shift-of-opinion ballot. The following is an example of
such a ballot:
MY ATTITUDE TOWARD
STATE MEDICINE
Before the discussion After the discussion
(Check one) (Check one)
I am in favor of state medicine _I am more strongly in
favor of state mediicne
T am neutral (undecided)
I am in favor of state
I am opposed to state medicine medicine
I am neutral (undecided)
Sam opposed to state
medicine
I am more strongly op-
posed to state medicine
V. SUGGESTIONS
A. While subjects from the fields of national and international af-
fairs always make suitable discussion topics, it should not be
forgotten that problems from the areas of art and literature also
lend themselves to profitable discussion. In addition, the im-
mediate problems of school life make excellent subjects.
B. While following a systematic and orderly plan of discussion
usually results in greater efficiency, insistence upon rigid ad-
herence to a predetermined procedure may stifle creative think-
ing and prevent the group from exploring previously unnoticed
lines of thought. Therefore, the discussion plan should be flexible,
and such modifying factors as the group's familiarity with the
problem and their special needs and interests taken into con-
sideration.
C. Despite the fact the symposium has set speeches, it should not
be confused with debate. The purpose of the symposium speaker
is not to defeat an opponent, but to present his ideas so that
they may be compared with the ideas of others, thus contrib-
uting to the discovery of a satisfactory solution for the problem
under consideration. While some refutation of other points of
view is, perhaps, inevitable, it should be held to a minimum -
at least until the set speeches have been delivered.
D. If students have had previous experience or training in public
speaking or debate, it may be best to practice first those types
of discussion in which set speeches are presented i.e. the
forum and symposium and take up the round table and panel
last. This makes for a more natural transition from the familiar
to the new. If, however, students have had no previous experi-
ence in giving speeches, it is recommended that the teacher
follow the sequence as outlined.
E. Skill in discussion is not something that is quickly or easily
learned. It takes time and practice. Therefore, repeated experi-
ence is necessary if students are to become effective discussers.
F. The leadership of discussion involves certain problems different
from those involved in mere participation. Therefore, if time
allows, each member of the class should be given opportunity
to lead one or more discussions.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Auer, J. J. and Ewbank, H. L. Handbook for Discussion Leaders. New York: Harper
& Bros., 1947.
Bushong, Charles. Manual for the Film Forum Leader. Gainesville, Florida: The
General Extension Division of Florida, 1949.
Bogardus, E. C. and Williams, C. Democracy by Discussion. 2153 Florida Ave.,
Washington, D. C.: American Council of Public Affairs, 1942.
Cantor, Nathaniel. Learning Through Discussion. 443 Delaware Ave., Buffalo, New
York: Human Relations for Industry, 1951.
Garland, Jasper V. Discussion Methods. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1951.
Junior Town Meeting League. Make Youth Discussion Conscious. 400 S. Front St.,
Columbus 15, Ohio.
------. Discussion in School and Community. 400 S. Front St., Columbus 15,
Ohio.
McBurney, J. H. and Hance, K. G. Principles and Methods of Discussion. New York:
Harper & Bros., 1939.
Thompson, W. N. and Fessenden, S. A. Basic Experiences in Speech. New York:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951.
CHAPTER VI
PARLIAMENTARY LAW
I. INTRODUCTION
When larger groups- groups of more than ten or a dozen persons
- wish to arrive at decisions quickly and impartially, their deliberations
may best be conducted according to the rules which have been evolved
through long experience in legislative bodies. These rules are known as
parliamentary law.
The purpose of parliamentary law is to insure that the will of the
majority prevails, while, at the same time, the rights of the minority
are fully protected. It is a means for facilitating fair and intelligent group
action.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To acquaint students with the basic philosophy and the essential
rules of parliamentary law
B. To provide practice in parliamentary procedure
III. PROCEDURES
A. Developing an interest in the study of parliamentary law
1. Discuss with the class questions such as the following:
a. What experiences have you had in using parliamentary
law? Where did you use it? When? What part did you
play?
b. What are some of the ways that parliamentary law is used
in the school? In government? In business?
c. Why do clubs and organizations use parliamentary law to
conduct their meetings?
d. Why should all of the members of an organization not
merely its officers have a knowledge of parliamentary
law?
e. Why does the high school student need a knowledge of
parliamentary law?
f. Give examples of situations where a knowledge of parlia-
mentary law would have been of value to you.
B. The study and practice of parliamentary principles
1. Have the class form itself into a club or organization.
a. Determine the purpose of the club and select a suitable
name for it.
b. Appoint a student to call the meeting to order and ex-
plain to the group why the club is being formed.
c. Elect temporary officers a president and a secretary are
usually sufficient.
d. Have the president appoint a committee to draw up a
constitution.
(1) In order to give the constitution committee time to
do its work well, it is wise to let several days elapse
before calling the second meeting of the club. At this
meeting the temporary officers preside until the per-
manent officers named in the constitution are duly
elected. The principal item of business is the adoption
of the constitution. Providing each member of the
group with a mimeographed copy of the proposed
constitution will facilitate discussion.
(2) A constitution should contain only those basic laws
of the organization which are not apt to be subject
to frequent change. Less general and permanent rules
should take the form of by-laws.
(a) A constitution usually contains seven articles:
Article I Name of the organization
Article II Purpose of the organization
Article III Membership (i.e. who may belong
and under what conditions)
Article IV Officers
Article V Standing committees
Article VI Meetings (i.e. when and where
they will be held, and how special
meetings may be called)
Article VII Procedure for amending the con-
stitution
(b) The following is a model constitution:
CONSTITUTION OF THE TEN O'CLOCK SCHOLARS CLUB
Article I. Name
The name of this organization shall be the Ten O'Clock Scholars Club.
Article II. Purpose
The purpose of this organization shall be to enable its members to acquire
training in public speaking and parliamentary procedure.
Article III. Membership
Membership in this organization shall be limited to those students of-
ficially enrolled in the ten o'clock speaking (English, history) class at
Blank High School.
Article IV. Officers
Section 1. The officers of this organization shall be a President, a Vice-
President, a Secretary, and the instructor, ex officio.
Section 2. The President, Vice-President, and Secretary shall be elected
by the members of the organization, with term of office not
to exceed six weeks.
Article V. Standing Committees
The standing committees of this organization shall be a Social Committee
and a Publicity Committee, each consisting of three members appointed
by the President.
Article VI. Meetings
The organization shall meet each Tuesday and Thursday morning at
ten o'clock, except during vacation periods or when classes are suspended
by school regulations.
Article VII. Amendments
This constitution may be amended at any regular meeting of the or-
ganization by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided the
amendment has been submitted to the members at a previous meeting.
BY-LAWS
Article I. Officers
Section 1. Candidates shall be nominated from the floor. The number
of nominations for each office shall not exceed three.
Section 2. The officers, with the exception of the instructor, shall be
elected by a show of hands. A majority vote of the members
present shall be necessary to elect.
Section 3. The duties of the President, Vice-President, and Secretary
shall be those which usually devolve upon such officers, as
set forth in J. Walter Reeves' PARLIAMENTARY PRO-
CEDURE.
Article II. Parliamentary Authority
The rules contained in Robert's RULES OF ORDER shall govern this
organization in all cases where they are not inconsistent with the con-
stitution and by-laws.
Article III. Attendance
Attendance at the meetings of this organization shall be governed by
school regulations concerning attendance at classes.
Article IV. Amendments
These by-laws may be amended at any regular meeting of the organi-
zation by a majority vote of the members present, provided the amend-
ment has been submitted to the members at a previous meeting.
a. As soon as the constitution has been adopted, the perma-
nent officers should be elected according to the provisions
set forth therein. All subsequent meetings should be con-
ducted with due reference to the provisions of the con-
stitution and to the rules of parliamentary law as set forth
in J. Walter Reeves' PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE.
2. Conducting a meeting
a. Discuss with the class the duties of the presiding officer
and secretary
b. Explain the standard "order of business."
(1) Call the meeting to order.
(2) Read, correct, and approve the minutes of the previ-
ous meeting.
(3) Reports of committees
(4) Unfinished business
(5) New business
(6) Adjournment
Any organization is free to modify this order, adopting a
plan of procedure better suited to its needs.
c. Explain the proper procedure to be followed in voting.
(1) Make clear what a quorum is, and the difference be-
tween a majority and a plurality.
(a) Quorum generally more than half the number
of members of an organization whose
presence is necessary in order to trans-
act business legally.
(b) Majority-more than half of the votes cast.
(c) Plurality-in an election a candidate has a plu-
rality when he has a larger vote than
any other candidate.
(2) Methods of voting
(a) "Those in favor, say aye .. those opposed, no."
The negative vote must always be called for.
(b) Show of hands or standing (when the division
of the house has been called for).
(c) Written ballot
(d) Common consent
d. Discuss with the class the procedure to be followed in
introducing and debating motions.
(1) Member rises and addresses chair.
(2) Chair recognizes member by calling his name.
(3) Member states motion. The proper form is "I move
that ".
(4) Another member seconds motion.
(5) Chair repeats motion.
(6) Chair calls for discussion of motion, if motion is
debatable (see accompanying Table of Motions).
The proper form is "The motion has been made and
seconded. Is there any discussion?"
(7) Motion is put to a vote. The proper form is "Is there
any more discussion? If not, are you ready for the
question?"
(8) Chairman announces the result of the votes and de-
clares that the motion has passed or has failed to pass.
e. Using the accompanying Table of Motions, discuss with
the class the various types of motions, their functions,
precedence, etc. Each student should have a mimeo-
graphed copy of the Table for constant reference.
TABLE OF MOTIONS
(Motions 1-11 in order of precedence, from weakest to strongest)
May mover
MOTIONS Second Can be De- Vote interrupt
required amended batable required a speaker
PRINCIPAL MOTIONS
1. Any main motion or any
independent matter of
business
SUBSIDIARY MOTIONS
2. To postpone indefinitely
3. To amend
4. To refer to committee
5. To postpone to a defi-
nite time
6. To limit or extend the
limits of debate
7. To close debate (previ-
ous question)
8. To lay on (or take from)
the table
PRIVILEGED MOTIONS
9. Call for orders of the day
10. Question of rights and
privileges
11. To adjourn (unqualified)
12. To fix time for meeting
INCIDENTAL MOTIONS
13. Division of the question
14. To suspend a rule
15. To withdraw a motion
16. Question of consideration
17. Point of order
18. Appeal from decision of
chair
SPECIAL MOTIONS
19. To rescind
20. To reconsider
yes yes yes maj.
yes maj.
yes maj.
yes maj.
yes maj.
no 2/3
no 2/3
no maj.
no
chair
maj.
maj.
single
member
2/3
maj.
maj.
chair
maj.
yes yes yes maj. if pre-
vious notice
:. or 2/3 of
whole mem-
; '. ." : bership
yes no yes maj.
(Must be moved and seconded by members who did not vote on losing side
of the motion to which it relates.)
':'. !
IV. EVALUATION
A. Save five or ten minutes at the end of each class period to eval-
uate the parliamentary session. Explain how the deliberation
might have been improved.
B. Actual mistakes in form and procedure should, however, be
pointed out as they occur. Until students become thoroughly
familiar with parliamentary procedure, the teacher should serve
as group parliamentarian, correcting errors, straightening out the
group when it becomes confused, and suggesting how it may
resolve its difficulties. After the students become proficient in
parliamentary rules, one of the members of the class may be
selected each day to act as parliamentarian.
V. SUGGESTIONS
A. The parliamentary sessions should be as realistic as possible.
Have the class discuss actual problems of school and community
life.
B. The teacher should constantly stress that the function of parlia-
mentary law is to facilitate the transaction of business, not to
obstruct it. Parliamentary procedure is not a game; it is an organ-
ized procedure for getting work done.
C. Give as many students as possible an opportunity to preside over
meetings, act as committee chairmen, and perform other duties
which allow use and practice of parliamentary law.
D. Student secretaries frequently have difficulty in taking down the
minutes of a meeting and writing them up properly. It is helpful
if the teacher will provide them with models to follow or help
them work out a plan for organizing and presenting their reports.
E. Provided an atmosphere of realism is maintained, it is sometimes
helpful to divide the members of the class into two groups, one
of which introduces a motion and attempts to secure its adoption,
while the other attempts to prevent or delay the adoption of the
motion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Auer, J. Jeffrey. Essentials of Parliamentary Procedure. 2d ed. New York: F. S.
Crofts & Co., 1942.
John, Mellie. Building Better English Grade Eleven. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson
& Co., 1948.
Jones, O. Garfield. Senior Manual for Group Leadership. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, Inc., 1949 (revised).
Reeves, J. Walter. Parliamentary Procedure. New York: D. C. Heath & Co., 1931.
Robert, Henry M. Robert's Rules of Order Revised. Chicago: Scott, Foresman & Co.,
1951.
Weaver, A. T. et al. The Training of Speech. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952.
CHAPTER VII
EXTEMPORE SPEAKING
I. INTRODUCTION
Effective oral communication depends largely upon two things: Hav-
ing something worthwhile to say and presenting it in a clear and pleasing
manner. Practice in preparing and presenting extemporaneous speeches
is a practicable means for developing in the student both of these re-
quisites of effective speaking. It should be made clear to the students
that extemporaneous speaking involves planning, outlining, and prac-
ticing, but not memorizing the words.'
II. OBJECTIVES
1. To develop the ability to gather and organize speech materials
2. To develop the ability to present these materials in a clear and
pleasing manner
III. PROCEDURES
A. Preparing the talk
1. Selecting a subject
a. Discuss with the students the factors that should guide
one in selecting the subject for a talk:
(1) Speaker's own interests
(2) Audience's interests
(3) Time limit
(4) Occasion
b. List a number of situations which provide opportunities
for speaking. Have students suggest suitable subjects.
B. Finding the material
1. Point out the various sources of speech materials:
a. Personal experience
b. Interviews
c. Movies
d. Radio
e. Written materials
2. Suggest various topics for talks and help the students decide
where the materials for these might be found.
3. Discuss the importance of taking clear, accurate notes.
C. Organizing the speech
1. Point out that each speech should be organized around one
central idea.
2. Have the students examine several sample speeches to find
the central idea.
1 Nearly all of the matters treated in this unit are discussed more fully in the unit
"A Suggested Outline for a One-Semester Course in Public Speaking" beginning
on p. 79.
3. Show how the major heads of the outline should be directly
related to establishing the central idea.
a. Assign a sample speech to be outlined, calling special at-
tention to the way the major heads are related to the
central purpose, to each other, and to less general ideas.
b. Have a student outline a speech on the board, with the
help of the class, on a topic selected by the class.
c. Have each student practice making an outline on a sub-
ject of his choice.
4. Point out that a speech has three parts:
a. An introduction which catches attention, arouses inter-
est, and paves the way for the body of the speech.
b. A body which presents the substance of the speech in
clear and orderly fashion.
c. A conclusion which summarizes the major ideas and/or
appeals for belief or action.
5. Have the students bring to class examples of speeches that
begin in different ways quotation, question, or humorous
story, for example.
6. Using the class as a laboratory period, have each student
write an appropriate introduction and an effective conclusion
for his prepared outline.
D. Presenting the speech
1. Discuss with the class the basic essentials of good speech
delivery:
a. Look at the audience.
b. Erect but easy posture
c. Hands at your sides except, of course, when used appro-
priately for gesturing
d. Clear, audible voice
2. Make clear what is meant by extemporaneous speaking. The
talk is planned, outlined, and even practiced, but the words
are not memorized.
E. Speaking experiences
1. Any of the first six oral exercises listed on pages 81-85 may be
used in the fundamentals course, provided their relative
order is retained. In fact, if time allows, the teacher may
continue into the exercises in simple exposition.
2. In addition to the exercises just mentioned, the fundamentals
course should provide experiences in those types of talks
most likely to be used by students during school years and
later life.
a. Reports: Reports of conventions, official duties, trips,
and projects should give the pupil opportunity for ade-
quate, concise explanations. Reports on books, essays,
magazine articles, current:events, plays, radio programs
may also be used.
b. Directions: Careful consideration should be given to the
clarity of directions. One should have a thorough under-
standing of the topic before attempting to give directions.
He should also assume that the person who is receiving
the directions is hearing them for the first time.
c. Occasionally the teacher may depart from the extempo-
raneous mode of delivery and use the impromptu speech.
The teacher may supply the student with a word or sit-
uation which he is to describe completely and give his
reaction to it. Subjects may be drawn from a hat. Each
student may be asked to give his views on some general
subject written on the board: e.g. "How Can We Make
This a Better School?"
d. Campaign speeches: Take advantage of any current
campaign or drive by asking the students to make speeches
supporting it. The best of these speeches may be given in
other classes, the school assembly, or at the sponsoring
activity.
e. Pep talks: Practice pep talks for athletic events or stu-
dent elections, for example. Use these in the actual situ-
ation whenever possible.
f. Anniversaries, birthdays, and other commemorative occa-
sions: Take advantage of special events Armistice Day,
Lincoln's Birthday by assigning talks on these subjects.
g. Auditorium and club situations:
(1) Introducing speakers
(2) Announcements: Special stress should be placed
upon making the announcement clear, concise, em-
phatic, and to the point.
(3) Speeches of welcome: Have the student welcome
a new club member, a new faculty member, a new
student.
(4) Presentation and acceptance speeches: Develop sit-
uations in which the student presents a gift or
trophy to an individual or organization. Practice
responses to such presentations.
3. Social situations
a. Master of ceremonies: Give the student an opportunity
to act as toastmaster or master of ceremonies at an
imaginary or real affair. Whenever possible, coordinate
this with some activity on the school program.
b. Dinner speeches: Have the student prepare a speech to
be given at a school or community affair before, during,
or after dinner.
c. Stories: Have the students read and tell stories, taking
care to make them clear, build to a climax, and keep up
audience interest.
(1) Listen to a radio story and retell it in class.
(2) Tell stories of personal experiences.
IV. EVALUATION
A. As is the case in the great majority of speech activities, extempo-
raneous speeches should be evaluated by asking in each case:
1. What was good about the speech?
2. What might have been improved, and how?
3. What two or three specific things should the student especially
strive toward when preparing and presenting his next speech?
4. Criticism should center in the basic elements of delivery and
organization:
a. Delivery
(1) Audibility
(2) Voice quality
(3) Eye contact
(4) Posture
(5) General bodily activity
b. Organization
(1) Clarity of speech plan
(2) Adaptation to audience
(3) Concreteness of detail
(4) Correctness and appropriateness of style
(5) General analysis of subject- fairness, thoroughness,
for example.
V. SUGGESTIONS
See Suggestions appended to the Suggested One-Semester Course
in Public Speaking on page 92.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cross, E. A. and Carney, E. Teaching English in High School. New York: Macmillan
Co., 1939.
Fields, V. A. and Bender, J. F. Voice and Diction. New York: Macmillan Co., 1949.
Garland, Jasper V. Discussion Methods. New York: H. W. Wilson Co., 1951.
Hedde, W. G. and Brigance, W. N. Speech. New York: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1946.
Hoffman, William G. Public Speaking for Businessmen. New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1949.
Thompson, W. N. and Fessenden, S. A. Basic Experiences in Speech. New York:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1951.
CHAPTER VIII
DEBATE
I. INTRODUCTION
A debate is "a joint argument on a given proposition between two
opposing sides, one of which, the affirmative, affirms (or supports) the
proposition, and the other of which, the negative, denies it."' The pur-
pose of the debater is not to convince his opponent, since it is assumed
that both parties to the argument have studied all of the available facts
and have arrived at what they believe to be the proper solution to the
problem out of which the debate arises; rather, it is to convince a neutral
third party, either in the form of a single critic judge or an audience, that
the solution presented by your side is the correct and desirable one.
The general aim of school debating is to train students for the im-
portant debating situations of life the courtroom, the political platform,
the civic improvement group, the legislative body, the club or organiza-
tion. Properly taught, school debating is also a valuable tool for devel-
oping in the student habits of thorough investigation, logical thinking,
and effective extemporaneous delivery. If it is to be a desirable part of
the speech program, debating must, however, be practiced in an atmos-
phere of friendliness, tolerance, and fairness, and with constant attention
to objectivity in analysis and reasoning. Moreover, it must constantly be
borne in mind that the purpose of training in debate is not primarily
to win decisions in school tournaments, but to educate students for a
life of intelligent and responsible citizenship.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To develop the student's interest in social, political, economic,
and moral problems and to make him recognize that he has a
responsibility to contribute toward the solution of those problems
B. To develop an understanding of the place of debate in everyday
life situations
C. To give the student training in finding and analyzing speech
materials
D. To train the student to present logical argument and to detect
illogical argument
E. To develop the student's skill in extemporaneous speaking
III. PROCEDURES
A. Developing an interest in debate
1. Discuss with the class the role played by debate in carrying
on the work of our state and national governments.
1 James H. McBurney and James M. O'Neill, The Working Principles of Argument
(New York: Macmillan Co., 1937), 348.
89
2. What is the role of debate in political campaigns? In the
courtroom?
3. Of what value might debate training be in professions other
than law?
4. Why does the debater need to be able to think quickly and
to develop skill in extemporaneous speaking?
5. Name and describe briefly some of the famous debates in
American history (Constitutional Convention, Webster-Hayne,
Senate debates on the League of Nations, debate on sending
troops to Europe, for example).
6. How does a knowledge of the principles of debate aid one
in evaluating speeches? In analyzing what he reads in the
newspapers? How may it help one detect propaganda?
B. Explain to the class the standard form of school debate.
1. Two teams of two men each (one called the affirmative; one,
the negative)
2. Four constructive speeches (each usually ten minutes in
length); four rebuttal speeches (each usually five minutes
in length)
3. In constructive speeches the order of speaking is: first af-
firmative, first negative, second affirmative, second negative.
4. In rebuttal speeches the order is: first negative, first affirma-
tive, second negative, second affirmative.
C. Help the class select and delimit propositions for practice debates.
1. Make a list of topics suitable for practice debates. Include
school and local as well as national and international subjects.
2. Help the students frame suitable proposition from these
topics.
a. A good debate proposition should be:
(1) Interesting
(2) Timely
(3) Free of ambiguous and vague terms
(4) So narrowed in scope that it contains only one idea
(5) So worded that the burden of proof falls upon the
affirmative
(6) Really debatable (i.e. not so one-sided that there is
not room for considerable difference of opinion)
D. Have the students select from this list of propositions three or
four upon which they would like to work. Divide the class, as-
signing a group of four to eight students to each proposition.
(As an alternative to this procedure, the teacher may have all
of the members of the class work on the current national high
school debate proposition. Information concerning this proposi-
tion may be secured from the Department of Speech, University
of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri.)
E. Direct the students in analyzing the propositions they have
chosen.
1. Is the proposition one of fact (declaring that something is or
is not so); one of value (declaring that something is desirable
or undesirable); or one of policy (declaring that something
should or should not be done)? Remember that arguments
of a factual nature which may be settled by direct recourse
to data (e.g. Are there more boys than girls enrolled in this
high school?) are not suitable subjects for debate.
2. What is the history of the problem out of which the proposi-
tion arises.
3. What is the immediate cause for debate? (Why bring it up
now?)
4. What are the issues?
a. By definition, issues are those vital points in contention
between the affirmative and the negative upon which the
establishment or rejection of the proposition directly rests.
b. If the proposition is one of policy and most propositions
chosen for school debate are the search for issues may
begin by asking the so-called "stock questions":
(1) Is there a need for a change from the present order
of things?
(2) Would the proposed change be practicable? Would
it really solve the existing problem?
(3) Would the proposed change be desirable? Or would
it introduce new and worse evils?
c. Good analysis requires, however, that the student's think-
ing advance beyond these "stock questions," and search
out the "actual" issues inherent in the proposition. In this
connection, see especially James H. McBurney, James M.
O'Neill, and Glenn E. Mills, ARGUMENTATION AND
DEBATE (New York: Macmillan Co., 1951), Chapter IV.
F. Help the students collect materials on the subjects for debate.
1. Encourage them to read widely on both sides of the proposi-
tion they are to debate.
2. Instruct them in the proper techniques of note taking:
a. A heading which gives the sense of the material on the
card
b. An indication of the particular issue on which the ma-
terial bears
c. Only one fact on a card
d. The source clearly and fully stated
Rising Wage Scale, 1941-51 NEED ISSUE
"Although there have been minor ups and
downs, wages in general have risen more than
20% in the last decade. This has been true of
farm wages as well as industrial wages."
Henry F. Jones, "The American Economy,"
HARPERS, May, 1951, p. 16.
3. Encourage care in note taking by telling the students that
they will find considerable use for their notes during the
course of the debate in preparing rebuttal material.
G. Making a brief
1. If time allows, have each student draw up a complete brief
on both sides of the proposition he is debating. The brief is
a complete storehouse of all of the arguments and evidence
affirming or negating the proposition. For a concise discussion
of the rules of briefing see Russell H. Wagner, HANDBOOK
OF ARGUMENTATION (New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons,
1938), Chapter V.
H. Building the case
1. Pair the students into two-man teams
2. Have each team select from the previously prepared briefs
those arguments which it will actually advance during the
course of the debate.
3. The case for the affirmative is relatively easy to build, since
it has the obligation of supporting each of the major issues.
4. Possible negative cases on a proposition of policy are:
a. Straight negative (negates each of the major issues)
b. Selected negative (negates one or two of the major issues)
c. Repairs (the situation does not call for the drastic remedy
proposed by the affirmative, but may be remedied by
taking minor "repairs" by "patching up" things as they
are today.)
d. Alternative plan (the negative admits the existence of the
problem but advances a solution which it proves is better
than the affirmative proposal.)
5. Select a logical dividing point in the case, assigning the first
part to the first speaker and the second part to the second
speaker.
6. Have the students work up extemporaneous constructive
speeches on their respective portions of the case.
a. The first affirmative constructive speech may be com-
pletely "set". All the other constructive speeches, while
carefully planned and blocked out, should be left flexible
so that they may be adapted to the opponents' case as it
develops, and so that refutation may be introduced at ap-
propriate points.
I. Learning how to refute
1. Help the students understand the necessity of anticipating
arguments which the other team will probably advance.
2. Aid them in planning suitable answers to these arguments.
3. Teach the correct form to be followed in refuting an argument.
a. State the argument.
b. Show its importance.
c. Refute it by attacking either the evidence or the reasoning
upon which it is based.
d. Deny it again.
e. Affirm your own position on the matter.
4. Make clear that the rebuttal speeches are not the only place
in the debate in which one should refute his opponents' argu-
ments. Both sides should, in so far as possible, answer attacks
as they are made and point out deficiencies as they are noted.
Except for the first affirmative, each constructive speech in
a good school debate opens with a few minutes of "pre-
rebuttal" in which the speaker refutes the most important
points advanced by the debater who has just left the platform.
5. As the students practice debating, help them discover the
central points in contention between the two teams and re-
quire that they concentrate their refutation on these, rather
than scattering it over many minor points. This, however, is
a skill which comes only with considerable practice.
6. In order to help the students learn the correct form and
technique of refutation, have them select from newspaper
editorials, etc., statements which they believe to be incorrect
and ask them to refute these statements in short oral exercises.
17. As an aid to developing skill in refutation, teach the com-
moner types of fallacies:
a. Hasty generalization
b. Non-sequitor
c. Analogy in which the points of difference outweight the
points of similarity
J. Practice debates
1. At this point the class is ready to engage in practice debates
on the propositions prepared. Have as many rounds of debate
as time allows and require that students debate both sides
of the question, unless they have such deep convictions con-
cerning one side that they are reluctant to change.
a. Each practice debate should be carefully evaluated by
the teacher and students as soon as it is completed, and
the cases subsequently strengthened in order to overcome
weaknesses and better meet opposing arguments. (For
questions and techniques of evaluation see Section IV.)
K. Special forms of debate
1. The standard form of school debate described above may
be modified in many ways in order to introduce variety
and promote audience interest. Most of these modifications
are not, however, recommended for the secondary level. An
exception is the cross-question debate which has been used
successfully for many years in a number of state high school
debate leagues.
a. Procedure for the cross-question debate
43
(1) Four constructive speeches are presented in the usual
order.
(2) One of the negative speakers questions the affirma-
tive team for five minutes concerning various points
in their case.
(3) One of the affirmative speakers questions the
negative.
(4) Other negative speaker summarizes (five minutes).
(5) Other affirmative speaker summarizes (five minutes).
IV. EVALUATION
A. Broadly speaking, the proper method for evaluating a debate
follows the method for evaluating individual speeches i.e. what
was good, what was not so good, how to improve. More specifi-
cally, however, the teacher should raise questions such as these:
1. Were all of the major contentions adequately supported by
evidence?
2. Was it good evidence?
3. Were there any errors in reasoning from evidence to con-
clusions?
4. Did the teams "clash"? That is, did they meet head-on, or
did they by-pass one another.
5. Did each team adapt to its opponent's case?
6. Did the affirmative adequately discharge its burden of proof?
7. Did the affirmative define and defend its definitions of terms?
8. Was the attitude of the debaters courteous and objective?
V. SUGGESTIONS
A. The procedure outlined above does not provide for any speaking
experiences prior to the time the students engage in actual
debates. If time is available and the teacher wishes, he may
follow the alternate procedure of giving speaking practice in
various aspects of debate while the gathering of material and
the framing of the cases are proceeding. For this the following
exercises are suggested:
1. Speech of definition (defining the important terms in the
propositions framed)
2. Prove a point speech (to be assigned after a considerable
amount of evidence has been collected)
3. Complete argumentative speech (to be assigned after the
case has been built)
4. Rebuttal speech (in which the student takes a point and
refutes it.)
5. Round table discussion (in which all four debaters exchange
ideas about the proposition informally under the direction
of a leader. To be assigned just before the practice debates)
a. This procedure has much to recommend it in getting stu-
dents ready to participate in formal debates, since it iso-
44
lates and provides practical experience in the various
things he must do during the course of a debate.
B. Although the competitive element should certainly not be stressed
in school debate, it may add interest if the final round of class-
room debates are judged by the class and winners declared. For
this purpose a simple majority vote may be used. If, however,
these debates are judged, the students should be warned again
that the purpose of school debate is not to win decisions, but
to train speakers for the important debating situations of later
life.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
John, Mellie. Building Better English Grade Eleven. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peter-
son & Co., 1948.
McBurney, J. H. et al. Argumentation and Debate. New York: Macmillan Co., 1951.
---. The Working Principles of Argument. New York: Macmillan Co., 1932.
Pinto, Vivian de Sola. The Teaching of English in Schools. London: Macmillan Co.,
1948.
Wagner, Russell H. Handbook of Argumentation. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons,
1938.
Weaver, A. T. et al. The Teaching of Speech. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952.
CHAPTER IX
ORAL READING
I. INTRODUCTION
Skill in oral reading is not only a definite asset in such professions as
teaching, law, and the ministry, but it is also a means of adding pleasure
and enjoyment to one's leisure hours.
As a school subject oral reading derives additional importance be-
cause it develops the student's mental and emotional responsiveness to
great literature and enables him to communicate his own appreciation
to others. At the same time, it contributes to general speech growth by
developing his skill in the use of both body and voice.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To train the student to perform more effectively in those sit-
uations of adult professional and family life in which he will be
required to read aloud
B. To improve articulation and develop vocal variety and bodily
expressiveness
C. To deepen the student's appreciation of good literature and give
him the ability to share this appreciation with others
III. PROCEDURES
A. Developing an interest in oral reading
1. Discuss with the students the part which effective oral read-
ing plays in certain professions teaching, law, and the min-
istry, for example.
2. What are some of the ways in which oral reading is used in
the home?
3. To what extent is oral reading used over the radio?
4. How is it used in the school?
5. Name some of the common faults of those who read aloud.
Have each student decide which of these are his.
6. How may training in oral reading improve one's general
speech effectiveness?
B. Getting the meaning
1. Determining the logical content
a. Have each student select a paragraph of expository prose
not more than fifty words long. Help him analyze it and
then require that he:
(1) State the central idea of the paragraph in a single
written sentence
(2) Look up all words with which he is not familiar in
order to learn both their precise meanings and their
correct pronunciations.
(3) Correctly phrase each of the sentences to express ac-
curately the intended meaning.
b. Using the outlined procedure, have him prepare for read-
ing a descriptive passage, a narrative passage, and a
humorous passage.
2. Determining the author's attitude (emotional content)
a. Point out to the students that in addition to its sheer
logical content a passage will have an emotional content
growing out of the author's attitude. (e.g. anger, amuse-
ment, excitement, deep conviction, or impatience.)
b. Using humorous, narrative, or descriptive passages, have
each student analyze the material of his choice in order
to determine its emotional content. What is the dominant
emotion or mood? Are there any secondary or subsidiary
moods? Is the same mood expressed throughout the pas-
sage, or does the author vary the mood?
c. What general information about the author and his ideas
or philosophy will help us to determine the emotion he
probably meant to express in this passage? Is he a satirical
writer? A crusader? What is his point of view toward his
material?
3. After students have had sufficient practice in analyzing and
presenting short passages of prose, have them use the same
methods in preparing to read essays and short stories. The
stories selected however, should have a minimum of dialogue
and not more than two or three different characters speaking.
When reading essays and stories to the class, the student
should be required to "set the stage" with a few introductory
remarks of background material concerning the author or
the material he is going to read. This helps prepare the
audience and makes the reader's job easier.
4. Determining the imaginative content
a. In addition to logical and emotional content, poetry, for
example, has imaginative content that is, the poet uses
concrete ideas and images to express general or abstract
ideas; or he attempts to suggest certain ideas and feelings.
b. Have each student select a lyric poem and prepare it for
reading by determining its logical, emotional, and imagi-
native content. In analyzing the imaginative content the
student should check the following points:
(1) Decide what basic idea the poet is attempting to
suggest.
(2) Study his imagery.
(3) Study each figurative expression.
(4) Is he using words to mean what they usually mean
or to mean something else?
(5) Draw upon past experience to re-create more vividly
all the sense impressions suggested.
c. Use the same methods in preparing to read narrative and
dramatic poems. Since, however, these are usually more
difficult to interpret and present, be certain that the
students are well gounded in reading lyrics. Or, instead
of beginning with lyrics, use nonsense verse as the first
assignment in poetry and follow this with the lyric.
d. In each instance, require that the student prepare a
written summary of the poem. This should be as brief
as possible, and yet not omit any important idea ex-
pressed by the poet.
C. Communicating the meaning
1. Discuss with the students how to hold the book or manu-
script while reading, the importance of maintaining eye con-
tact with one's listeners, the appropriateness or inappropri-
ateness of bodily activity in the form of gesture and move-
ment.
2. Developing vocal expressiveness
a. Have the pupil read in feeble voice Adam's speech to
Orlando in "As You Like It": "Dear Master, I can go no
farther; I die for food."
b. A harsh or guttural voice quality can express scorn, rage,
and revenge. Have the pupil find selections from novels,
plays, or stories that would use this quality, or make up
an original one.
c. Read with a whispering or breathy voice quality: "Shh -
the baby's asleep." "We're being followed."
d. Use a falsetto quality and say "Oh, Joshua! A mouse! A
great horrid mouse!"
e. An expressive conversational voice is highly flexible. The
speaker who has a vivid mind has usually a highly ex-
pressive pitch variety middle, low and high. The middle
pitch is used in ordinary conversation, narration, plain
description, and calm reasoning. The low pitch expresses
reverence, awe, devotion, despair, and melancholy. The
high pitch is used in passages calling for alarm, fright,
rage, joy, and extreme grief.
f. Have the pupils bring to class selections of their choice
illustrating those kinds of pitch. Many selections also may
be found in almost any speech text.
g. The rising, falling, and circumflex inflection are very
essential to effective oral expression. A judicious mixture
of inflection coupled with an understanding of the best
way to express the meaning should be the ideal. Have
the pupil say the word "yes" or "no" using the three types
of inflections which will change the meaning of the word.
Supplement this exercise with exercises from the text
adopted for the course.
h. The word emphasis in a sentence may change the entire
meaning of the sentence. Read the following sentence with
good inflection and each time stressing a different word:
(1) DID John telephone you?
(2) Did JOHN telephone you?
(8) Did John TELEPHONE you?
(4) Did John telephone YOU?
i. Teach the pupil to vary his rate with the type of reading,
and remind him that a good oral reader is not a very
rapid reader. A pupil who speaks or reads too rapidly
should practice thinking deeply while he interprets.
j. There are two kinds of pauses grammatical, indicated
by punctuation marks; and rhetorical, which marks a
special separation of words as reflected by the author's
meaning. Pauses give force to a selection and the effect
of freshness and originality to the presentation.
3. As a final assignment in oral reading if time allows, have
each student prepare a ten or fifteen minute reading recital
consisting of a series of related poems together with an ap-
propriate introduction, transitional remarks, and conclusion.
Suggested subjects:
a. Poems about the sea, Florida, American statesmen, and
other subjects
b. Selected poems of some particular writer
c. A collection of humorous verses
D. Choral reading
1. Choral reading, or verse speaking as it is sometimes called,-
is the recitation of poetry by a choir or chorus of combined
voices. This method of speaking is sometimes objected to
on the grounds that the individual is lost in the group; but
it cannot be denied that the individual gains not only inspira-
tion, but also self-confidence from participation with the
group. Some teachers find choral speaking helpful because
through it they can reach the timid student who doesn't like
to read alone.
At the beginning let the class practice reading in unison.
Then divide it into "parts". If the group is all male or all
female, divide the students into "light" (the higher pitched,
softer voices) and "dark" (the lower, heavier voices). If it
is a mixed group, the boys' voices may be separated from
the girls'. Begin with a nursery rhyme or some very familiar
poem so that the group may watch the leader closely. Be
aware of the following:
a. The group must be enthusiastic and willing to work
together.
b. Be sure the group understands the meaning of the poem.
c. The voices should blend together.
d. The tempo must be kept by all.
e. Let the needs of the poem determine the variety of
rhythm and inflection.
f. Any shift in volume, pitch, or quality should be carefully
planned and practiced so that all will do it simultaneously.
g. Good diction is essential. Guard against hissing or other
unpleasant sounds. Do not neglect good articulation of
the final consonants.
2. Listen to some recordings of voice choirs.
3. Have the pupils prepare a program of readings for a special
day such as Washington's birthday.
IV. EVALUATION
A. Did the student interpret the meaning and mood of his material
accurately and communicate it clearly?
B. Did he exhibit the qualities of effective speech in his pronunci-
ation, articulation, vocal variety, and eye contact?
C. Did his material sound natural, spontaneous, and "unread"?
V. SUGGESTIONS
A. Do not allow students to memorize materials.
B. Assure adequate preparation by insisting upon written analyses
or summaries of the material to be read.
C. Stress the practical values of oral reading. Do not concentrate on
its aesthetic qualities alone.
D. Provide ample practice opportunities. Like other speech forms,
effective oral reading is something that one learns by doing.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Compere, Moiree. Living Literature for Oral Interpretation. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, Inc., 1949.
Crocker, L. and Eich, L. M. Oral Reading. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1947.
Fields, V. A. and Bender, J. F. Voice and Diction. New York: Macmillan Co., 1949.
John, Mellie. Building Better English Grade Eleven. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peter-
son & Co., 1948.
Lowrey, S. and Johnson, G. E. Interpretative Reading. New York: Appleton-Century-
Crofts, Inc., 1942.
Parrish, Wayland M. Reading Aloud. New York: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1933.
Thompson, W. N. and Fessenden, S. A. Basic Experiences in Speech. New York:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1937.
CHAPTER X
RADIO
I. INTRODUCTION
The basic purpose of this unit is to give the student an over-all view
of the function of radio as one of the greatest media of mass communi-
cation serving the interests of free society. It is not designed to prepare
him for professional radio, but to inform him about radio and enable
him to discover whether or not he desires to continue its study in
college or to enter it professionally.
In order to teach radio it is not necessary" to have a radio station in
the community. The work will, however, prove more practical if students
have access to a local station for observational purposes.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To develop an awareness and appreciation of the importance
and value of the radio medium
B. To insure a greater appreciation of radio programs, thereby en-
riching the radio experience of the more casual listener
C. To develop an appreciation of radio as a medium of culture,
education, information, and entertainment
D. To develop those qualities of speech which are most essential
in radio
E. To gain knowledge in writing, planning, acting in, and producing
a radio program
F. To give the student an over-all picture of the function of radio
as an organization
III. PROCEDURES
A. The importance and value of radio
1. Today a great number of people depend entirely upon radio
and television for their entertainment. Through these two
media they keep in contact with the latest news, and the arts
and sciences. Many of them continue their educations via
radio and television schools. Through the medium of radio
a great number of people may be reached and influenced in
a very short period of time.
2. Let's listen to radio.
a. When, why, and how much do you listen to the radio?
b. How does radio influence your habits of thinking or
buying, for example?
c. What influence does radio have on the social, economic,
and political activities of the community?
d. What influence does radio have on these same aspects
of our national life?
e. How does radio influence international affairs?
3. Have each student bring in a list of educational programs
which deal with such subjects as safety, art, or current scien-
tific information. Ask for a similar list of programs designed
specifically for entertainment. Discuss the types of radio
entertainment suitable for different age levels.
4. Discuss the importance of advertising as a source of revenue
for the support of radio stations. If possible, ask a member
of the executive staff of a local station to discuss this subject
with the class.
B. The history of radio
1. Forerunners
a. Wireless
b. Wireless telephone
c. Amateur broadcasting
2. Development of broadcasting stations
a. In the United States
(1) Rapid growth
(2) Control legislation (F.C.C.)
b. World systems of broadcasting
C. Stations
1. Discuss the principal types of radio stations.
a. Amplitude modulation
b. Frequency modulation
c. Short wave
d. Facsimile
e. Television
2. Differentiate among
a. The independent or local station *
b. The network affiliated station
c. The educational station
d. The station owned by a religious organization or body
e. The station owned by a labor organization
3. Familiarize the student with the various network systems
(CBS, NBC, MBS, ABC). Discuss which network systems
are heard in your community.
4. Discuss the relationship of advertising agencies to network
and local radio stations.
5. Explain the National Association for Radio and Television
Broadcasting and its function in broadcasting.
6. Discuss the Federal Communications Commission.
a. Organization
b. Duties
c. Legal phases of operation
d. Relation to local and network stations
7. If there is a local station, arrange for the class to visit it
and have station personnel speak to the class on various
phases of organization and operation.
8. Encourage students to write to the various network systems
and manufacturers of radio and television equipment for in-
formation about radio. Have the students become familiar
with some of the radio and television trade magazines.
9. Encourage the students to read the reviews of some of the
radio critics.
D. Sound equipment
1. Discuss briefly the following pieces of equipment:
a. Microphones
(1) Unidirectional
(2) Bi-directional
(8) Non-directional
(4) Filter
b. Control board
c. Turntables
d. Sound effects truck
e. Transcription and record libraries
f. Remote equipment
g. Wire services AP, UP, INS.
h. Transcription equipment-tape or wire recorders, disc
recorder
i. Transmitter (the workshop of the engineers)
(1) Transmitter
(2) Antenna
2. If possible, have students visit local station transmitters.
E. Studio personnel
1. While the teacher may not wish to cover this area in detail,
at least a brief explanation of the duties of each member of
the station staff should be given. These explanations may be
supplemented by visits to a local station and by readings on
station organization.
a. Management
b. Programming department
c. Sales and promotion department
d. Engineering department
e. Announcers
f. Production manager
g. Music director
h. Receptionist
i. Secretaries
2. Here again the teacher will, if possible, secure various mem-
bers of the staff of a local station to talk to the class.
F. Planning the program
1. News reporting
a. Discuss characteristics of spot news, news commentaries,
news summaries.
b. Have students report on favorite news shows, justifying
preferences.
c. Study and analyze examples from copy off wire service.
(These may be secured from the local station.)
d. Write short items to be set up as a news show and have
them delivered and analyzed in class. Tape them if a re-
corder is available.
e. Prepare programs of school news. Broadcast them each
morning over the public address system to the entire
student body.
2. Interviews
a. Discuss various types of interviews. If possible, pull
interviews from the air onto tape and bring them to class
for playback and analysis.
b. Divide the class into groups. Have each group prepare
a different type of interview for class presentation and
recording.
c. Use first the written interview, and then follow this with
the extempore interview in which only a series of ques-
tions is used by the interviewer.
3. Music programs
a. Have students name their favorite musical programs.
Classify these as to types, such as classical, semi-classical,
or popular.
(1) Discuss the different types of introduction, format,
and continuity used on these programs.
b. Collaborate with the music department in preparing con-
tinuity for a musical broadcast.
c. Poll students on their favorite records, and have them
write a disc-jockey continuity built around them. If
possible, tape these programs for playback and analysis.
4. Speeches
a. Have students list various purposes of radio speeches, for
example, for election purposes or community fund drives.
b. Listen to broadcast speeches or recorded speeches and
analyze them for structure, style, and appeal.
c. Have students write short radio speeches on various
school activities. Present these to the class and analyze
them for audience appeal, interest, proper script form,
and format.
5. Dramatizations
a. Have students name their favorite dramatic programs.
Select the one that is most popular with the class and
record it. Analyze this show with the class, commenting
on:
(1) Attention arresting device at the beginning.
(2) Number of characters in the cast. How each is
distinguished.
(3) How the time and place transitions are made.
(4) Methods used for supplying descriptive details.
56
(5) Sound effects and bridges used.
(6) Methods and devices used to keep tempo of the story
moving.
b. Discuss with the class dramatized information programs
such as The Voice of America or The People Speak, for
example.
c. Have each student write a short adaptation of some story
he has read in his English class or a short documentary
of a great moment in history.
(1) Cast the parts and read the scripts to the class.
(2) Analyze for interest arresting factors, liveliness of
dialogue, and picture established.
(3) Have students revise their scripts after the criticism
and present them again this time, if possible, with
sound effects and music. Tape each show.
6. Special events programs
a. Assign several special events programs for home listening.
Have the students note the descriptive detail, action
words used, color words used, and the style of the
announcer.
b. Divide the class into groups. Have each group write a
special events broadcast for some school project or ac-
tivity (homecoming, opening night of class play, P.T.A.
meeting, open house for parents, for example). Send these
over P.A. system for audition and analysis after tape re-
cording them.
7. Round tables and forums
a. Analyze with the class the various types of discussion and
forum programs. Have them listen to the Chicago Round
Table, People's Platform, or Town Meeting of the Air,
noting techniques of the moderator, the plan of the pro-
gram, and the various personalities used.
b. Have the class prepare a list of discussion or forum sub-
jects on school problems (e.g. student government, parent-
teacher relationships, or the honor system).
c. Divide the class into groups. Have each group select a
chairman and a subject for a round table or forum.
(1) First ask each group to write and present a discus-
sion from an outline. Then, using the same subject,
attempt an unrehearsed program in which only the
moderator uses questions or an outline. Tape and
playback one or both of these programs.
d. Collaborate with the social studies department in plan-
ning a Junior Town Meeting of the Air or a similar pro-
gram; or devise an entirely new type of program with an
original title. Such a program may develop into a regular
weekly broadcast to be aired over a local station.
8. Variety programs
a. Analyze with the class the various types of variety shows,
quiz shows, and audience participation shows, paying
attention to the following:
(1) Personality of the master of ceremonies
(2) The method of introducing the participants
(3) The types of persons or talent used
(4) The arrangement and distribution of talent through-
out the program
b. Divide the class into groups and have each group write
and produce a variety show that might be suitable for a
school assembly, P.T.A. meeting, or a class day exercise.
G. Writing the program
1. Have the students list and learn the meaning of such radio
jargon as: theme, signature, riding gain, fade (manual and
broad), platter, live and dead end of a studio, filter, sound
effects truck, live and dead mike, fluff, nemo, turkey, plug,
tag, punch, lead-in, bridge, and off-mike.
2. Analyze professional scripts for choice of language.
3. Using scripts witten by experts, have students note:
a. How action begins immediately
b. How music and sound effects are used and why
4. Record some of the well prepared programs and play these
back in class, analyzing language and style.
5. Emphasize the importance of neatness and proper form in
preparing the script. Discuss margins, sound effects and
music cues, and the placement of the names of the cast.
6. Using sample scripts from networks or local station, note:
a. Spacing
b. Time marks
c. Face sheet
d. Music and sound cues
e. Directions
7. Students in typing classes may be asked to prepare scripts
and to cut stencils.
H. Commercials
1. Record radio commercials and play them in class, asking stu-
dents to note form (straight selling, descriptive, testimonial,
educational, multivoice, singing, humorous, dialogue, for ex-
ample), type (conversational, punch, friendly, homey), and
length.
2. Have students write commercials of various types and lengths.
If possible, tape these and playback for class analysis.
I. Producing the program
1. Learning microphone techniques
a. Brief students on the type of microphones to be used and
their characteristics (e.g. direction, pick-up, beam, dis-
tance from the mike necessary, and position). Tell them
to think of the microphone as a listener the ear of
another person.
b. If possible, tape a sample of each student's speech and
playback for self-analysis. Let the class make suggestions
for improvement and tape again for re-analysis.
c. Assign passages of descriptive reading. Have these pre-
sented to the class on mike. Then have each student "ad
lib" some article he has read.
d. Set aside special listening sessions during which students
listen carefully to professional announcers, commentators,
and actors. If possible, tape certain examples and bring
them to class for discussion and analysis.
e. Strive to have students become more conscious of how
other people sound. Tell them to note conversational
mannerisms which may be transplanted to the micro-
phone. Record students while they read one or more
sentences with a smile. Then have them read the same
sentences with a frown. Note the difference. Assign pas-
sages for oral reading practice outside of class, telling the
students to aim especially at the development of their
own particular style.
f. Teach students how to handle a script before the mike
(i.e. the relation of the script to the position of the mike,
the handling of pages as they are turned, and checking
numerical order).
g. Visit local studios to observe how professionals use the
microphone. Also note all of the other production pro-
cedures.
2. Using the microphone or studio signals
a. Discuss and practice using studio sign language (i.e. move
closer to the mike, move away from the mike, slow down,
speed up, louder, softer, stand by, cue to begin, watch
me for cue, stand by for cut, program on schedule).
b. Develop skill in giving and receiving cues by having some
students read while others "shoot cues". Then reverse the
groups.
c. On visits to local stations pay special attention to the use
of signals.
3. Learning studio behavior
a. The relation of the microphone position to the control
room, the placement of the mike, and the positions of
individuals before mike when more than one person is
working on mike.
b. The placement of persons when not working on mike but
standing by for their cue to appear. The importance of
keeping with the script even though not on mike at the
moment.
c. The importance of being quiet when not on mike.
59
d. Invite the staff of the local station to speak to the class
on studio techniques.
4. Utilizing sound effects and music
a. From tapes of various types of programs have the class
note and discuss the use of sound effects and music. Stress
the fact that they are of the utmost importance to the
program.
b. Discuss the different types of recorded sound effects.
Have students build their own simple manual sound
effects.
c. Practice the production of various sound patterns. Using
very short scenes from plays, practice producing the
appropriate sound effects and cueing them in at the
proper time.
d. Listen to types of music used on various programs and
where, when, why, and how used. Note stabs, bridges,
transitions, stings, and punctuation.
5. Organizing the production staff
a. Organize class into a production unit or units patterned
after a commercial station staff. (See III, E)
b. Assign specific duties to each member of the staff for
program production. See that each student assumes com-
plete responsibility for his position. Emphasize that team
work is necessary to do a finished production.
c. Shift staff personnel to give each student experiences in
each position.
d. After a student production staff has been sufficiently
trained, a school program may be set up for a weekly
broadcast over a local station outlet.
6. Rehearsing the program
a. At the first rehearsal read the script to clarify meaning
and get a complete picture of the story involved. Check
the difficult words and re-write certain phrases to fit the
style of the reader, making certain not to change the
meaning.
b. Have students read outside of the regular rehearsals to
establish a greater familiarity with the script content and
the relation of one character to another..
c. Rehearse individual scenes. Later on tie them together
as a whole. Pace the entire show and time it.
d. Make the necessary cuts and time it again.
e. All sound effects and music should be obtained for the
show as soon as it is cast. Rehearsal with sound effects
and music should be done at planned sound effects and
script rehearsals. Get as accurate' a timing and pacing
of the music and sound as possible, impressing the staff
with the importance of exact timing without distributing
pacing.
f. If possible, tape the show for class listening and analysis.
The margin of the script should be marked for timing.
Record thirty second intervals.
J. Broadcasting the program
1. Arranging for air time
a. Almost every local radio station is happy to be able to
present school broadcasts as a means of helping the sta-
tion fulfill its public service time. After the class has
become fairly efficient in the production of programs,
tape a program and take it to the station program director
and ask him to audition it and offer suggestions for im-
provement. Perhaps he will offer the school time immedi-
ately or offer suggestions for improving production as he
sets another audition date.
b. All programs planned and produced by the class can be
auditioned or tested by airing them over the public ad-
dress system in the school. Often the school has a sound
motion picture machine that can be used as a public ad-
dress system into which a double jack can be inserted to
handle a microphone and a record player. Thus, sound
and music can be used too. The studio may be set up in
a hallway or a cloakroom, and the speaker placed in the
room where the program is to be heard; or it may be
done from behind curtains on the stage with the speaker
placed before the audience.
K. "You're on the air"
1. Whether the program is being broadcast over a public ad-
dress system or aired over a local station outlet, the staff and
cast must adhere to certain studio rules and regulations.
a. The entire production staff and cast must be in the studio
at least fifteen to thirty minutes prior to air time.
b. Check on voice levels and mike positions.
c. Check on sound effects levels.
d. If presented at the local station and time and facilities
permit, there should be one complete run-through of the
show before air time to give the cast studio presence.
e. If possible, have a responsible student record the program
on tape as it is being aired. Later this can be used for
class evaluation.
IV. EVALUATION
A. Have each student keep a notebook during the semester. In it
should be kept good notes and information for ready use and
evaluation.
B. Keep in mind the influence of radio in daily life both upon the
community and nation and the importance of training students
to take part in its work for education, culture, and good will.
Encourage their planning and skill in writing and producing
programs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Commission on the English Curriculum of the National Council of Teachers of
English. The English Language Arts. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,
Inc., 1952.
Dakin, Dorothy. How to Teach High School English. Boston: D. C. Heath & Co.,
1947.
DeBoer, J. J. et al. Teaching Secondary English. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
1951.
John, Mellie. Building Better English Grade Eleven. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peter-
son & Co., 1948.
McKown, H. C. and Roberts, A. B. Audio-Visual Aids to Instruction. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1949.
Weaver, A. T. et al. The Teaching of Speech. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1952.
CHAPTER XI
DRAMATICS
I. INTRODUCTION
Dramatics is the name given to the staging and performance of plays
by amateurs. In the education of all of our students dramatics provides
an opportunity to develop good aesthetic values as well as practical
artistic skills. Dramatics affords the student an opportunity to acquaint
himself with the written drama portraying life and character and to
observe and participate in its rightful staging and production. In this
work he can learn and profit by experience as actor, student director,
stage manager or member of a crew, designer, electrician, prompter,
make-up man, sound effects man, costume assistant, publicity and pro-
gram chairman, ticket chairman, house manager, usher, or finally as
critic. He may continue his interest in any of these areas as possibilities
for future employment, community theatre work, hobbies, or recreation.
While working artistically in a fine art, he will find many challenges
in which to be creative, well skilled, and cooperative. Through partici-
pation and understanding the contribution each member of a producing
group makes, he will be equipped to make well substantiated criticism
and evaluations and consequently develop himself as an interested
member of an audience.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To develop the correlation and coordination of body and voice
B. To develop the personality through elimination of inhibitions
C. To develop the ability to cooperate
D. To provide an opportunity for participation in play production
E. To develop an appreciation of "good" cinema, television, radio,
and stage plays
III. PROCEDURES
A. The actor's tools: voice, body, and emotions
1. Pantomime
a. Discuss with the students the definitions and benefits of
pantomime.
b. Explain to the class that pantomime plays an important
role in acting.
c. Divide the class into groups to act out a story in pan-
tomime.
d. Have each pupil act out a pantomime representing vari-
ous emotions, occupations, types, and ages of people. The
following are several suggestions:
(1) A housewife hanging a picture
(2) Dagwood's early morning departure
(8) Listening on the telephone to a party line conver-
sation
(4) Getting a poor report card
(5) Trying on hats
(6) A personal experience involving an emotion
2. Voice development in dramatics
a. For developing flexibility of voice see the unit on Voice
and Diction.
b. Explain that screen reading is an excellent device for
developing variety in voice. Screen reading, which may
be described as impersonation which takes place behind
a screen or over a loudspeaker, is used to help the pupil
eliminate self-consciousness and to facilitate acting and
speaking with expression.
c. Play recordings of Maurice Evans, John Gielgud, John
Barrymore, and Laurence Olivier for students to hear.
Discuss their differences as well as their common good
points.
d. Have students give selections with dialogue which calls
for the use of various voice qualities as well as the normal
voices of a man, woman or child of different ages.
e. Selections may be used from plays, story dialogue, or
anecdotes, some of which should be given in various
dialects. One, two, or more pupils may participate in
this activity.
3. Coordination of body, voice, emotions, and imagination
a. Discuss with the students the fact that no speech activity
is complete without expression of both body and voice
as prompted by our emotions and imagination.
b. Assign monologues or single speeches from plays to be
learned
c. Assign dialogues or scenes from plays to be learned.
d. Divide the class into groups of three and assign each
group three unrelated words or unrelated emotional
moods. They are to take these words and create a scene
from them. They will have ten minutes in which to
prepare.
B. Play production
1. Choice of play
a. Discuss with the students the fact that to have a success-
ful play, the importance of correct selection of materials
is paramount.
b. Have the pupils list guiding principles which govern the
selection of play material. Point out that these include:
(1) The nature of the audience
(2) The ability of the cast
(3) The cost of production
(4) The number of people available for casting
(5) Technical limitations
(6) The variety in types of plays
64
2. The play cast
a. Discuss with the group the rules for casting a play. Play-
ers are to be selected who can act, whose health is good,
and whose schedule permits time for rehearsals. Differ-
ences in appearance, voice, coloring, etc., should be con-
sidered as the play dictates.
b. Have the pupils cast a play or novel, choosing freely from
motion picture actors and actresses for personnel.
c. After discussing tryout procedures, have each pupil hold
tryouts for a project play. Precede the tryout activity
with an explanatory talk on the background of the author,
the type of play, the atmosphere, the description of char-
ters, and any particular which will be stressed in pro-
duction.
3. The set
a. Most high schools are not equipped to build a set for
each performance. Nevertheless, activities can be devel-
oped around a production which makes use of a cyclorama.
b. Have each student design a floor plan, to scale, for a
project play. Explain that this play is to be so designed
that not only doors, windows, and furniture present a
pleasing picture to the audience, but it must, also, afford
easy and effective movement to the members of the cast.
c. Have the pupils tell exactly what type of furniture, if it
is used, and what colors would be used. Discuss the
appropriate colors to be used in comedy, tragedy, melo-
drama. What moods do different colors suggest?
d. If desirable, a model set, built to scale, may be con-
structed of cardboard.
e. Have each pupil make out a properties list for a project
play. For a group play activity, an appointed committee
will do this work.
f. Insofar as available equipment permits, have the pupil
work out a light plot. Instruct him in setting up the equip-
ment. Hold light cue rehearsals. Give instructions for
correct procedure in lighting and dimming the house
lights.
4. The organization of crews
a. The stage crew constructs the set or sets and maneuvers
it during the performance. For helpful information on
building sets, homemade lighting equipment, and paint-
ing sets many very helpful books are available.
b. The light crew has charge of all lights including spot-
lights, footlights, if used, overhead lights, and house
lights.
c. The sound effects crew is responsible for all offstage
sounds which are called for in the play.
d. The property committee collects all furniture and hand
props needed in the play and sees that they are in the
proper places during the rehearsals and performances. The
teacher may choose to have the cast responsible for all
personal properties.
e. The make-up crew is required to lay out the make-up
supplies, check the make-up, study the cast and their
portrayals, and act as make-up artists during the final
rehearsals and the performances. Make-up for the stage
must be applied according to the stage lighting and not
ordinary daylight.
f. The costume committee sees that the cast is informed as
to clothing requirements and assists them during the
performances. If the play is a costume play, this com-
mittee sees that the costumes are ready and checks them
in and out.
g. The committee handling tickets has the tickets printed,
distributes them, and checks the tickets and money. This
committee may also be in charge of arranging the pro-
grams and having them printed.
h. The publicity committee advertises the play. This is done
through announcements, posters, newspapers, radios, and
parades and demonstrations.
i. The house committee sees that the theatre has ticket
sellers and takers, ushers, and someone to distribute pro-
grams for every performance of the play.
5. The play rehearsal;
a. Have the director draw up a rehearsal schedule. It may
be desirable to draw up a rehearsal "contract" containing
the time, date, and place of each rehearsal, a pledge to be
present and on time for all rehearsals unless excused
twenty-four hours before, and a clause obligating actors
to remain in the rehearsal room during the entire re-
hearsal and to work without incurring conduct problems.
b. Approximately six to eight weeks should be spent in re-
hearsing a three-act play. This depends, however, on the
type of play selected.
c. Rehearsals should be limited to from two to two and one-
half hours and should always start on time.
d. Since intelligent characterization involves an understand-
ing of the play as a whole, the first rehearsal, which is a
reading rehearsal, will be followed by a group analysis
of the play. An understanding of the interrelationships of
all characters will enable the individual actor to develop
his character in proper proportion.
e. Have the pupil write given directions into his script
during the blocking rehearsal when the action is set.
f. Impress upon the pupils that lines for each act must be
memorized by the time called for on the rehearsal sched-
ule, and that the lines are to be delivered spontaneously.
6. Reminders to the actor
a. All action must be purposeful no fidgeting or shifting
of stance.
b. The actor keeps in character throughout the play no
matter what extraneous factors may occur to distract him.
c. It is necessary for the actor to broaden his action for it
to be seen and interpreted by the audience. This does
not mean he is to exaggerate his motions so as to create
farce.
d. Actors should listen to what is being said and react
accordingly.
e. Actors should avoid standing behind furniture or other
actors unless directed otherwise.
f. The actor, whenever possible, should stand or sit with
his body turned slightly toward the audience.
g. Actors should move only on their own lines and should
stand still when someone else is speaking.
h. Generally speaking, the actor will establish eye contact
with his fellow actor in a scene unless otherwise directed.
i. Since the present day standard for oral interpretation is
suitability to a particular role, artificial stage diction is
not encouraged. Emphasize that no matter how good
an actor is, if he can't be heard, all is wasted. Audibility,
vocal inflection, emphasis, pitch, quality, articulation, and
pronunciation appropriate to the role being enacted is
good stage diction.
j. Remember that the theatre is make believe and not real
life. Do not cry, but give the impression of crying. Do not
live the part, but act the part.
7. The performance
a. The entire group will participate in the actual perform-
ance either on stage, backstage, or in the auditorium.
b. Some rules for backstage behavior during the perform-
ance include:
(1) Attend to your own business.
(2) Keep your head.
(3) Actors: keep clear of stage when shifts are taking
place.
(4) Don't peep out from behind scenery to see the play.
(5) Have a fire extinguisher on hand.
(6) Don't talk backstage.
(7) Don't argue obey orders.
(8) Don't regard orders from the stage manager as per-
sonal affronts to your dignity.
(9) Don't smoke or allow smoking backstage.
(10) Remember this is "your play". It succeeds or fails in
large measure because of you.
c. Instruct the house manager and his corps of ushers to
rehearse carefully their duties before the time of the
performance. Each usher must know positively what his
particular task is to be and how to execute it efficiently.
d. Emphasize the fact that after the performance, the direc-
tors and their staffs will see to it that all equipment is
properly stored. The business manager and his committee
will check receipts and attend to all of the necessary
financial affairs.
e. It is sometimes a good idea to invite a small audience
to the dress rehearsal so that the cast may find out audi-
ence reaction to the play. This can be done by giving a
matinee performance for the elementary school.
C. Appreciation of the theatre and its allied forms: motion pictures,
radio drama, and television.
1. Discuss the importance of modern means of theatrical presen-
tation in our everyday life.
2. Discuss recognizing good theatre, good radio, good television,
and good motion picture entertainment, to make it possible
for a student to "shop" for his entertainment in those fields.
8. List "favorites" (plays, actors, pictures) and tell why they
are your favorite.
4. Take a field trip to a nearby radio or television station, a
university or college production and to a theatre projection
room.
5. Discuss live theatre in terms of the present and the past-
the actors and the plays.
IV. EVALUATION
A. For some, the success of the production may be the only basis
of evaluation.
B. Have each pupil prepare a short talk explaining certain interest-
ing aspects of the production activity. Some of these talks may
be based on the following topics:
1. How I Learned to be Someone Else
2. Can I Walk Across the Room without Feeling-Self-conscious?
3. Why Do Theatre Audiences Enjoy a Play?
4. Have I Learned to Discriminate between a Good and Bad
Production on the Motion Picture and TV Screens and on
the Stage?
5. What Happened to Me While Gathering Properties?
6. What I Learned about How to Use My Voice and Body
from Watching a TV Program.
C. Check against the list below to see if you have provided the
student with an opportunity to gain the following things:
68
1. To acquire better command of language, better physical
and emotional control, and to improve personality.
2. To learn how to recognize good theatre, good radio, good
television, and good motion picture entertainment, making
it possible to "shop" for entertainment in these fields.
3. To learn how to make better use of the theatre, radio, tele-
vision, and motion pictures as a means of wholesome recrea-
tion and entertainment.
4. To learn more about the opportunities for employment which
exist in the theatre, radio, television, and motion pictures.
5. To gain a broader knowledge of the history and art of the
theatre, television, and motion pictures, thereby making it
possible to understand and appreciate these art forms better.
6. To learn more about the opportunities for worthwhile hob-
bies in the theatre, radio, television, and motion pictures.1
V. SUGGESTIONS
See the Appendix for representative listings and bibliography ma-
terial concerning plays, recordings, filmstrips, and slides for second-
ary school use, and addresses of play supply houses and manufac-
turers of technical equipment.
1 American Educational Theatre Association, "Chapter IV of Materials, Methods,
and Special Projects for a Course of Study in Dramatic Arts in the Secondary
School," Bulletin of the National Association of High School Principals, XXXIII
(December, 1949), 87-156.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Educational Theatre Association, "Chapter V, Recommendations, Dramatic
Arts Books for the Secondary School," Bulletin of the National Association of
High School Principals, XXXIII (December, 1949), pp. 172-82.
----- "A Suggested Outline for a Course of Study in Dramatics Arts in the
Secondary School," Educational Theatre Journal, II (1950), pp. 15-81.
Ballet, Arthur H. "Standards for the High School Theatre," Educational Theatre
Journal, II (1950), pp. 829-32.
Bodycombe, Haydn. "Shakespeare on High School Stages," Educational Theatre
Journal, II (1950), pp. 116-21.
Gillette, A. S. "Design for the High School Theatre," Educational Theatre Journal,
II (1950), pp. 333-36.
CHAPTER XII
SPEECH IN THE EXTRA-CLASS ACTIVITIES PROGRAM
1. INTRODUCTION
Every living situation finds very often an expression in speech.
Therefore, even if a school offers no formal courses in speech, the
enterprising teacher may do well and much to promote the speech
development of his students through a program of extra-class or co-
curricular activities. If, on the other hand, courses in speech are avail-
able, these may be enriched by being integrated with extra-class work.
The major types of extra-class activities available to the high school
student are contests, clubs, and public service programs.
A. Contests
1. Public speaking
a. Original oratory
(1) Knights of Pythias Public Speaking Contest. This
contest is national in scope. Information concerning
it may be obtained from the local K. P. Chapter.
(2) "I Speak for Democracy Contest," sponsored by the
Junior Chamber of Commerce, is also nationwide in
scope. For information consult your local J. C. Club.
(3) National Forensic League State and National Con-
test. In addition to original oratory, has divisions in
extempore speaking, debate, humorous declamation,
dramatic declamation, and oratorical declamation. For
information, write to the Executive Secretary, Na-
tional Forensic League, Ripon, Wisconsin.
(4) American Legion Oratorical Contest. Combines ora-
tory and extempore speaking. Has school, county,
state, regional, and national contests. For informa-
tion, write to the American Legion State Department
Adjutant or State Department Oratorical Chairman,
Tallahassee, Florida.
(5) Exchange Club Contest. Combines oratory and ex-
tempore speaking. For information, contact your local
Exchange Club.
(6) Southern Speech Association, High School Division.
In addition to oratory, this contest includes extempore
speaking, declamation, and a student congress. Write
to the Department of Speech, University of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida.
(7) Future Farmers of America Contest. This contest is
71
national in scope. It combines oratory and extempore
speaking. For information, consult your local chapter.
(8) Diversified Cooperative Training Contest. Consult
your local chapter.
b. Debate
(1) National Forensic League (See (3) above)
(2) State Debate League. Open to all Florida high
schools. Write to Mrs. Bernice Mims, Extension Di-
vision, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
(3) Southern Speech Association, High School Debate
Division. (See (6) above)
c. Dramatics
(1) High school drama festival and one-act play contest
held at the University of Florida early in November.
Write to Mr. D. B. Dusenbury, Department of Speech,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
d. Student Congress
(1) Open to all Florida high schools. Write to Dr. Gregg
Phifer, Department of Speech, Florida State Univer-
sity, Tallahassee, Florida
e. Scholastic Magazine Radio Writing Contest
(1) Write to the Editorial Offices, Scholastic Magazine,
351 Fourth Avenue, New York 10, New York.
B. Clubs
Any teacher may form a club made up of students interested
in any one of the speech areas.
1. Discussion club. Students meet to discuss topics of school,
local, national and international interest.
2. Debate club. Helps lay the ground work for a school debate
team, but activities may be confined to club debates.
3. Dramatics club. This club may become actively affiliated
with the National Thespian Society. For information, write
to the National Secretay, National Thespian Society, College
Hill Station, Cincinnati, Ohio.
4. Radio and television club. This club is organized for stu-
dents and by students interested in radio and television
writing and production.
C. Public service programs
By utilizing various community resources the teacher may pro-
vide her students with valuable speaking experience and also
perform a useful public service.
72
1. Public speaking
a. Student speakers' bureau provides individual talks for
local clubs, P.T.A.'s, and other organizations.
b. Debates and forum discussions may be presented to in-
terested groups
c. Student speakers may offer their services on behalf of
drives and campaigns Red Cross, Cancer Society, or a
Safety Program, for example.
2. Dramatics and radio
Skits and programs may be arranged and presented in behalf
of drives and campaigns.
D. In-school programs
In addition to these, the school itself offers many opportunities
for speech activities of an extra-curricular nature:
1. Assembly programs
2. Graduation speeches
3. P.A. announcements
4. Class plays
CHAPTER XIII
SPEECH IN THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES
I. INTRODUCTION
Many junior high schools offer seventh and eighth grade courses in
speech. These are frequently one-semester, eight weeks, or sometimes
two-hour-a-week courses. While the goals are common to those in all
speech work, there are additional goals peculiar to the age level of this
group. The speech teacher must be alert to the emerging emotional needs
and should make provision for meeting them when planning work in
oral communication. Here the practical needs of the everyday speaking
situations take precedence over the more specialized forms of speech.
Basic principles and techniques will become meaningful through class
activities, and thus the course will provide an introduction to the various
forms of speech in which the student may elect to do advanced work
later.
This suggested outline may be expanded or contracted as the hours
available for the course permit. Every effort should be made to keep
the activities geared to the age level problems and to provide sound
practical values for current needs. A speech course need not be the door-
way to guidance, but it offers an excellent opportunity without in any
way detracting from the acquisition of speech skills.
II. SUGGESTED UNITS
A. Conversation
It is suggested that the teacher study the unit on conversation
carefully. In adapting it to the seventh and eighth graders:
1. Urge an expansion and improvement in the main topics of
conversation but also permit practice in discussing school,
radio, movies, sports, animals, and dates.
2. Discuss and practice correct conversational etiquette for the
movies, on the bus, with parents of friends, and at parties.
Also practice introductions.
3. Teach telephone techniques by including such activities as
asking friends to parties, refusing and accepting dates, and
calling about school assignments or affairs.
4. Teach interviewing by practicing applying for the type of
positions these students might be seeking, such as: baby
sitter, grocery boy, drug store delivery boy, magazine door
salesman, or yard worker.
B. Group discussion
Here again attention is called to the unit on this subject. Follow
the procedures given there. Take problems that are tied in with
emotional development so that the teacher can guide the formu-
lation of proper wholesome attitudes.
A good procedure here is to have the members of the class
list topics which they consider problems. Certain problems will
lend themselves to the varied forms of group discussion and the
topics may be divided with that in mind as to round table,
panels, or other forms, for example.
A discussion of the value and methods in class participation
in the forums is advisable, but if the topic is of interest to the
group, little stimulation will be necessary. Film forums using
films of ethics and etiquette will motivate and spark the learning
of group discussion techniques as well as help in the forma-
tion of desired attitudes. Such films as "How To Be Popular,"
"You and Your Family," "What to Do on a Date," and "How
Friendly Are You?" will not only give practice in speech prin-
ciples, but will also help in forming sense of values. Parent study
groups, P.T.A.'s, school clubs, and other schools will welcome
the production of such panels and their able availability.
C. Parliamentary law
A full unit on this specialized form of group discussion is given
and the teacher may wish to review it carefully. Even young
children are able to grasp the framework of parliamentary law,
and the teachers at various grade levels should determine how
much to develop within the frame. Clubs are exciting at this
age so what better plan for the teaching and practicing of
parliamentary procedures could one want than to organize the
class into a speech club? This can be done early in the course
or offered as a specialized form of group discussion. Here mo-
tions for escalators, ice cream to be served by the teachers in
all classes, and other equally entertaining ones may be fun and
provide training and useful experience for all.
D. Public speaking
The extent to which the unit on speech composition and speak-
ing may be developed will depend upon the number of hours
allowed for the course. Surely some individual speaking is de-
sirable. The unit on Public Speaking will prove helpful here.
E. Storytelling
1. Discuss with the class the following simple guides to suc-
cessful storytelling
a. Suit the material to the time available.
b. Avoid long explanations or descriptions.
c. Include some details for interest and do not make the
selection too brief.
d. Accomplish the three purposes of storytelling: to enter-
tain, to teach, to arouse.
e. Select the story with the listeners in mind.
f. Clarify the "who, when, where, what and how" of the
story.
g. Show your own pleasure in relating the story to your
audience.
2. Have a committee divide the class into groups and plan
programs with group chairmen who will introduce his
speakers. The chairman might also lead a critique after
the program has been given, testing the narrators by the
established guides.
3. Have the committee assign to the group different types of
stories so the programs will be varied. Use folk stories,
myths, anecdotes, Bible stories, fables, stories of poems and
historical events all read as if the narrator had been an
eye witness. When narration can be timed to come before
Christmas, stories of carols and customs may be added. Well
told seasonal stories can be grouped into a program and
given before other classes.
G. Assembly speaking
1. Announcements
Give the class practice writing them, reading them, and
making them informally in class. When possible, take the
class into the auditorium permitting them to make the an-
nouncements on the stage. Very often the use of a microphone
would lend the lesson suitably to the discussion of simple
radio techniques. See the unit on Radio for any needed help
in this area.
2. Campaign speeches for student council offices.
3. Give students practice acting as chairman for a homeroom
program. Help them make up a list of possible acts, title and
all characters in a skit and actually announce this from the
stage when possible.
4. Pep talks for sports rallies should be practiced both in class
and in the auditorium.
5. If the school has a public address system, the techniques
should be discussed and practice situations provided.
H. Listening
This unit must be studied by the teacher and thoroughly adapted
to each of the previous units. At no age level is this more im-
portant. No communication is complete without the stressing of
this second part. It is essential that the teacher integrate it in
each of the above procedures. With the educational demands
1bt.omling increasingly complex at this age, the importance of
learning good listening habits cannot be over emphasized. Fre-
quent reviews of the unit on Listening will help the teacher in
presenting the skills as a part of each of the procedures for
studying speech on the junior high school level.
CHAPTER XIV
A SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR A ONE-SEMESTER COURSE
IN PUBLIC SPEAKING
I. INTRODUCTION
Ours is a government of law, and our laws are a result of deliberative
processes or, in other words, exchange of ideas among those who have
been chosen to legislate for us. Effective persuasive speech lies at the
root of our laws both constitutional and statutory.
This condition results from the operation of a fundamental political
concept which, as stated by the historian, Bancroft, supposes that: "Truth
is not to be ascertained by the impulses of an individual; it emerges from
the contradiction of personal opinions the people collectively are
wiser than the most gifted individual."
Political truth, according to this view, emerges from the clash of
opinions held by many individuals. To insure that truth emerges whole,
that it is not distorted by partial expression of opinion, a democratic
society must be certain that all its citizens are articulate. The aim of a
course in public speaking is to make pupils articulate, and in a very
real sense it fulfills the highest aspiration of democratic citizenship.
Effective speech is also a basic ingredient in self-realization. The
ability to express views with cogency and fluency figures large in the
pupil's adjustment to the everyday living situation. Moreover, it is a
significant factor in the achievement of success in almost all vocations
or professions.
An adequate level of oral communicative skill is seldom attained
without some training; hence, the need of a course in public speaking.
II. OBJECTIVES
A. To teach the student how to adjust to the speaking situation so
that he can conduct himself with poise and confidence on the
platform
B. To teach the student the principles of effective bodily action
C. To develop in each student a pleasing and effective voice
D. To teach students techniques for gathering, organizing, and
evaluating speech materials
E. To teach students how to adapt speech materials to the audience
and occasion
III. PROCEDURES
A. Developing an interest in the study of public speaking
1. Discuss with the class the following questions:
a. The importance of public speaking
(1) What is public speaking?
(2) Why do I need to know how to make a speech? Of
what value will it be to me in later life?
(3) What role has public speaking played in the develop-
ment of our democratic society?
(4) What role does public speaking play in molding
opinion in this country? In other countries?
(5) Why is skill in public speaking of increasing im-
portance?
b. The basic principles of good speaking
(1) Have you ever heard a speaker who:
(a) Made you nervous? Why?
(b) Put you at ease? Why?
(c) Bored you? Why?
(d) Held your interest? Why?
(e) Was difficult to understand? Why?
(f) Organized his ideas poorly? How?
(g) Spoke above (or below) the level of his audi-
ence? Explain.
(2) If the school has recently had an assembly speaker
or some other speaker whom all of the members of
the class have heard, these and similar questions may
be directed toward his speech.
c. What are the main goals we should strive for in order
to improve our ability as public speakers?
(1) Development of poise and confidence on the platform
(2) Development of effective bodily action
(3) Development of a pleasing and effective voice
(4) Development of ability to gather and organize ma-
terials
(5) Development of ability to evaluate materials
(6) Development of ability to adapt speech materials to
the audience and occasion
B. Adjustment to the public speaking situation
1. Discuss with the class the similarities between conversation
and public speaking. Stress the fact that the two are in many
ways similar; that speaking in public life is not a matter of
learning something entirely new and different, but it is
rather a matter of adapting speech skills already in one's
possession to the public situation. Make clear that what is
good speaking in conversation is also, with certain exceptions,
good speaking in public.
2. Discuss with the class the few elementary principles of speech
preparation and presentation which they will need to know
in performing the first speaking exercises.
a. Preparation
(1) Select a subject in which you are interested and,
whenever possible, one that you already know some-
thing of to tell.
(2) Select a subject in which your audience will be
interested.
(3) Determine the specific response you wish to win
from your audience as a result of your speech and
state it in a clear, concise sentence.
(4) Jot down the main ideas of your speech in outline
form.
(5) Consider the best way to make these clear to the
audience.
(6) Read over your outline until you think you know it.
(7) Put the outline aside and run over your speech in
your mind until you can say it fluently. Do not
memorize!
b. Delivery
(1) Look at the people to whom you are talking.
(2) Keep your hands at your sides.
(3) After you reach the platform, count three before
beginning your speech.
First oral exercise: Self-introduction (One and one-half minutes)
Each student introduces himself to the class; tells his name, his home
town, the schools he has attended, and something of his interests,
hobbies, and ambitions. This may be done either by having the students
stand at their seats or by asking them to come to the front of the room.
The second method is recommended. These exercises should not be fol-
lowed by individual oral criticism, although at the end of the assign-
ment the teacher may speak in general terms of what was good and
what was not good about the speeches.
Follow up contest. See which students can first call the roll from memory.
Second oral exercise: Old sayings (Two minutes)
Put on the board ten or a dozen old sayings such as: "Haste Makes
Waste," "Too Many Cooks Spoil the Broth," "A Penny Saved Is a Penny
Earned." Ask each student to select one and tell some experience he
has had which illustrates this particular saying. This and all of the
following oral exercises should be delivered from the front of the room,
and each individual should receive oral criticism from the teacher. The
teacher should be very careful, however, at this early stage, of criti-
cizing any student too severely. Stress his strong points and make posi-
tive suggestions for overcoming one or two of his weaknesses. Criticism
by the class should not be permitted until a later time as is indicated
below.
Third oral exercise: Pet peeve (Two minutes)
Have each student discuss his pet peeve, such as:
(1) Women drivers
(2) Double feature movies
(3) Sales tax
(4) Tourists
(5) Radio commercials
(6) TV programs
The realism of this assignment may be enhanced by urging students to
speak on aspects of school life, such as: "What's Wrong With Our Stu-
dent Government?" "What's Wrong With the School Paper?" Whatever
subject is chosen, however, the teacher should clearly explain that stu-
dent criticisms must be courteously presented and must have a sound
basis in fact. Within these limits, however, controversial discussion
should be encouraged. Moreover, students should be urged to undertake
subjects upon which they have strong convictions and feelings.
8. Explanation of the preceding exercises
a. The foregoing three exercises are purposely simple, so
that the student's chances of successful performance are
high. They draw heavily on personal experience materials
and are of an elementary expository nature. The "pet
peeve" exercise is designed to combat nervousness by
getting the student to speak on some subject about which
he has definite convictions, thus tending to make him
forget his fears.
b. As to the general problem of stage fright, which is usually
of importance to beginning speakers, it is recommended
that individual difficulties be handled in private confer-
ences with the students involved. A general class discus-
sion of the subject at this stage may only aggravate the
problem. If, however, a student is unable either to begin
or to continue his speech, he may be helped by leading
questions from the teacher.
C. Developing bodily and vocal responsiveness
1. Bodily responsiveness
a. Discuss with the class why bodily responsiveness move-
ment and gesture are important from the point of view
of their effect upon the audience and upon the speaker
himself.
(1) Effect upon the audience:
(a) Holds attention
(b) Helps make ideas clear
(c) Helps reinforce ideas
(2) Effect upon the speaker:
(a) Eases nervousness
(b) Stimulates more effective speaking
b. Discuss with the class a speaker whom all have heard-
the school principal, an assembly speaker, a local minister
and estimate how bodily responsiveness contributes to
his speaking effectiveness, or detracts from it.
c. Explore with the class the many ideas, emotions, and
moods which it is possible to communicate by the use of
the body alone.
d. Suggest how the speaker's posture may contribute or
detract from his effectiveness. A good posture is one which
is so natural and easy that it does not call attention to
itself.
Fourth oral exercise: Bodily action (Two minutes)
Have each student explain how to do something that requires violent
bodily activity, accompanying his explanation with a demonstration. The
demonstration should involve not the hands or head alone, but the entire
body.
(1) Suggested subjects
(a) How to Pitch a Baseball
(b) How to Serve in Tennis
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(c) How to Bowl
(d) Strokes in Swimming
(e) How to Dance
(2) Subjects to avoid
(a) How to Sew
(b) How to Play Billiards
(c) How to Shave
(d) Good Posture
2. Vocal responsiveness
a. Discuss with the class the importance of adequate pro-
jection.
b. Discuss the importance of variety of pitch, rate, and
volume. Suggest how rate, volume, and inflection are
dependent upon the meaning of the idea being expressed.
Stress the fact that many speakers cannot hold attention
because of vocal monotony.
Fifth oral exercise: Memorized prose selection (Two minutes)
Have each student memorize a prose selection of his own choosing -
subject to the teacher's approval. Have him deliver it a number of times
in front of the class. Work first for adequate projection, by asking each
member of the class to raise his hand at any time he cannot hear the
speaker distinctly. If possible, move the class into a larger room or
auditorium for this exercise and spread them out over the room. Then,
on subsequent repetitions, help the speaker develop, by appropriate
suggestions, a greater variety of volume, pitch, and rate in an effort to
bring out more fully the meaning of the selection. In doing this, how-
ever, take care to preserve his own natural patterns of expression. Avoid
artificiality and oratorical display.
D. Selecting the speech subject and finding materials
1. Set up a specific audience situation and a definite occasion
for which a speech subject must be selected. Have the stu-
dents suggest suitable topics.
2. The following questions are important in selecting a subject:
a. Is the topic worth attention?
b. Am I, as a speaker, interested in it?
c. Do I know something about it?
d. Do I want to learn more about it?
e. Is there a definite reason for speaking on it now?
f. Will it be of interest to the audience?
g. Is it appropriate to their educational level?
h. Is it appropriate to the occasion for which prepared? To
the time limits?
i. Is the needed information available?
3. Have each student select some situation in which he might
be called upon to make a speech, and ask him to list three
suitable subjects.
4. Discuss a recent assembly speaker. Was his subject suitable?
Why or why not?
5. Discuss with the class the possible sources of speech materials:
a. Personal experience
b. Interviews
c. Conversation
d. Movies, radio, TV
e. Newspapers, periodicals, books
6. Explain the importance of taking clear and full notes as one
finds materials. Urge that if these are put on cards or small
slips of paper, they will be more easily usable when one
comes to organize his speech.
7. Require that each note have a suggestive heading, and that
the source be indicated.
8. If time allows, discuss the bibliographical aids (e.g. THE
READER'S GUIDE) that are of special aid to the speaker.
Better still, take the students to the library and have the
librarian explain useful sources of speech materials.
E. Determining the purpose
1. Explain why a successful speech must have a clear and defi-
nite purpose.
2. Distinguish between a general and a specific purpose (i.e.
General purpose, to inform- Specific purpose, to tell the
audience how pottery is made).
3. Suggest a number of topics and the situations in which they
are to be used. Let the students have practice working out
a situable specific purpose for each. Have them frame these
statements of purpose in short, clear declarative sentences.
4. Discuss with the class the common general speech purposes:
a. To entertain
b. To inform
c. To persuade
F. Organizing the speech and making an outline
1. Point out that a speech has three parts: an introduction,
which catches attention, arouses interest, and paves the way
for what is to come; a body, which develops the discussion
under a small number of major heads; and a conclusion,
which summarizes or asks for action.
2. Read with the class some short and simply constructed speech
from their speech textbook or other sources. It is desirable,
but not essential, that each student have a copy before him.
Decide what constitutes the introduction, the body, and the
conclusion.
3. Have the students outline this speech and then one or two
other speeches, using the following form:
SUBJECT
SPECIFIC PURPOSE
INTRODUCTION
I. Attention step:
II. Statement of thesis or specific purpose:
III. Transition into body:
BODY
I. (Major head)
A. (Sub-head)
1. (Sub sub-head)
a. (Supporting material)
II.
A.
1.
a. Etc.
CONCLUSION
I. Summary
II. Application (May or may not be present).
4. Select a subject with which all are familiar and work through
an outline with the students, putting it on the board step by
step.
5. Work out an outline and then "scramble" the statements so
that they are in random order. Have mimeographed copies
made, and ask the students to fit them together in proper
sequence.
6. From this point on require each student to make an outline
for every speech and hand it to you as he gets up to speak.
Continual insistence on the correctness and neatness of out-
line form will do much to make for better student speaking.
Outlining is not something the average student learns quickly.
It must be stressed not only at this point but throughout the
remainder of the course. Nor is skill in outlining something
that can be learned from the textbook and class discussion
of principles alone. It must be learned by experience.
7. The introduction
a. Discuss with the class various methods for developing the
introduction:
(1) Startling question or questions
(2) A quotation
(3) Narrative
(4) A humorous story
(5) Reference to a current event
b. Point out that the introduction must be integrally related
to the body of the speech and be connected with it by an
appropriate transitional sentence. (See the outline above.)
Generally it is wise to plan the introduction after the body
of the speech has been prepared, asking oneself, "How
can I best introduce these ideas to this particular audi-
ence?"
Sixth oral exercise: Gadget demonstration (Two to two and one-
half minutes)
Have each student demonstrate some small gadget that he can easily
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carry to class. Have him build a suitable introduction and conclusion
for his speech. The body of the talk will consist of a demonstration of
the gadget. Suggested subjects are the following:
(1) A four-color automatic pencil
(2) An improved can opener
(8) A pocket knife with many blades
(4) A novel coin purse
Students should be warned that the purpose of the talk is to
demonstrate the gadget its uses, how it works and not to make
a sales speech. Unless care is taken, experience has shown that many
of them will attempt to sell the item.
With this speech the teacher may begin to supplement his own oral
evaluations with class criticism. This, however, must be carefully di-
rected by skillful leading questions, so that a thoughtless student
will not make a remark that shakes the confidence of the speaker
or results in a psychological wound.
G. More complex expository speeches
1. While all of the student performances thus far outlined are
expository in nature, they have been of an extremely simple
type, and except for the gadget speech more properly termed
oral exercises than speech. At this point, the groundwork for
speech organization and outlining having been laid, the stu-
dent is ready to progress to complete speeches dealing with
more complex expository problems.
a. Basic principles of oral exposition
(1) Discuss with the class some of the basic principles
for making ideas clear:
(a) Definition
By example
By etymology
By negation by telling what a thing is not
By genus and differentium (dictionary definition)
(b) Clarifying ideas by the use of:
Example
Comparison
Contrast
(c) The importance of following a clear and system-
atic order in exposition:
Chronological order
Space order
Causal order
Specific to general
General to specific
Special order dictated by the peculiar nature
of the subject matter
(2) Select several pieces of exposition or description
which exhibit these orders (preferably, but not nec-
essarily, speeches) and have the class analyze them
to discover the method followed.
(3) Discuss with the class the type of order which is
followed in their:
History textbook
Speech textbook
Chemistry textbook
Are these the same, or different? In what way does
the subject matter of each dictate the order that is
followed?
(4) Discuss with the class the selection and use of visual
aids in speaking. How do they help the speaker to
make ideas clear?
(a) Types of visual aids used in speaking:
Bar graphs
Line graphs
Maps
Pictures
Slides
Films
Diagrams
(b) A good visual aid is:
Large enough to be seen easily by all
Simple enough to be understood quickly
Neat and attractive
Colorful
(c) In using visual aids:
Do not show it to the audience until you are
ready to use it (or it will split their attention).
Talk to the audience and not to the visual aid.
Explain the meaning adequately.
(d) If possible, discuss with the class some speaker
they all have heard who used visual aids in his
speech and estimate how much they aided him?
Did he use them effectively? Why or why not?
(e) Have the students report on how visual aids are
used in their other classes. How do they help
make ideas clear?
Seventh oral exercise: Visual-aids (Three to four minutes)
Have each student present an expository speech built around a visual
aid in the form of a chart, graph, diagram, map, or picture. Do not
allow the use of properties. Require an introduction and conclusion. Also
require that the student follow one of the orders of exposition and use
examples, comparisons, and well selected evidence to make his ideas
clear. The following are some suggested subjects:
(1) My Trip to Mexico (using map)
(2) How a Jet Engine Works (using diagram)
(3) The Relative Strength of the World's Armies (using a bar graph)
(4) How Our Student Government Is Organized (using chart)
(5) Yellowstone Park (using pictures)
(6) The Increased Cost of Living (using line graph)
Impromptu speech round: Giving directions
Set up imaginary situations, such as a stranger coming to town and
asking how to get to a certain street or building. Divide the class into
pairs, and let the students practice giving the requested directions clearly
and simply.
Impromptu speech round: Giving instructions
Let the students give instructions to the class concerning how to do
something. Stress clear and orderly presentation of the various steps
involved.
(1) How to Bake a Cake
(2) How to Use a Pay Phone
(3) How to Hold a Golf Club
(4) How to Brush One's Teeth
Eighth oral exercise: Report of an individual investigation
(Three to four minutes)
Ask each student to investigate at first hand some aspect or problem
of school or community life and to report his findings to the class
together with his recommendations or suggestions. Some suggested areas
of investigation are:
(1) The number of cars that pass a busy intersection during rush hour
(Recommendation: a traffic light)
(2) The cleanliness of school halls (Recommendation: the appointment
of hall patrolmen)
(3) Parking facilities at school or business district (Recommendation:
an additional parking lot)
(4) Programs on the local radio station (Recommendation: more sports
events coverage)
(5) A questionnaire concerning student opinion of the school paper
(Recommendation: more news coverage should be given to the
activities of various clubs)
The recommendations offered should be financially and administratively
practical. The assignment as a whole, both with respect to the subject
investigation and the recommendations made, should be realistic and
practical.
H. Persuasive speeches
1. Make clear that the purpose of a persuasive speech is to in-
fluence belief or action to change attitudes or behavior.
2. Discuss with the class the common forms of proof used by
the public speaker who is attempting to influence belief or
action:
a. Quotations of authorities
(1) The person cited should be:
(a) An expert as the result of education or experience
in the field in which you quote him
(b) In a position to know the facts-at first hand, if
possible
(c) Unbiased
(a) An expert as the result of education or experience in
the field in which you quote him
(b) In a position to know the facts-at first hand, if
possible
(c) Unbiased
b. Examples
(1) To have "proof" value, examples should be:
(a) Sufficient in number to establish the point in
question. Avoid hasty generalizations.
(b) Selected fairly and at random
(c) Directly related to the point to be proved
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