Citation
A guide to teaching science in the elementary school

Material Information

Title:
A guide to teaching science in the elementary school
Series Title:
Bulletin
Creator:
Florida -- State Dept. of Education
Place of Publication:
Tallahassee
Publisher:
[s.n.]
Publication Date:
Language:
English
Physical Description:
88 p. : illus. ; 23 cm.

Subjects

Subjects / Keywords:
Science -- Study and teaching ( lcsh )
Genre:
government publication (state, provincial, terriorial, dependent) ( marcgt )

Notes

General Note:
"Reprinted December, 1948."
Funding:
Bulletin (Florida. State Dept. of Education) ;
Statement of Responsibility:
prepared at Florida Curriculum Laboratory, Florida State University.

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Source Institution:
University of Florida
Rights Management:
All applicable rights reserved by the source institution and holding location.
Resource Identifier:
08405217 ( OCLC )
49047412 ( LCCN )

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TEACHING SCIENCE




ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


BULLETIN NO. 7

DECEMBER, 1947
Reprinted December, 1948

0

Prepared at
FLORIDA CURRICULUM LABORATORY
FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY


J. B. KELLEY, Consultant
GLENN O. BLOUGH, Part-time Consultant
DOROTHY WHEATLEY, Part-time Consultant
MILDRED SWEARINGEN, Director

0

STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
TALLAHASSEE, FLORIDA

*

COLIN ENGLISH, State Superintendent of Schools
JOE HALL, Director, Division of Instruction
























Chapter

Chapter


Chapter III.


Chapter IV.

Chapter V.


TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD

SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ............ 1

SCOPE AND CONTINUITY OF SCIENCE IN THE
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ................................. -- 16

USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT FOR TEACHING
ELEMENTARY SCIENCE .........-.........-.............. 26

WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE.... 48

USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS OF
ELEMENTARY SCIENCE .................................. 66







.V)


FOREWORD
The Florida Program for Improvement of Schools is based
upon the principle that improvement of instruction is a continu-
ous process and that it should be carried on through the demo-
cratic participation of all concerned. Such a program includes
the continuous preparation of materials for use as curriculum
guides. The plan for the continuing production of instructional
bulletins is a unified one. Ways to Better Instruction in Flor-
ida Schools, Bulletin Number 2, which was developed in 1939,
is the basic bulletin in the present series. It is intended pri-
marily for faculty study groups who wish to clarify their think-
ing regarding the role of the school in a democratic society and
plan a school program designed to meet the needs of the pupils
and community. Two other basic bulletins appeared in 1940,
Number 9, A Guide to Improved Practice in Florida Elementary
Schools, and Number 10, A Guide to a Functional Program in
the Secondary School. These bulletins attempted at their res-
pective levels to interpret and apply the principles set forth in
the previous bulletin and to form a base for proper interpreta-
tion and use of subsequent bulletins relating to subject areas.
Following these basic bulletins the preparation of more
specific materials was undertaken. These latter constitute
guides in the areas treated for planning and adapting local
courses of study according to community needs.
Like all the other bulletins this one has been prepared by
a committee of teachers working with the State Department of
Education and consultants from institutions of higher learning.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to the members of the com-
mittee who worked during the first summer term of 1947 at
Florida State University: Louise Barton, St. Cloud; Mrs. Hilda
Harnley, Oneco; Sara Lynn Johnson, Blountstown; Evelyn
Moore, Panama City; Marie H. Parrish, Florala, Alabama; Ivyl
F. Pirtle, Jensen Beach; Ennie Mae Stewart, Buies Creek,
North Carolina; Ida Mae Stripling, Tallahassee; Altha Tichenor,
Orlando; and Ava Weaver, Boynton Beach.
Deep appreciation is extended to Mr. J. B. Kelley, Assistant
Professor of Chemistry, Florida State University, who served
as consultant; to Mr. Glenn O. Blough, Specialist in Elementary
Science, U. S. Office of Education; and Miss Dorothy Wheatley,
Supervisor of Elementary Science, East Orange, New Jersey,
who served as part-time consultants; and to Dr. W. T. Edwards,
Professor of Education, Florida State University, who assisted
in the pre-planning work, and in revising the manuscript. Ac-
knowledgment and thanks are extended to the schools in Dade,
Duval, Martin, and Palm Beach counties who contributed the iic-
turps found within this bulletin. Appreciation is also extended to
Miss Mildred Swearingen who directed the work of the commit-








tee and other members of the staff of the State Department of
*Education who assisted with the planning, development and edit-
ing of the bulletin, particularly Mr. T. George Walker, Mr. E. B.
Henderson, Mr. J. K. Chapman, Miss Sarah Lou Hammond,
Miss Edna Parker, and Mrs. Dora Skipper. It is hoped that
this material will be of great value to individual teachers and
to faculty groups as they move forward in curriculum planning.



STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.











CHAPTER I.
SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

The beach is wearing away at Anna Maria and building
up ten miles south. Storm warnings for small craft are up
from Carabelle to Cedar Keys. The rain last night made the
Jackson County corn growers smile. The pavement ahead glis-
tens like water for a moment in the noonday sun. This is science
for Florida boys and girls. Science is all around them. It is
present in the early experiences of children and lasts through-
out their lives. Within this bulletin may be found specific help
to teachers as they seek to guide these boys and girls in under-
standing their surroundings and developing ways of thinking
and acting that will lead to improved living for all.

The Purposes of Instruction in Science
In the broadest sense the ultimate purpose of teaching
science is growth in desirable social behavior. The primary con-
cern is to aid children in using scientific procedures and infor-
mation as a means of understanding their environment, of deal-
ing with problems that arise, and of developing ways of thinking
and acting that will contribute to the betterment of living.
The purposes of teaching science described in the follow-
ing pages serve as a guide to teachers in their planning for se-
lection and organization of content and materials, and in plan-
ning ways of work. They are the goals toward which the
teacher and pupils are working. They are the standards by
which the teacher can evaluate his efforts and those of his
pupils. Purposes should become a part of the living of the
teacher. As these purposes become a "first" and a definite
part of the science program, the effectiveness in teaching chil-
dren will be increased immeasurably.
The major purposes of teaching science in the elementary
school are: To help children develop concepts, principles, and
generalizations which will be of value to them in understanding
and solving their problems.
An individual responds in some manner to his environment.
The kind of meaning the environment has for him, whether
based on insight, or upon ignorance and superstition, has much
to do with the kind of individual he is and determines in part
the kind of person he becomes. Thus, it is through an under-
standing, for example, of the nature of bacteria, their growth
and method of spreading, that pupils come to modify their be-
havior regarding communicable diseases. Through knowledge
of the physical and natural phenomena, the child adjusts himself









2 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

more readily to his environment, uses his resources more intelli-
gently, grows in his appreciation of the world in which he lives,
and attains a more adequate sense of security.
To help children cultivate scientific attitudes, such as criti-
cal mindedness, willingness to seek and act upon reliable evi-
dence, intellectual honesty.
In all areas of life today there is need for the experimental,
investigative, thought-testing attitude of the scientist. The ac-
quiring of a scientific attitude is not reserved for adult years,
nor is the attitude suddenly attained. It comes about through
a long period of growth under careful guidance. It is not ac-
complished merely by hearing and reading, but rather through
the significance attached to day by day activities. Two fourth
grade boys, arguing about what kind of lizard has been brought
into class, are developing a scientific attitude when they finally
reject guessing and loud talk as a solution and seek evidence
before stating a conclusion. A fifth grade child who asks, "Do
people live on Mars?", may acquire certain elements of a scien-
tific attitude when he realizes that many opinions can be held
tentatively awaiting further evidence, that our knowledge of
truth is incomplete. The opportunities for growth in attaining
a scientific attitude in the elementary school are legion if the
teachers learn to recognize them and seek them in the ongoing
activities of the pupils.
To help children acquire or develop a scientific method of
work, including such elements as intelligent planning, careful
observation, and the drawing of warranted conclusions.
Although children will not always use all steps in the scien-
tific method when approaching a problem, they can use many
of the elements to some degree. Thus, the fourth grade boys
just described had to plan how they were going to solve their
problem, had to observe carefully the live lizard and a picture,
and had to withhold judgment until reliable evidence could be
obtained. The important point is the focusing of attention upon
the procedure of how truth is secured: the gathering of evidence,
evaluating the evidence, testing interpretations by experiment,
formulating conclusions, deriving an appropriate plan of action.
The pupil begins to see that through application of intelligence
to problem solving man has improved the quality of his living
and can make still further improvements.
To help children explore new avenues of interest which will
lead to the satisfaction of discovery.
No one can be interested in something he doesn't know
about. It is the teacher's privilege to open new worlds to chil-
dren and guide their first steps into an area. Some individuals









SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


will become intensely interested in certain aspects and pursue
those aspects to the point of speculation, all the while obtaining
the satisfaction of discovering truths new to themselves if not
to mankind. Thus, the sixth grade child who makes a simple
electromagnet may see opportunities for further application of
the principle and finally glimpse the variety of work man can
do and may yet do because of the uses of an electromagnet.
To help children acquire those skills and techniques neces-
sary to gain further information, such as reading science con-
tent with understanding, making accurate observations of events,
and performing various science activities.
For use in all their learning children need to acquire skill
in securing information, in organizing and interpreting it, and
in sharing such information with others. In science the child
pursuing an interest seeks and uses information in a variety of
ways. For instance, a pupil trying to find out how fish get air
may use observing, research reading, interviewing, and experi-
menting. Once he has acquired the information he has some-
thing vital to organize, interpret, and share with others.
To help children develop social attitudes and appreciations
needed in a democracy, such as growth in social behavior and
willingness to assume their place in present and future society.
At first glance, the relationship of science to democracy
might appear so remote or obscure that a consideration of it at
the elementary school level would seem pointless. But a second
glance will show a close relationship. Democracy has long been
more than a form of government. It is a way of life based upon
the belief that society is not static but still evolving, that the
intelligence of man is a means to social betterment, and that
every individual is potentially capable of contributing to society.
The democratic way of life is characterized by conference and
consultation; by sharing of opinions; by free responsible par-
ticipation; by keeping the channels of communications open,
not permitting one group to impose its opinions by force or
denying any group, however small, the opportunity to convince
the majority of the truth of a point of view; by the seeking for
truth that can be tested; by developing willingness to modify
opinions in the light of new evidence. These characteristics are
almost identical with the elements of scientific method and scien-
tific attitude which were described above.
The teaching of democratic ways of living, then, is neither
formidable nor foreign to the classroom. Science and democracy
are related. For example, when the boys in the comparatively
small act of studying lizards learned to reject guessing and sus-'
pend judgment until evidence could be assembled, they were in
essence, learning one of the biggest lessons needed for demb-









4 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

cratic living. When the pupil who asked about life on Mars
learned that opinions and truth can serve as guides for action
and yet be held tentatively, anticipating modification, he learned
another lesson needed by those who lived in a democracy. Again
these are but small samples of the ways in which science may
contribute to learning the elements of democratic living when
teachers are alert to the possibilities.
Major purposes as guides to action. The importance of
these major purposes as guides to action can not be over-empha-
sized. It is from his analysis of what science can do for children
that a teacher comes to a full understanding of the need for
including science in the curriculum of the elementary school.
The purposes are such that they should be kept in mind ready
to be used in estimating the possibilities in every new learning
situation. They should be part and parcel of every experience.
They should color all activities, including what is taught, how
it is taught, and especially how it is evaluated. A full realiza-
tion of these purposes leads to the recognition of the way of
work as an essential or distinguishing quality in science in-
struction.

The Place of Science in the Elementary School
Science plays a tremendous part in present day living. The
limits of its possible contributions to human welfare and the
advancement of civilization are not yet in sight. The control
of its great forces in meeting human needs is a fundamental
social problem. A school curriculum that did not provide for
this important aspect of life would indeed be inadequate and
incomplete. Science in the elementary school does not purport
to develop white-coated laboratory workers or research scien-
tists, nor to overwhelm children with complex social problems
far removed from children's capacity to take action. Science
for the elementary child is in his everyday living. He cannot
escape it, even if he wanted to, either in questions about his im-
mediate environment or in the need for a way of problem solving
and working with others. The function of science in the ele-
mentary school is to make the world more intelligible to the child
and to equip him with a way of thinking and a method of prob-
lem solving.
The Relationship of Science to the Major Goals of Educa-
tion. The aims of elementary education in a democracy are, in
large part, the aims of society. It is therefore worthwhile to
consider what contribution instruction in science makes to the
general aims of education. If the general aims are summarized
as the need to develop boys and girls who are socially sensitive,
who have increasing control over functional skills, who use re-









SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 5

flective thinking and develop the scientific attitude, who use
an increasing degree of self control, who enjoy the processes
and products of creative effort, and who are developing life
interests, it is clear at once from the previous description of the
purposes of instruction in science that science does make a large
contribution toward the accomplishment of each of the aims. A
brief analysis of the contribution to each aim follows:
A. Developing social meaning. One quality essential for
democratic living is the disposition to act for the good of the
group and the ability to identify individual good with group
good. Science helps children develop this quality through lead-
ing them to look for reasons behind the regulations of group
living. Thus such regulations as those on the use of swimming
pools, on quarantines regarding communicable diseases, on gar-
bage disposal, all become meaningful when the reasons are
understood. Science enlarges the understandings people have
in common and therefore, makes it easier for them to live co-
operatively. Furthermore, through science, children grasp the
fact that continued invention and discovery mean continued
gradual changes in our ways of living, that change is normal
and not to be feared. For instance, the research regarding
hybrid corn means that the farmer of today does not farm in
just the same way men of a few years ago did. The rapid im-
provements in means of communication and transportation re-
sult in an urgent need to find ways of understanding neighbors
who just yesterday seemed remote and isolated.
B. Developing functional skills. Through science experi-
ences, a child acquires understandings and skills that are of use
to himself and to others. He comes to attach correct meanings
to aspects of the environment, whether natural environment or
the products of scientific invention and discovery, and is there-
fore in a position to act intelligently. Thus the child who knows
the relation of air to fire when clothing is ablaze can act with
"foresight of consequences" both for his own safety and that of
others.
Science instruction also helps a child develop skill in the
techniques of testing thought and of collecting evidence from
a variety of sources. This problem solving skill is useful in all
realms of study.
Science makes a tremendous contribution to the functional
skill of reading. Out of the wealth of first hand experiences,
careful observation, use of pictures, and vital discussion come
genuinely understood meanings which in turn are represented
by an increasing vocabulary. As Emerson observed, "Life is
our dictionary-Life lies behind us as the quarry from whence
we get tiles and capestones for the masonry of today".








6 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

C. Developing reflective thinking and the scientific atti-
tude. A democracy is not static but is changed gradually by
the people who compose it. There is a special need for members
of a democracy to have ability to evaluate critically the forces
which are bearing upon it. It is essential for instance, to be
able to judge printed matter and determine whether statements
are backed by proof. The citizen needs to be able to recognize
a problem, gather facts patiently and carefully, evaluate hon-
estly without personal bias, look for inconsistencies, and be ever
ready to modify former conclusions in the light of new evidence.
He needs to respect differences in opinion and at the same time
seek for understandings that are held in common. These are
the same characteristics as those needed by the student of
science, and growth in one should mean growth for the other.
D. Developing self-control. An educated person is one who
can foresee the consequences of actions. He is therefore in a
position to judge his own responsibility for action. Science
makes a contribution in this area in two ways. First, through
his knowledge of science a person can anticipate consequences.
He knows why milk is important in the diet, why a sneeze is
harmful to others, why a rake left upturned is dangerous, and
he can regulate his conduct accordingly. Second, as he is freed
from superstition, he sees where responsibility for conduct falls
squarely on his own shoulders. This is especially important
since in a democracy, more than in any other way of living, it
is necessary for persons to recognize and assume responsibility
for the direction of their own conduct.
E. Developing enjoyment of the processes and products
of creative effort. Science offers a wide field for creativeness
on the elementary school level. In addition to the creativeness
demanded by problem solving, a child, in one sense, is being
creative when he sees a relationship for the first time or when
he actually shares an idea by recreating for his classmates a
vivid experience of his own. In another sense, children are crea-
tive and their imaginations aroused as they realize that all
knowledge is not yet complete and that they themselves may
eventually contribute to scientific invention and discovery. Also,
as children become aware of the effort and sacrifice men and
women have made in the past to create what we have today,
they become more appreciative of our present way of living.
Their appreciation for the dignity and worth of work is in-
creased.
F. Developing life interests. Many life long interests may
be developed by the child as a result of his work in science. Some
of these interests will be represented by hobbies, while others
may actually lead to vocational pursuits. Certainly the habit









SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 7

of questioning, of turning curiosity into action, will lead the
child into constantly new and ever-broadening experiences.
The Relationship of Science to Curriculum Planning and
Organization. Science is one of the major streams of experi-
ence which run through the child's entire school life, from the
first grade through the twelfth. Science, together with the
other areas frequently described as language arts, social studies,
mathematics, health-safety, physical education, and creative
arts, all contribute to general education through approximately
the ninth grade. At the senior high level some of the areas are
differentiated to serve the purpose of special education for cer-
tain pupils while elements of nearly all the areas continue to
meet general education purposes, i. e., the common needs of all
the pupils.
Since these other subject areas also make a contribution to
the basic aims of education, there is often a functional relation-
ship among the subjects. The satisfactory solution of a prob-
lem frequently requires content from many areas. For example,
working out the solution to the question, "Why did our com-
munity grow up here?" would draw on social studies, science,
health, mathematics, and language arts.
The relationship of science to some subjects is also a recip-
rocal one. Thus science and reading are reciprocal. Every ex-
perience in science enables a child to bring more to the printed
page and therefore become a better reader, while every increase
in reading skill enables him to learn more science.
A consideration of the relatedness of learning leads to the
conclusion that instruction may be said to have three phases or
ways of organization: integrated, direct, and individual. Some
science learning is acquired in each of the three ways. The
integrated phase of the curriculum refers to that portion of the
total learning situation in which the child explores fully and
freely problems of interest to him and of value to society. Large
unit teaching is another term which has been applied to related
experiences of this kind. The direct teaching phase refers to
that portion of the total learning situation in which the child
deals more directly with the skills, meanings or understandings
necessary to carry on the activities of the unit or to meet other
needs that he may have. The individual phase refers to what
is commonly called individualized instruction, which provides for
meeting differences in interests and abilities. For a fuller dis-
cussion of integrated, direct, and individual instruction, see
Bulletin 9, A Guide to Improved Practice in Florida Schools,
State Department of Education, Tallahassee, 1940, pp. 47-50,
184-191.
The integrated phase. Modern educational philosophy and
practice emphasize the importance of the relatedness of learn-








8 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

ing. Human experience is recognized as being characterized by
wholeness and continuity, rather than by separateness of ele-
ments. The highly organized arrangements of subject matter
commonly used in the past were the product of adult thinking
and analysis. Formal subject matter represents one of the ma-
ture ways of regarding experience and classifying its aspects.
But children must be given opportunities to gain experience be-
fore they can be expected to recognize common elements, let
alone analyze and organize such knowledge. In many Florida
classrooms, teachers are giving attention to the advantage of
large units of instruction or comprehensive units of work. The
class starts with a significant problem, usually derived from
social studies or science, and in working out the solution for the
problem draws upon all available information regardless of sub-
ject matter lines.
Particular attention is called to the close relationships
among science, social studies, and arithmetic as evidenced in a
study of the present bulletin, of No. 26, Arithmetic in the Ele-
mentary School* and of Number 30, Social Studies in the Ele-
mentary School.** The reciprocal nature of science and arith-
metic and of science and social studies is immediately clear when
the bulletins are compared. Two illustrations will clarify this
relationship. In the arithmetic bulletin, Chapter IV deals with
organization of materials of instruction. An outline of mean-
ingful learning situations suitable for teaching arithmetic con-
tains item after item relating to science, as: making a science
corner, making a garden, taking a trip to the dairy, raising
butterflies or tadpoles, visiting a farm, using the thermometer,
studying the solar system. Science then, often gives meaning
and purpose to arithmetic. It is equally obvious that quantita-
tive thinking (arithmetic) is essential in developing many im-
portant ideas in science.
The ties between social studies and science are fully as
numerous as between science and arithmetic. In many in-
stances, the what of social studies is not fully understood until
the why has been supplied through science. Thus, the rapid
opening up of the West in this country is related in part to the
scientific accomplishment of harnessing the power of steam. An
examination of Chart III, Persistent Problems for Attack in
Social Studies, Bulletin Number 30, shows problems that could
be pursued equally well in science as: How has man changed
the conditions of his living through science and invention? How
do people use their human and natural resources? It would in-
deed be hard to say at what point such a topic as Meeting the
Conditions Necessary for Life, is science and what point it is
social studies.
*Bulletin No. 26 Arithmetic in the Elementary School, 1942
**Bulletin No. 30 Social Studies in the Elementary School, 1944









SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


The direct teaching phase. The different areas of science
are each, at times, touched upon in the integrated phase of the
day's work. As yet, however, there are few teachers who feel
themselves skillful enough to plan with children problem situa-
tions in the integrated phase involving all the important science
experiences appropriate to a particular age group. Most teach-
ers find that there are a number of science understandings ap-
propriate to a group and of interest to the members which should
be cared for through instruction specifically and directly planned
for that purpose. Furthermore, in a large unit of work some
topics in science or any other area will be touched upon for what
they contribute to the problem, but the topics themselves will
need further elaboration. Some of the more extended reading,
discussing, observing, and experimenting necessary for under-
standings should be carried on in the direct teaching phase.
Individualized instruction. Also included in the day's pro-
gram should be a period for individualized instruction, as well
as integrated and direct instruction. The individual child may
become interested in some phase of science that he would like
to pursue at school and at home. The child should have some
opportunity during the day to develop interests, and talents of
his own, and to obtain help from the teacher on his particular
problems. In pursuing his individual interests, each child can
work at his own speed, can feel the satisfaction that comes from
personal inquiry and achievement, and at the same time can
make a contribution to the group by sharing his findings. The
shy child often can make contributions to the group through
some special interest in science and thereby achieve a sense of
belongingness in the class.

Recent Trends in Science Instruction
During recent years many teachers have given increasing
attention in science to such values as the development of the
scientific attitude, the use of the scientific method in the solu-
tion of problems, and the contribution which science makes to
everyday living. Today certain characteristics of science in-
struction are beginning to be discernible. It is perhaps too
hopeful to label these tendencies as trends since the character-
istics are not shown by a majority of schools. Yet the work of
individual teachers and the work of faculties in schools having
outstanding science programs do show common characteristics
to a degree warranting the use of the term, trend. With con-
tinued and accelerated growth, the trends should soon become
statewide. Already apparent are the trends to:
A. Broaden the scope of science study. In former years
attention was centered, in the elementary school, almost ex-








10 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

clusively on nature lore, often on the quaint or spectacular fea-
tures of plants and animals. Today all the major areas of science
are introduced; the earth, the universe, the conditions neces-
sary for life, living things and their activities, chemical and
physical changes, and man's attempt to control his environment.
B. Recognize the importance of developing a scientific
attitude. Many teachers are learning to watch for and capitalize
upon the informal opportunities that arise in the course of every-
day classroom living to help children develop a scientific attitude
toward their problems. At the same time teachers find science
an excellent area in which to plan deliberately for the inclusion
of activities that will give opportunity and need for the develop-
ment of the scientific attitude.
C. Recognize the importance of developing ability to solve
problems. The procedure for securing truth is of utmost im-
portance. Children can learn to define problems that have
meaning to them, to suggest and test explanations (hypotheses),
to draw tentative conclusions, and to check conclusions with
authentic material. Science instruction does not consist pri-
marily of giving to pupils and then eliciting from them a series
of pat answers. It is rather a way of solving significant
problems.
D. Utilize current problems. Current problems of health,
safety, social adjustment, and interpretation of environment
are often the starting point for developing science understand-
ings. Subject matter is challenged as to what it can contribute
to the learner. To illustrate: the child is no longer required to
memorize the technical names of certain plants merely for iden-
tification, but rather the child sets up and solves the problem,
"How do these plants affect our living?"
E. Use identification and observation as means to inter-
pretation, not as ends in themselves. The over emphasis on
identification and labeling that characterized some science teach-
ing of the past has given way to the use of identification as a
means to interpreting the environment. Children feel a need
to assist in the process of identification. It is not merely a
memorization task set for them.
F. Use the immediate environment for the development
of understandings. Many principles in science sound abstract,
remote, and complex when stated as generalizations but prove
to be readily comprehensible to children when the principle is
seen at work in some familiar part of their environment.
G. Recognize the vital quality of content in science. Science
has an appeal to nearly all children if it is approached from their
level of understanding. Their thinking, if it has not been stifled,
abounds in questions relating to science. The teacher does not








SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 11

have to use artful motivation for normal children. The how
and why which are a part of science are also a part of the chil-
dren's daily questioning. Furthermore, science has the advan-
tage of being a tangible, concrete field where the child can usu-
ally check his thinking and actions quickly. He can actually see
what happens.
H. Provide for pupil participation in planning. Good science
instruction calls for constant teacher planning in terms of direc-
tion. The pupils participate in the selection of immediate prob-
lems and in the ways and means of seeking solutions.
I. Make the class time in science a work period. The study-
recitation period of the past is being replaced by a working
period with the pupils participating in the planning of what to
do and how to do it. Even modern text books are not intended
primarily for assignment-study-recitation type of work. The
texts are constructed in the expectation that the teacher will
work with the pupils much of the time that they are using the
books. Teacher and pupil together participate in the activities
and follow the new fields opened up for study.
J. Utilize a variety of materials. It is important for chil-
dren to have a rich experience with the excellent printed ma-
terial now appearing in elementary science. It is also important
for the children to have an opportunity to use a variety of ma-
terials. Science is by no means a "bookish" subject. It is full
of doing, observing, comparing, experimenting, and the obtaining
of first hand experiences. It is an area for learning by doing.
The teacher acts as a guide and co-learner. The use of variety
of materials also helps meet individual differences among pupils
and at the same time encourages them to pursue special interests
and learn from individual investigation.

The Teacher of Science in the Elementary School
You Can Teach Science. Some teachers feel insecure in
their attempts to teach science. They feel that they do not have
sufficient background and that they do not know enough actual
science to carry on the work with any degree of success. Yet
science is one area where it is respectable not to know all the
answers. The error would lie in being unwilling to help find the
best known answer. Thus, the teacher may not be able to ex-
plain comets, but she can help the child find the necessary in-
formation. The following suggestions will help the teacher who
feels insecure develop a science background that will enable her
to do a better job of teaching science to boys and girls.
A. Build experience gradually. Experience can be obtained
in time. You will have to substitute reading, planning, indi-








12 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

vidual investigation and experimenting for that experience you
now lack.
B. Become acquainted with several series of science books
on the grade level of the pupils. Then to understand what the


A sixth grade class demonstrates science principles
barrel garden.
I


through the use of a


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."" P' cP


F .w


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.y.4 -
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SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


children are doing in other grades, read the other books in one
or more series for all grade levels. This procedure will be valu-
able for general content background, for planning work, and for
the selecting and understanding of many experiments suitable
for pupils.
C. Try experiments found in books on the grade levels
above and below the grade which you teach. This will be of
value for suggesting suitable activities for retarded pupils, and
will prevent your feeling lost when the more advanced pupils
propose new ideas.
D. Read widely in children's literature in science. It not
only provides information but also enables you to direct indi-
viduals to appropriate books. The amount of attractive, reliable
material in this area is constantly increasing.
E. Study carefully, when specific information is needed,
science text books on the junior high school level. These will
give you much advanced science information. They will prove
helpful in planning experiments and activities and in anticipating
questions of children.
F. Read several current magazines which contain science
information. They will be an aid to the teacher because they
contain selected materials, topics for study, suggestive experi-
ments, and current bibliography. For suggestions as to helpful
magazines see Chapter V of this bulletin.
G. Spend a few days exploring your school and community
for the resources you can call on for help in enriching your
science program. Find out what science there is in your school
yard, in the nearest park or wood lot. Discover a few of the
people in your community who have information, skill, or ma-
terials that you can use. For a guide in making such a survey
see Chapter III of this bulletin.
H. Attend a campus workshop or help plan for a county
workshop that includes science where you can confer with other
teachers and consultants, explore materials, study, and develop
plans for the year.
I. Attend a summer school course in science at the ele-
mentary school level, either one in methods of teaching science
or a survey course in science subject matter if that meets your
needs.
J. Be a guide. Science is a field where the teacher is the
guide to the pupil in his activities. The teacher need not know
all the answers but he can direct the pupil to find information,
to bring materials for use in the classroom, to help plan for
field trips, and he can see that all pupils have the opportunity
to take part in the class activities.









14 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

K. Be enthusiastic about the science activities of the pupils.
Those activities may be simple to you but to the children they
are new experiences.








trt






i..4. -



A first grade science class investigates an out-of-door pool.

Science Instruction and Characteristics of Children. Prob-
ably nearly all teachers would feel more secure and more confi-
dent of success in science instruction if they realized the extent
to which certain characteristics of children serve as allies in in-
struction. As knowledge of the elementary school child accu-
mulates, it is increasingly clear that many of the outstanding
characteristics of children of this age are the very qualities
needed for effective science learning. A brief review of some of
the characteristics shows the relationships.
Children are curious and inquisitive. They have been learn-
ing by investigating since they were babies. The inquisitive
spirit needs to be kept alive.
Children are responsive and sensitive to their environment,
reacting to many aspects of the environment that adults take for
granted. This responsiveness needs to be encouraged if the most
effective science learning is to take place.
Children are imaginative and creative. They like to assist
in planning, trying, and doing. Science offers plenty of scope
for participation, for choices, for formulating and trying hypo-
theses.









SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 15

Children like to be prominent and important. The range
of possible science activities is so great that every child has the
opportunity to contribute to the class in some manner and thus
satisfy in a legitimate way his need for feeling important in
the group.
Children are active and energetic. They should be given
many opportunities to use their energy and direct their acti-
vities toward acquiring rich first hand experiences through
experimenting, collecting and constructing simple apparatus,
dramatizing, manipulating objects, and seeking direct ac-
quaintance.
The work of guidance and carrying forward the science pro-
gram rests with the teacher. The work of carrying on the
activities of the science program is a responsibility welcomed
by most pupils. The teacher who can visualize such partner-
ship with her pupils can teach science.








16 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


CHAPTER II.

SCOPE AND CONTINUITY OF SCIENCE IN THE
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Explanation of Chart
This scope and continuity chart of areas and major con-
cepts found in the succeeding pages is intended as an aid to
teachers as they plan a continuous course in science for boys
and girls from grades one through six.
Scope refers to the breadth or range of work. Science in
the elementary school should include understandings from all
the major areas of science: the earth as a part of the universe,
the earth and its changing conditions, matter and energy are
subject to change, conditions necessary to life, living things and
their activities, man and his environment. By reading down
the chart, individual teachers and faculty groups can see the
scope of work and develop their plans in such a way as to avoid
gaps in pupil understandings or over-emphasis on certain areas
with a corresponding under-emphasis on other areas.
Continuity refers to the development of ideas from simple
to complex as pupils reach greater maturity levels. By reading
across the chart the individual teachers and faculty groups can
see the development in ideas from the simple to the complex.
It is also possible to plan for continuity by building the experi-
ences of one year upon those of the preceding years.
The concepts stated are not, of course, in children's lan-
gauge. The statements merely represent some of the major ideas
pupils will acquire from a well-rounded program. The chart is
certainly not exhaustive. Many other important ideas will be
developed. Neither is any time sequence implied by the arrange-
ment of the chart; i.e., the earth as a part of the universe is
not necessarily the first area studied.

Uses of the Chart
In Faculty and Individual Teacher Planning. The chart
should be of service to anyone who is interested in obtaining a
comprehensive view of science in the elementary school. It
should be of special service to faculty groups, curriculum com-
mittees, and county groups in planning schoolwide or countywide
programs in science. It should be of use to individual teachers
first in obtaining an over-view of science in all the grades and
second in checking their plans for proper breadth and balance.
In Multiple Grade Planning. The chart should be of par-









SCOPE AND CONTINUITY OF SCIENCE 17

ticular service to teachers who have two or more grades in the
room. By keeping the chart in front of him while he does long
range planning, the teacher can arrange for pupils from at least
two grades to work together. By a careful selection of topics
and problems, it would be possible to develop a two year "block"
that would have balance as far as the six areas are concerned in
each year.
In Large Unit Planning. In planning large units of work
the chart should be of great assistance, especially when the
work cuts across several subject areas. By examining the so-
cial studies and science charts together, for example, many re-
lationships will be noted and occasions for integrating work will
suggest themselves.
In Selecting Appropriate Materials of Instruction. In doing
long range planning, the teachers will again find the chart of
use in the selection of appropriate materials. Certain needs,
such as for films that are to be rented, can be anticipated far
enough in advance to permit proper ordering. Where under-
standing certain concepts calls for extensive use of library ref-
erences, the books can be assembled in time. A proper variety
of materials can also be planned. The chart will help the teacher
anticipate situations where experimenting, observing, field trips
and other forms of out-of-door education will be helpful. Some
forms of out-of-door education, such as a camping trip or excur-
sion to a State park, are extremely valuable but must be antici-
pated well in advance lest the opportune time both come and go
before the class can make the necessary plans.

Enlargement of Concepts from Lower to Upper Grades:
A Sample Treatment
The organization of science work should provide for the
growth of children through constantly enlarging experiences.
Simple ideas introduced in the primary grades will lay a foun-
dation for understanding more complex ones in the middle and
upper grades. Most of the ideas introduced in the primary
grades are based on first hand experiences or observations. In
the middle and upper grades many of the ideas come from indi-
rect experiences representing events far away in time or space.
Furthermore, with more complex concepts, several ideas have to
be held in mind at once in new relationships in order to arrive
at a new or deeper understanding.
The following sample treatment of the enlargement of con-
cepts on weather is presented here to show that what the casual
observer might call repetition is really extension. For example,
compare Number 8 under primary grades "wind is air in motion"
with Number 10 under intermediate grades, "Cold air is heavier










SCOPE AND CONTINUITY CHART


Area

THE EARTH AS
A PART OF
THE UNIVERSE




THE EARTH
AND ITS
CHANGING
CONDITIONS









MATTER AND
ENERGY ARE
SUBJECT TO
CHANGE


GRADE I
The Sky Itself
The moon, sun and other stars
in the sky.
The sun gives us heat and light.
The moon and stars give us
light.
Water and Land
The earth is made up of air,
water, and land.
There are different kinds of
soil.
Water is found almost every-
where.
Air is always around us.
Plants and animals need air to
live.



Around Us
Air is always around us.
Air occupies space.
Wind is moving air.
Air has water in it.
Fire needs air to burn.
We breathe air.


GRADE I
Our Earth
The earth is almost round.
The earth is very large.
The earth pulls everything on
the earth toward it.
Air surrounds the earth.
Getting Ready for Seasonal
Changes
Certain changes tell of the ap-
proach of winter.
Animals and plants prepare for
winter in different ways.
Living things are more active
at some seasons of the year
than at others.
Changing weather conditions
help and hinder our work and
play.
We need all kinds of weather.
Water and. Its Forms
Water may be found in more
than one form.
Water evaporates into the air.
Clouds are made of droplets of
water.
Water returns to the earth in
the form of a solid or liquid.
Water is essential to life.


GRADE III
Motions of The Earth
The earth spins like a top (day
and night).
The earth travels around the
sun.

The Changing Earth
Land is worn away in some
places and is built up in other
places.
Running water changes the
land.
Moving air changes the land.
We learn about some changes
in the past from relics which
cave dwellers left in their
caves and from fossils found
in the earth?

Heat
Heat comes from many sources.
Heat travels through many
things.
Heat can be measured.
Heat is necessary to life.
The sun is our greatest source
of heat.
Making Work Easier
Invention of tools and machines
has combined forms of mat-
ter and kinds of energy to
make work easier.
Animal energy helps do work.
Natural forces help do work.






SCOPE AND CONTINUITY CHART (Continued)


Area

CONDITIONS
NECESSARY
TO LIFE




LIVING
THINGS
AND THEIR
ACTIVITIES


GRADE I

Life Conditions
Living things need air, water,
warmth, food.



Where Plants and Animals Live
Plants and animals live almost
everywhere on the earth.
Animals live all around us.
Animals eat different foods.
Animals have different ways of
moving about.
Plants cannot move about as
most animals do.


GRADE II

Adaptation to Change
Animals and plants adapt them-
selves to changes in seasons.
There is struggle for existence.
Animals and plants depend on
one another.

Food of Animals
Animals must have food.
Animals eat many different
kinds of food.
Some animals eat other
animals.
Animals have different ways of
getting food.

Reproduction
Animals have parents.
Some animals give birth to
their young; other animals
lay eggs.


GRADE III

Sources of Food, Heat
Ability of green plants to make
food is essential to life condi-
tions.
Man has met his need for heat
in many ways.

Food of Plants
Most plants make their own
food.
Plants store food.
Plants use air, water, light, and
minerals.

Reproduction
Plants and animals are repro-
duced in many ways.
Some plants must be repro-
duced each year; others live
year after year.

Protection
Most plants and animals have
characteristics for self pro-
tection.
People protect plants and ani-
mals.
Plants and animals adapt them-
selves to seasonal changes
and habitats.
Some animals and plants are
useful; some harmful.







SCOPE AND CONTINUITY CHART (Continued)


Area

MAN AND HIS
ENVIRONMENT





















THE EARTH AS
A PART OF
THE UNIVERSE


GRADE I
Plants and Animals
Man has domesticated many
plants and animals.
Man prepares food from plants
and animals.
Land, Water and Air
Man has made boats to travel
on water.
Man can travel by air.
Light
Man uses and controls light.









GRADE IV

The Moon Our Nearest
Sky Neighbor
The moon is solid like the
earth.
The moon gives reflected light
from the sky.
There is no life (as we know it)
on the moon.
We see only the part of the
moon that is lighted by the
sun.
Earth and moon shadows cause
eclipses.
The pull of the sun and moon


GRADE II
Plants and Animals
Man uses plants and animals
for food, clothing and shelter.
Man uses animals for work and
pleasure.
Man destroys harmful insects.
Water and Its Forms
Man has changed water into
different forms.
Man has learned how to insure
a supply of pure water.
Man controls his supply of
water in the home.
Magnets
Man can make magnets.
Magnets can be used for a
compass.



GRADE V

The Solar System
The earth is a member of the
solar system.
The earth is one of the nine
known planets that revolve
around the sun.
The solar system includes dif-
ferent kinds of heavenly
bodies.


GRADE III
Plants
Man protects the soil so that
plants will grow well on it.
Heat
Heat is used for warmth, cook-
ing food and to do work.
Making Work Earier
Man has made tools and ma-
chines to help him work.
Animals are used by man to do
work.
People learn to use natural
forces to help do their work
more easily.
Earth
Man makes useful articles from
the soil.
Man has done much to change
the earth's surface.

GRADE VI

Sky Wonders
Our sun is one of many, many
suns or stars.
The sun is a medium sized star,
although much larger than
the earth.
Groups of stars that make
imaginary pictures are con-
stellations.
There are different kinds of
heavenly bodies.
Astronomical instruments are
necessary for accurate and
scientific study of the sky.





SCOPE AND CONTINUITY CHART (Continued)


Area

THE EARTH
AND ITS
CHANGING
CONDITIONS










MATTER AND
ENERGY ARE
SUBJECT TO
CHANGE


GRADE IV
Plants and Animals of the Past
Plants and animals have lived
on the earth a long time.
Plants and animals of the past
have left their records.
Plants and animals of today are
different from those of long
ago.
Some plants and animals of to-
day are in danger of becom-
ing extinct.


Electricity
We can get electricity by sev-
ral ways.
Rubbing of certain substances
may cause frictional or static
electricity.
Useful electricity comes from
generators or batteries.
Some substances are better con-
ductors of electricity than
others.
Lightning is a form of elec-
tricity.

Light
Many objects give off light di-
rectly.
Some objects reflect light.
Some substances absorb light.
Light rays may be bent in pass-
ing from one substance to an-
other.


GRADE V

Time and Season
Animals and plants react to
changes in seasons in various
ways.
Seasons are caused by the
movement of the earth in its
orbit around the sun.
It is colder in winter than sum-
mer because the sun's rays
strike our part of the earth
less directly.
The motions of the earth are a
basis for our measure of time.
Changes Around Us
Changes, both chemical and
physical, occur in many sub-
stances.
All substances are in the form
of a liquid, solid, or gas.
There are many kinds of rocks.
Air
Layers of air surround the
earth.
Air is made up of gasses.
Air supports combustion.
Air exerts pressure.
Air expands when heated.
Clean air is necessary to health.
Objects which are lighter than
air will float in air.
Some machines heavier than air
can fly in air.


GRADE VI

Weather and Climate.
Weather depends upon many
factors.
Weather and climate are con-
stantly changing.
Weather may be predicted.
Seasonal changes affect plants
and animals.
Weather conditions affect
plants and animals.



Electricity and Its Uses
An electric current is necessary
to produce an electromagnet.
Electricity may be used to pro-
duce heat and light.
Electricity helps us send mes-
sages.
Sound
Vibrating objects produce
sound.
Sounds differ in loudness, pitch,
and quality.
Sound travels in all directions.
Sound travels through some
substances better than others.
The ear is adapted to hear
many sounds.















SCOPE AND CONTINUITY CHART-(Continued)


GRADE IV

Adaptation, Survival
Living in groups is sometimes
necessary for survival.
Plants and animals of the past
were adapted to the life con-
ditions of their time. When
life conditions changed, many
animals could not adapt
themselves rapidly enough to
survive.


Struggle for Existence
Plants and animals depend on
each other.
Some plants live in groups.
Some animals live in communi-
ties.
Plants and animals reproduce
themselves.
Some plants and animals are
better fitted to live than
others (balance of nature).


GRADE V

Living Things Are Always
Changing
Living things pass through dif-
ferent stages of growth.
Young resemble yet differ from
their parents.
Plants and animals must be
adapted to their environment
in order to survive.
Both desirable and undesirable
qualities may be inherited by
offspring.
Plant Food
Plants get their food in dif-
ferent ways.
Green plants make their food.
Non-green plants do not make
their food.
A few plants eat animals.


GRADE VI

Improvements
Many plants and animals have
been domesticated by man.
Domesticated plants and ani-
mals have different needs
from wild life.
Some new varieties of plants
and animals have been pro-
duced.
Methods of soil cultivation are
constantly changing.

Food for Animals
Animals need food for energy
and growth.
Structure of animals somewhat
determines their activities in
obtaining food.
Proper food is necessary to
health.


Area


CONDITIONS
NECESSARY
TO LIFE









LIVING
THINGS
AND THEIR
ACTIVITIES




SCOPE AND CONTINUITY CHART-(Continued)


Area

MAN AND HIS
ENVIRONMENT


GRADE IV
Plants and Animals
Man's protection of plants and
animals helps control the bal-
ance of nature.
Man has improved some plants
and animals.
Man uses plants and animals to
obtain products he needs.
Man makes use of the interde-
pendence of plants and in-
sects.
Electricity
Man makes useful electricity by
batteries and generators.
Man uses many means to pro-
tect himself from lightning
and other static electricity.
Current electricity is useful to
man because he can control
it.
Light
Man controls light by using re-
flectors.
Man uses light in seeing an ob-
ject.
Man controls light in homes by
lamps, which reflect and scat-
ter light.
Lenses are used by man to con-
trol light.
Man has devised many ways of
making light.


GRADE V
Plants and Animals
Man controls the growth of
some plants.
Man has selected and developed
many varieties of plants.
Man can control the life or en-
vironment of some useful
plants and animals.
Changes All Around Us
Man makes useful products
from natural formations and
deposits.
Air
Man controls air pressure to
accomplish much work.
Man controls the composition,
temperature, and movement
of the air for comfort (air
conditioning, oxygen mask,
fans).
Man has made machines for
travel in the air.
Man has made instruments for
exploring the air at high al-
titudes.
Time
Man has made machines to
measure time.
Man has set up time zones.
Conservation
Man has set up parks to pre-
serve the beauties of nature
wild life.
Man should conserve human
and natural resources.


GRADE VI
Food for Growth and Energy
Man attempts a control over
his environment to obtain
food.
Man has learned about body
processes that help him use
food to his advantage.
Weather
Man has made instruments for
measuring conditions of
weather.
Man makes use of instruments
of communication to assist in
making known weather and
climatic conditions.
Man has used currents in the
ocean to many advantages.
Electricity
Man has made suitable electric
circuits for the home and in-
dustry.
Man has increasing uses for
electricity.
Sound
Man controls sound to produce
music.
Man uses many means for re-
inforcing sounds.
Man controls sound to assist
hearing.
Keeping Fit for Work and Play
Man can purify water (aera-
tion and filtration).
Man has learned to prevent
and control certain diseases.
Man aids health by eating
proper kinds of and amounts
of food.









24 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

than warm air," and with Number 3, 4, 5, from the upper grades,
"Wind is due to unequal atmospheric pressures," "Factors, such
as altitude and moisture, contribute to'atmospheric pressure",
"A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure." The
growth in complexity of idea is apparent.

Sample Treatment
Enlargement of Concepts from Primary to Upper Grades
From
Unit on Weather

Concepts appropriate to grades I, II, III, and IV.
1. There is air all around us.
2. Changes in air conditions make the changes in the weather.
3. Weather changes may take place rapidly.
4. Weather changes are sometimes helpful to plants and ani-
mals, sometimes harmful.
5. The temperature is one of the ways of describing weather.
6. Rain, snow, hail, sleet, dry, and hot are descriptive of some
kinds of weather.
7. Too much rain or too little rain may be harmful.
8. Wind is air in motion.
9. Wind is sometimes harmful to man, sometimes helpful.
10. Wind blows from many different directions; a wind vane
shows the direction of the wind.

Concepts appropriate to grades IV, V, and VI.
1. Changes in weather conditions are due to natural causes.
2. Scientists use instruments in forecasting weather.
3. Our seasons are characterized by weather and climatic
changes.
4. Rainbows are due to the dispersion of light by water drops
in the air.
5. Lightning is the result of unlike electrical charges.
6. Ocean currents affect the weather on Florida's east coast.
7. Lakes in Florida affect the moisture and temperature con-
ditions of the immediate surrounding country.
8. Plants continually give up moisture to the air, and therefore
influence weather conditions.
9. Weather conditions at any one time for all of Florida may
differ greatly.
10. Cold air is heavier than warm air.
11. The movement of air masses will cause changes in the
weather.








SCOPE AND CONTINUITY OF SCIENCE


12. The aching of bones and the ring around the moon may
accompany weather changes but are not reliable means of
predicting changes in weather.

Concepts appropriate to grades VI, VII, and VIII.
1. Climate is considered weather conditions over a long period
of time.
2. Most hurricanes which strike the state from the southeast,
move in a curve, and pass from the state in a northeast
direction.
3. Wind is due to unequal atmospheric pressures.
4. Factors, such as altitude and moisture, contribute to at-
mospheric pressure.
5. A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
6. The speed of sound is affected by weather conditions.
7. Weather conditions affect the transmission of sunlight.
8. Changes in weather are dependent upon unequal heating of
the air.
9. Sea breezes are due to unequal heating of the air over land
and water.
10. Condensation under varying conditions cause dew, frost,
fog, clouds, rain, snow, sleet, and hail.
11. The weather map may be used for predicting weather
changes.
12. Storm predictions can sometimes be made by the layman
if he understands high and low pressure areas.








26 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


CHAPTER III.

USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT FOR
TEACHING ELEMENTARY SCIENCE

Interpreting Science Principles in Familiar Florida Settings
It is the purpose of this section of the bulletin to indicate
the wealth of opportunity for interpreting science principles in-
volved in familiar Florida settings. Every locality abounds in
examples of applied science. Science cannot become an abstract
or mechanical subject if the pupil learns to "see science" in the
familiar happenings of his daily living. He learns to use his
information in seeking relationships among events.
Furthermore, for their own protection and for their under-
standing of the way we live, children must be thoroughly ac-
quainted with science as it influences the lives of average people
today. Children need to accept as a part of their thinking the
idea that our ways of living evolve in part through the applica-
tion of scientific discoveries; that change is therefore normal
and not to be feared. The anticipation of gradual change and
the willingness to make adjustments make it possible for per-
sons to feel secure even in the presence of change.
The study of science is one of the most promising means of
taking up the lag between what has been discovered to be de-
sirable and what is still commonly practiced. Many examples
could be drawn from the field of health to show that the bene-
fits of research do not automatically influence the health prac-
tices of people. Thus, smallpox could have been eliminated years
ago if vaccination had been accepted more readily.
Each paragraph below is a real life application or illustra-
tion of a concept appearing in the Scope and Sequence Chart
pages 18-23. In the chart the concept necessarily is stated as
a generalization or abstraction; but children will understand it
most readily in terms of familiar experiences. Many of the
paragraphs contain suggestions and references for further
learning.
Each paragraph is keyed to the chart in the following
manner: In addition to its identification number, the paragraph
has an Arabic number showing which of the six major areas is
involved (reading down the chart) and a Roman number show-
ing the grade level (reading across the chart). For example,
the first paragraph, Beach Erosion, has in addition to its iden-
tification number (1) the number 2-III which helps locate it
on the chart immediately. The 2 refers to the second area, The
Earth and Its Changing Conditions, and the III to third grade.








USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING 27

Within that block of the chart, the identification number (1)
associates it with the concept, "The earth is worn away in some
places and built up in others." It is recognized that one para-
graph may serve equally well as an illustration for several con-
cepts. However, for the sake of simplicity only one concept is
keyed to each paragraph.

(1) 2-III. Beach Erosion
Beach erosion is an illustration of the fact that earth
conditions change gradually. Beach erosion is caused
in part by tides, currents and storms. There is a good
example of beach erosion in Manatee County, where
on Anna Maria Island the beach has noticeably changed,
becoming narrower all the time. To the south about
10 miles the beach is becoming larger. A survey has
been carried on by the government, and information
concerning beach erosion in Florida may be obtained
by writing the Office of Geodetic Surveys, Washington,
D.C.
(2) 2-III. Soil Erosion and Leaching
Soil erosion and leaching are examples of running
water changing the land. The soils of the hilly sec-
tions of central and western Florida counties are sub-
ject to severe erosion losses. Soils of other sections
suffer severe leaching losses. Such losses lead to re-
duced yields per acre and poorer quality of product,
and thus result in lowered incomes and levels of living
for the people of the area. Much is being done each
year in control measures, such as terracing, planting
tree crops, planting and protecting cover crops, filling
and repairing gullies, and seeding pasture areas. Some
suggested activities for children are:
1. Children look for signs of erosion in school area.
Compare eroded area with a forest area.
2. Examine soil in a productive field, noting color,
depth of surface, amount of clay in subsoil, and
hardpan, if any, in the soil.
3. Examine pasture sod and forest area with a spade.
Compare the conditions of soil to that of a culti-
vated field. Which would be most likely to erode?
4. Resod and recondition a small eroded area of the
school ground or home yard.
(3) 2-V. Florida Winter Season
The basic reason for Florida being a winter tourist
center lies in the fact that the state extends so far south









28 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

that in the winter time when the direct rays of the sun
strike the earth south of the equator the land still re-
ceives more of the direct rays of the sun than do the
northern states at the same time. It is easy to show
the difference in the heating effects of direct and
slanting rays by placing two pans of sand in the morn-
ing or afternoon sun, leaving one flat and elevating
the other slightly toward the sun. A thermometer
thrust into the sand will record the difference in heat.

(4) 3-III. Solar Water Heater
Solar water heaters, frequently used in homes in south-
ern Florida, are an excellent example of the use of the
sun as a source of heat. The device is placed flat
against the roof in such a position as to receive the
most direct rays of the sun for the longest time. The
coil or series of pipes is usually made of copper and
is frequently painted black to increase absorption of
the sun's rays. These pipes are usually laid on a cop-
per plate which is also painted black. The whole device
is contained in a flat box-like structure whose double
strength glass lid helps to concentrate the sun's rays.
The heated water moves into a storage tank, thus per-
mitting more water to enter the pipes for heating.
Even on partially cloudy days a considerable amount
of heat reaches the pipes.

(5) 3-V. Florida Caverns
No school is without opportunities for studying the
surface of the earth as an example of changes all around
us. Specific features of the neighborhood, such as
sand dunes, hills, washes, and caves are all centers of
interest around which studies of the earth's surface
may be developed. A study of the local land forms
awakens children to the fact that the earth's surface
is a dynamic rather than a static thing, that its form
was not fixed in the remote past but is being developed
and modified now.
One good example of this type of study is the Florida
State Caverns near Marianna. This park is in the
limestone region of northwest Florida and holds many
attractions with only a few man-made changes. Here
may be observed the different kinds of rocks and their
formations, fossils that are the remains of marine ani-
mals, and petrified wood. In addition natural rock
gardens, wildlife, the nature trail, historical values,








USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING 29

and recreational facilities make this one of the South's
outstanding state parks.
(6) 4-V. Watermelons
Plants have to be adapted to their environment in order
to survive. For instance, watermelons can be grown
commercially in nearly every county in Florida. The
planting date has to be varied in different sections,
which means that the melons are not all ready for mar-
ket at the same time. Many varieties of watermelon
are grown in the state. The shipping season extends
from May to August.
Watermelons are grown best on sandy soil that is well
drained yet retains sufficient moisture to insure
growth. As a rule they are not grown on the same
land year after year. Rotation should be planned so
that watermelons will not be grown on the same land
more often than once in seven years.
The most common varieties grown in Florida are
Cannon Ball and Garrison. They make melons of good
size and appearance and stand shipping to market better
than other varieties.
(7) 4-VI. Brahman Cattle
Pupils in the central part of the state will be particu-
larly interested in Brahman cattle, which are becoming
commonplace. Here is an example of improvement in
domesticated animals. In an interview with local cattle-
men or the county agent such information as the fol-
lowing can be obtained:
1. In what ways are Brahman cattle adapted to Flor-
ida Climate? (Their ability to withstand drought
and heat-sweat glands).
2. Why are Braham cattle used so extensively to im-
prove Florida's range scrub cattle? (Usually abil-
ity to transmit their characteristics to any breed of
cattle).
3. How are pastures being improved to care for Brah-
mans? (New grasses, drainage, chopping).
4. What pests bother the cattle? (Screw worms, ticks,
flies).
5. What kind of beef does the Brahman produce?
Further information regarding the Brahman cattle may
be secured from "The Florida Cattleman", "The Brah-
ma Breeder-Feeder", and from "Beef Cattle in Flor-








30 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

ida", (Bulletin Number 28) from the State Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
(8) 4-II. Pastures
Since much of Florida's land is used for grazing, a
study of pasture land might prove interesting and valu-
able for students. Florida pastures are still largely
unimproved, consisting of wire, broom, and carpet
grasses. About ten or more acres are needed to graze
one cow, and then the grasses last only for the season,
becoming tough and unpalatable in just a few months.
In the last ten years Florida has taken the greatest
strides toward developing into a scientific cow coun-
try. During that time much land has been improved
and fenced, providing grazing land for several cattle
where previously one barely survived. Pupils might
study the different soils, preparation of the soils, meth-
ods used to improve pastures, new grasses, and when
and how to plant.
Information can be obtained from the State Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin Number 108, "Better
Pastures for Florida."
(9) 4-VI. Ramie
The tall straight stalk of the ramie plant can be used
in new and interesting products. It is a perennial and
once planted in the proper environment, it will produce
a cutting at least every three months for many years.
It is a warm weather plant and can be planted only
where water control has been provided (canals, farm
ditches, etc.) Ramie does well on somewhat acid soil,
but the soil should be fertile (highly nitrogenous).
These requirements can easily be met in the Florida
Everglades where many acres are being planted. The
fibre of ramie can be spun, knitted and woven on tex-
tile machinery. It is of special importance in making
marine cordage because of its resistance to mildew, rot
and smoke stack gases, also its high strength when
wet and its freedom from shrinkage. It can be used
in making fish lines and nets, twine, and rope. The
strength of the fibre makes it useful in making towels,
upholstery, draperies, auto seat covers, and covers for
arm rests.
Ramie yields a valuable by-product known as ramie
meal which is a high grade cattle and poultry feed rich
in protein and carotene. Carotene is an important
source of vitamin A, which promotes the growth of








USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING 31

poultry and protects their health. For further infor-
mation see the Department of Agriculture bulletin,
"Ramie".
(10) 5-III. Frog Farming in Florida
Frog farming has great possibilities in Florida. Natural
marshy areas or ponds are adapted as to food supply
and environment to the needs of the frogs. Observ-
ing and reading on the life history of the frogs results
in much scientific knowledge on reproduction, habitats,
metamorphosis, adaptation, and protection of this par-
ticular animal. Bullfrog farming in Florida has two
other related industries: the raising, and selling of
breeding stock and the tanning of frog skins which are
used for shoes, purses, and other novelties. See the
Department of Agriculture bulletin, "Bullfrog Farm-
ing and Frogging" for additional information.
(11) 5-III. Spanish Moss
Aside from being a part of the tropical scenery of
Florida, Spanish Moss as a peculiar variety of air-
plant is an interesting and useful item for study in
many areas in the state. The plant can be both help-
ful and harmful. The fact that it is a native American
plant and not of Spanish origin opens up an interesting
history. Its nature, its means of growth, methods of
propagation, and wide spread presence in Florida's
forests lead into a study of its preparation for use and
its economic value. Gathering, ginning, and then cur-
ing the dark hair-like fibres for upholstering furniture,
padding various articles, and for packing purposes may
all be part of the study. "Spanish Moss in Florida,"
Department of Agriculture, is a helpful bulletin.
(12) 6-V. Citrus Industry
Florida has a wide variety of citrus groves. If the
children live in an area where the fruit industry is
important, an intensive study of the industry locally
may be undertaken. Such a study might include not
only the scientific information about the raising of
fruit trees, and the harvesting of the fruit, but also
some consideration of the social and economic problems
of distribution and consumption, labor, government
control and protection.
Trips to the groves, to the cannery, to the packing
sheds, to the refrigerator cars, and so on, should be
preceded and followed by discussion.








32 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Many aspects of health can be considered in connec-
tion with a trip to the fruit groves, especially the im-
portance and the ways of preserving fruit.
The winter conditions can be observed and succession
of changes that take place in the groves can be asso-
ciated with seasonal changes. The fertilizing, spray-
ing, and cultivating all represent examples of applied
science. For further information see the Department
of Agriculture bulletin, "The Citrus Industry in Flor-
ida."

(13) 6-V. Timbering
There are many science experiences possible in the
study of lumbering.
This unit might include the study of the variety of
trees in a local area-how they grow, the uses of dif-
ferent kinds, such as trees used for pulpwood, posts,
veneer crates, and lumber. The ways trees are cut
and sent to sawmills, how machines have changed the
methods of finishing and dressing are other possi-
bilities. The new uses found for by-products are full
of opportunities for illustrating science principles.

(14) 6-V. Florida Parks and Forests
Florida's national, state, and county parks and forests
which have been set aside to preserve the native life,
the beauty and the history of Florida, are accessible
to practically every school.
Some well known parks that would be of interest to
a group of children to visit are: Everglades National
Park, Highland Hammock State Park, Hillsborough
River State Park, Gold Head Branch State Park,
Myakka River State Park, Florida Caverns State Park,
Torreya State Park, and Fort Clinch State Park. These
parks not only offer different type of recreation but
make it possible to observe the different types and
forms of plant growth, both land and water, native
wildlife in the natural habitat, beautiful lakes, sand
hills, forests, nature trails, natural wildlife sanctuaries,
old buildings and tropical jungles. For further sugges-
tions see the Department of Education, Florida School
Bulletin, March 1947, "Using Out-of-Door Florida as
Instructional Material," and consult the publications of
the Florida Forestry and Park Service listed on page
73.








USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING 33

(15) 6-V. Airplanes (Aviation)
Airplanes are an important part of our environment
today. Florida, because of its weather, climate, and
topography has more hours of good flying conditions
than are usually found elsewhere. Children who live
in the vicinity of army air bases or municipal air-
ports know that planes are a fast means of passenger
travel, and that they transport mail and other cargo,
especially perishables and medicine, to distant parts of
the world in a minimum of time. Planes are an in-
teresting example of man's inventive genius making
work easier and making time and distance of less con-
cern than formerly. For further suggestions see the
State Department of Education Bulletin No. 51, "De-
veloping Understandings for Living in an Air Age."
The major airlines have educational materials avail-
able, including posters and other pictorial material
helpful in developing science understandings.

(16) 6-V. Florida Strawberries
The raising of strawberries is an important industry
in many localities in Florida. The acreage grown by
individual farmers varies, although from two to five
acres is a size usually found. Peppers, tomatoes and
corn are commonly planted between the rows of straw-
berries to secure other returns from the land.
A number of varieties of strawberries can be grown
in Florida. They may be grown commercially or for
home use in every county. Any good loamy soil with
humus that will retain moisture is satisfactory for
growing them.
Children in localities where strawberries are raised
will have the opportunity to visit a field under culti-
vation, watch, and perhaps participate in the harvest-
ing and packing of the berries. The study of straw-
berries may lead to other studies of the blackberry,
youngberry, and blueberry industry in Florida. Bulle-
tin Number 13, "Strawberry, Blackberry and the
Youngberry." Department of Agriculture, will be
helpful in this study.
An interesting book for the library table is Strawberry
Girl by Lois Lenski.

(17) 6-VI. Tupelo Honey
In West Florida (particularly Gulf County) there are
many apiaries where Tupelo honey is produced. Many









34 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

science learning may be attained by a class visit to
one of these apiaries. As the children begin the study
of this topic there will be many things they want to
know such as: Why is this honey called Tupelo honey?
How does the Tupelo plant look? What conditions
are necessary for its growth? What advantages does
Tupelo honey have over other honey (never crystal-
lizes) ? How does man use honey (food, curing to-
bacco, brewing, wine making, vinegar) ? How do bees
make the honey? How is the bee adapted to carry the
pollen? The study of Tupelo honey may lead to the
study of other kinds of honey produced in Florida and
why Florida is peculiarly fitted as a honey producing
state. Valuable information for the study is found in
"Florida Honey and its Hundred Uses," "Beekeeping
in Florida," "Know Your State," and "Tupelo Honey".
These bulletins may be obtained free from the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
(18) 6-IV. Tung Oil
The tung oil industry is one of Florida's newer eco-
nomic enterprises. Children's study of this industry is
interesting as an example of an importation of an
industry from China, and as an evidence of the world
drive for national economic independence.
The tung oil industry of Florida is new and so has not
grown too extensively. A field study of the tung oil
industry, with a visit to a grove and a pressing mill,
reveals the many phases of the industry, its relation
to economics, international trade, weather and climate,
plant cultivation, manufacturing and household use.
Such questions as the following may arise and be an-
swered with a trip to a tung oil grove: What different
kinds of tung oil trees are there? What methods are
used in their cultivation? What are the effects of
climate on tung trees? How are trees selected for new
planting? What methods are used for setting up new
groves? How and when is the crop harvested? How
is the oil extracted? How is the oil refined? What is
done with the waste products? For further informa-
tion see the Department of Agriculture bulletin, "Tung
Oil."
(19) 6-IV. Peanuts
Since the peanut is one of the easiest crops to grow in
Florida and is one of the most important general farm
crops grown in the state, boys and girls will derive








USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING 35

great benefit through a scientific study of the growing
process, harvesting, and the manufacturing of its many
products.
Activities and Experiences:
1. Observing planting, growing, and harvesting of pea-
nuts in local fields.
2. Visiting peanut mills where convenient (Many are
found along Alabama and Georgia state lines in
North Florida).
3. Making peanut butter as a classroom experience.
4. Reading about the life contribution of George Wash-
ington Carver of Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Ala-
bama.

(20) 6-I. The Canning Industry
The canning industry with its immense annual pack is
a good example of man's preservation of food. Through
the canning processes, vast quantities of vitamin rich
food have gone from Florida to places all over the world.
The commercial canning of citrus fruits in Florida did
not succeed until 1920. The Florida industry has stead-
ily grown and keeps modifying its methods in the light
of improvements in food processing.
A visit to a nearby canning plant will show children
how the fruit is prepared, how the canning is done, and
how sanitary rules are carried out. This could lead into
a study of social studies by an investigation and study
of places where the canned fruit is being shipped.
(21) 6-V. The Sweet Potato
The development of the sweet potato industry in all its
phases; cultivation, processing for food both human
and stock, manufacture of starch, plastics, alcohol, and
pharmaceuticals, presents a good field for science learn-
ing in Florida. The value of the sweet potato and its
many products is rapidly being realized by the South.
The sweet potato helps provide balance in the diet by
supplying carbohydrates and vitamin A. Children may
experience many learning situations in connection with
sweet potato production and processing. Fields may
be visited and the plant studied in its natural surround-
ings. Digging, loading and processing machines may
be observed and dehydration plants may be visited.








36 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

(22) 6-V Tobacco Growing in Florida
Tobacco is one of the state's leading commodities. In
1896, D. A. Shaw of Quincy, Florida, demonstrated the
possibility of improving the quality of tobacco by shad-
ing it during growth. The result of this was a greater
demand for Florida tobacco and a rapid expansion of
the industry. The preparing of the soil, the cultivat-
ing, the shading, and the harvesting of the crop affords
many leads for study. The many diseases peculiar to
tobacco and the tobacco insects and their control make
good science study for boys and girls.

(23) 6-IV. Fishing Industry
The numerous social and scientific aspects of the fish-
ing industry provide a variety of topics. Florida has
a natural environment for fishing which will furnish
many situations for science learning. Some of the
possibilities in this study concerned with science are
the following: local types of fish, how they breathe and
eat, hatcheries and their operation, hazards of fishing,
ways of preservation. Studies of other water inhabi-
tants as turtles, oysters, and sponges may be a part of
the unit.

(24) 3-IV. Florida Sunsets
The peninsula of Florida has the Atlantic Ocean to the
east and the Gulf of Mexico to the west and south. Its
red sunsets are enhanced by the cloud formations in
the atmosphere. Because Florida is low and flat, this
brilliant phenomenon can be seen and enjoyed by peo-
ple in all parts of the state. Sunlight must penetrate
the atmosphere to reach the land. When the sun is
overhead, the light does not pass through as much dense
atmosphere as it would if the sun were low as at sun-
rise and just before sunset. The sun appears larger
and a deeper red at sunrise and sunset than at mid-
day. As sunlight passes through the atmosphere, its
colors will be dispersed (scattered). The colors of the
shorter wave lengths, as violet and blue will be scat-
tered more than those of longer wave lengths, as yel-
low, orange, and red. The extent to which the colors
of light will be scattered depends on the amount of sub-
stances in the atmosphere (density). At sunset when
the light must pass through a thick layer of this most
dense atmosphere, the violet and blue colors of light
will be scattered more than the yellow, orange, and red.








USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING 37

Thus, the remaining colors of light seem to be yellow
to red. Colors of light are visible when they fall on
some object. When the sun is below the horizon so
that it cannot be seen, the clouds will show the bril-
liant colors.
In the low flat peninsula of Florida where there is a
great amount of moisture and cloud formations in the
atmosphere, sunsets will be brilliant.
This phenomenon is applicable to the concepts developed
in elementary science classes in all parts of the state.
The beautiful sunsets seen by the first grader will add
meaning to the concept, the sun gives us light; while
the second grade pupils will realize that the sunlight
passes through the air that surrounds the earth. The
third and fourth grade pupils are using the concepts:
the earth spins like a top, and light rays may be bent
in passing from one substance through another. The
pupils of the fifth grade will be making application of
the concept that the sun's rays strike the earth and the
sixth grade pupils will understand that the brilliant sun-
set does not happen each day because of the rapidly
changing conditions of weather.
(25) 6-V. Minerals of Florida.
Florida is an important non-metallic mineral producing
state. It stands first in the production of phosphate;
second in Fuller's earth, a clay used in clarifying min-
eral and vegetable oils; is a center in production of
kaolin used in white ware; is an important producer
of limestone, lime and cement; has sand deposits suit-
able for the manufacture of brick and tile as well as
pottery. Mines and plants connected with these min-
ing industries provide many learning possibilities for
Florida boys and girls.
(26) 3-V. Florida's Pulp and Paper Industry
There are several paper mills already located in Flor-
ida. The pulp mills are able to use pines, straight or
crooked, fast-growing or slow-growing, thrifty or
stunted, limby or clean-boled, thus utilizing otherwise
wasted wood. There are paper mills at Panama City,
Port St. Joe, Jacksonville and Fernandina. Much can
be learned in a study of the process of paper-making.
(27) 6-VI. The Gulf Stream
The Gulf Stream is not only an interesting phenomenon
of the ocean near the East Coast, but is an asset to








38 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Florida. Because of the numerous species of fish to be
found in this current, it becomes a paradise for both
sport and commercial fishermen attracting many win-
ter tourists. The stream of deep blue water originates
in the Atlantic near the equator and flows northward,
then divides with part of it entering the Gulf of Mex-
ico. It is known as the Gulf Stream when it renters
the Atlantic and moves northward along the east coast.
Interesting characteristics of this stream and descrip-
tions of the contrasting life found in it and in the ad-
joining cooler water of the ocean are attractively illu-
strated and related in The Gulf Stream by Ruth
Brindze.

(28) 6-I. Florida as a Poultry State
Some of the economic and natural advantages neces-
sary in developing a great poultry industry found in
Florida, are a mild, even climate, plenty of green feed,
lots of sunshine, and a good market. There is no
branch of agriculture practiced more widely on Florida
farms than is poultry-keeping, for it is estimated that
some kind of poultry is kept on sixty-five out of every
hundred farms. Poultry is in fifth rank as an agri-
culture enterprise in the state.

(29) 5-IV. Florida Birds
In Florida, where there is probably a larger number
of birds in greater profusion of varieties than any-
where in the United States, a study of birds would be
most valuable. Children are interested in birds for
their attractive colors, appealing songs, and power to
fly. At the same time they realize that Florida's bird-
life is economically important (1) because the birds
destroy insects harmful to agriculture, (2) because of
the use made of domesticated birds, as chickens, ducks,
and geese, (3) because of the part they play in the
distribution of seeds. For further information see the
Department of Agriculture bulletin, "Birds in Florida."

(30) 6-II. Naval Stores
At one time naval stores were the "pitch, tar, and
rosin" for the wooden ship industry. Now the use for
boat building is not so important as the use in the
manufacture of soaps, polishes, paints, lacquers, inks,
linoleum, roofing, pharmaceuticals, plastics, and many
other things. Improvements on the old operation of









USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING 39

"boxing" the trees are being made by the installation
of cups and gutters. However, substitutes have taken
away some of the markets for naval stores. Much re-
search is being done by chemists to keep the industry
thriving. Even after the trees have been "worked out"
for turpentine, they are available for pulpwood, saw-
logs, crossties, veneer, and poles. It would be diffi-
cult to find a subject with more scientific leads than
"naval stores".
(31) 6-III. A School Garden
The planting and caring for a garden, whether a flower
garden or vegetable garden, is one phase of a science
program which may prove most helpful to children.
The interest which children have in gardens is very
marked, and certainly it is one activity that can give

Planting and caring for school garden applies science to worth-while
activities.








40 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

an insight into the conditions necessary for plant
growth. Some children may never have much experi-
ences with growing things unless the school provides it.
In the planning of a school garden there may arise such
questions as whether the ground available shall be used
entirely as a group garden or be divided into smaller
plots? In some localities there may not be suitable
ground available near the school for such a garden.
Here is one good place to keep in mind that gardening
can be done on a small scale. If a large barrel is filled
with the proper soil, planted and cared for as any other
garden plot, many of the same values will be attained.
It may be advisable, if a garden plot is to be used, for
a beginning group to divide the plot allowed to the
group into smaller plots-approximately 6 feet by 6
feet, each plot to be shared by two persons. The ad-
vantage of having the small plots is that each child
gets a greater variety of activities and feels increased
responsibility.
The values of a school garden may be unlimited. It is
one of the best activities to observe the various stages
of growth of different plants, to give the pupils some
conception of the use of a prepared garden plan and
teach them how to lay out a simple garden according
to a given plan, and to develop responsibility and
show the value of "teamwork". It should also teach
them how to use effectively the simple garden tools
(spade, hoe, and rake) in preparing the soil for gar-
dening.
One important phase of the various types of garden
activity is that it can be correlated with nearly every
part of classroom work. It will offer leads into the
field of social studies, problems will arise involving
the use of arithmetic, and a unit on health will evolve
on likes and dislikes of foods. The children will enjoy
the feasts taken from their own garden and will often
eat foods that have previously been pushed aside.

Ways of Studying the Community to Locate Science
Learning Opportunities
The preceding paragraphs have indicated the limitless pos-
sibilities throughout the state for citing examples of science
principles at work. The local community also abounds in illus-
trations of applied science. In order to use these opportunities,
however, faculties must be not only conscious of them but also
equipped with the necessary specific information to make their








USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING


use practical arid expedient. The following guide should be of
assistance to individual teachers, faculties, curriculum commit-
tees or workshop groups undertaking to locate science learning
opportunities.

Survey of the Community
The teacher of elementary science will find the equipment
necessary for teaching science simplified if he uses the rich
sources of interesting material found in the immediate com-
munity. Before this natural equipment can be utilized satis-
factorily the teacher must first learn something about the com-
munity. Especially is this true if he is entering a new region
of Florida.
A personal pre-school survey of the community is advis-
able. It may begin with the teacher's gathering of knowledge
of the business district and the possible sources of scientific
knowledge offered there. This information will be of further
value if it includes the industries of the rural areas and outlying
districts surrounding the immediate school. Materials secured
from the Chamber of Commerce and publicity centers will fur-
nish information leading to an introduction to the industrial life.
An analysis of the activities of the churches, civic organizations,
and the public library may also supply both human and material
resources.
At the opening of school a similar survey of the plant and
grounds may be conducted with the children. Emphasis should
be placed on the observation of the sources and control of heat,
light, and air and their relations to the welfare of pupils and
teachers. For example, it is important to have a knowledge of
the location and use of electric switches and fuses, and of the
facilities for proper ventilation.
The following are suggestions of general resources found
in most communities. These lists may serve as a guide to the
teacher in the survey referred to above.












SURVEY GUIDE


ASPECTS OF THE COMMUNITY


SOURCES OF INFORMATION


I. Community Setting

A. Physical features
1. Topography
Land surface
Water bodies

2. Natural resources
Soil
Types
Drainage
Irrigation
Conditions
Utilization
Plant life
Forests
Wild life
Mineral deposits
Rainfall and
temperature


Interviews
County Agent
County Commissioners
Road Commissioners


Members of Fed.
Conservation Service
Farm Bureau
4-H Clubs
Future Farmers
Local conservation groups
Game warden
City and county officials
Members of Weather Bureau


B. Historical setting Old inhabitants
Reasons for early County Agent
development
Reasons for
growth
Reasons for de-
cline, if any


Excursions
Flood plains
Flood control projects
Eroded areas
River valleys


Dam sights
Tree planting projects
Wild life sanctuaries
Local Weather Bureau
Irrigation systems
Places of natural interest






Local Museums
Historical places of interest


Materials
Displays
Fair
Farm Bureau
Maps and charts
Newspaper clippings

Pictures
Books
Bulletins
State Dept. of Agriculture
State Dept. of Forestry
Chamber of Commerce






School, church and court
records
Old maps and pictures
Books
Chamber of Commerce










SURVEY GUIDE-(Continued)


11. Making a Living


Forest industries
Lumbering
Naval stores
Turpentine
Rosin
Wood-pulp in-
dustry
Tung oil
Agricultural pro-
ducts
Citrus growers
Fern growers
Dairying
Fishing
Sport
Commercial
Grazing
Mining
Manufacturing
Transportation
Air
Land
Water
Communication


Interviews
Instructor of Vocational
Agriculture
County Agent
Leading farmers
4-H Club leaders
Cattlemen
Miners
Engineers
Executives
Foremen
Pilots
Employers
Boat Captains
Radio announcers
Postmaster
Editor
Printer
Telephone operator
Lineman


Excursions
Farms
Experimental Stations
Ranch
Mine
Factories
Constructional Projects
Transportation terminals
Air
Land
Water
Warehouses
Freight yards
Broadcasting stations
Post Office
Newspaper office
Telegraph exchange


Materials
Dept. of Agriculture
Soil Conservation Service
County Agent
Year books
Chamber of Commerce
Reports
Company
Census
Travel Bureau
Newspapers
Pictures
R. E. A. Office
Books











SURVEY GUIDE-(Continued)


III. Provisions For Children's Health and Physical Needs
Interviews


A. Home
Clothing
Diet
Food Habits
Personal cleanli-
ness
Rest
Sanitary facilities
Heat
Light
Ventilation
Water
Health Regulations
Immunizations
Vaccination
Quarantine

B. School
Heat
Light
Ventilation
Safety precautions
Electric switches
Fuses
Lunchroom
Diet
Equipment
Household
chemicals
Drinking Water
Bathroom


Parents
Doctors
Helpers of
community
Plumber
Electrician
Gardener
County commissioners








Custodian
Principal
Maintenance man
Home instructor
School lunch managers
School nurse
Chemistry teacher
Helpers of Community
Plumber
Electrician


Excursions
Water plant
Light plant
Stores
Sewage disposal












All parts of buildings and
grounds
Water plant
Light plant
Sewage disposal


Materials
Books
Pictures
Newspaper
City Maps
Bulletins from Dept. of Agri.
Homemaking Department
Free materials from indus-
trial companies
Diet charts
Cleanliness charts






Books
Newspapers
Pictures
Dept. of Agriculture
City maps










USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING


A Teacher Surveys Her Community

The outline below is suggestive of how a teacher may apply
these points in surveying his own community for the science
learning available from the way people live in certain environ-
ments.

I. OUTSTANDING CENTERS OF INTEREST IN ONE COMMUNITY


A. Fishing
Commercial
Fish houses
Icing of Fish
Ice plant-(refrigeration)
Boats
Compasses
Motors
Navigation
Sport fishing
Species of Fish
B. Beach
Shells
Coral reef
Tides
Undertow-safety
C. Inland waterway
Fort Myers-Stuart Canal
Indian River
Transportation
Fresh-water fish


Conditions necessary to life
Food
Air
D. Lighthouse
E. Shark fisheries
Vitamin-food
Fertilizer
Food
F. Vegetable farming project
G. Packing plants
H. Arundel Shops
Barge building
Dredging
Drainage ditches
Waterway channels
I. Coast Guard Station
Boats
Coastal protection
J. Draw bridges
K. Airports


II. INTRODUCTORY LEAD
A. Survey of equipment of the school room.
B. Survey of school library-index (with the aid of children if possible).
An opportunity is offered here for an observation of individual
interests of children, and for arousing an interest in books and
new topics.
C. Locate equipment and safety precaution units, such as fuses and
heating units.
D. Discover if slide and movie projectors are available.

III. BULLETIN BOARD
A. A weather chart posted on the bulletin board.
Possible questions
How does weather help us?
How does weather harm us?
How does weather help the farmer?
How does the weather help to give us food?
How does it help other living things ?
How does weather affect the things that do not live?
Is the weather always the same every month?
B. Pictures of living things and newspaper clippings about living
things mounted on the bulletin board.









46 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

1. Children may bring pictures, clippings, or living things to the
room.
2. Preserved specimens may be displayed.
3. Possible questions may be listed such, as,
a. What does it eat?
b. What is it?
c. Where does it live?
4. Reading about an animal to find out about its:
Food Value Helpfulness
Home Care of babies Harmfulness
5. Take a field trip to observe findings.
6. Observe the living things in the school room.
Aquarium
Discovery of the need of balance necessary to life
Preparation of the aquarium
Interdependence of plants
Teachers may question the value of this survey and the
time spent in this type of approach, until they once try it. Only
then can its full value be realized. It involves the utilization of
the science of the community and the information available from
the activities and natural resources.
The most outstanding values by which this survey may be
measured are:
A science program that is rich with familiar community
activities gives to the child an awareness of a respon-
sibility for making contributions to the group.
It broadens his understanding of the principles and
generalizations which control life in his own com-
munity.
It offers immediate opportunity to apply these new
learning in his own way of living with others in home,
school and community; thus it contributes to the im-
provement of the community by means of practical
measures.
It will contribute to the happiness of these children
now and as adults, in that they will have learned to live
with others.

Recording and Filing Information
The information obtained while studying a community is of
so great a value that provisions for filing and recording this
material should be made in order that it may be used again.
An information or vertical file solves the problem of how to
make clipped material, pictures, and pamphlets readily available.
(See Florida School Bulletin, Dec. 1943, for suggestions on set-
ting up a vertical file.)
A vertical file, though very useful, does not fully satisfy
the need for an adequate cataloging of local persons, places, and
things. It is therefore suggested that such resources be classi-









USING FLORIDA ENVIRONMENT IN TEACHING 47

fied under subject headings which follow as closely as possible
those already in use. Cards should be made and included in the
regular catalog. Use of colored card for local resources would
make their quick location easier.
A few of the cards used to catalog a community's resources
are reproduced here, together with an outline of information
needed.
The kind of information is indicated on the following card:


Class Subject
Person, Place, Organization, Institution,
Exhibit
Address
Arrange with
Address
Hours available
Remarks: (Particular service, grade level, bibliographical
references, etc.)


Two sample cards showing how to catalog community re-
sources.


Local Exhibits. Maps, Early Florida
Exhibit First National Bank
597 County Rd., Palmtown,
Tel. 9201
Brown, J. C., Vice-Pres.
823 Mangrove Drive, Tel. 8376
Tel. 9201, 10:00 A. M.-2:00 P. M.
Remarks: Good collection
historical maps of Florida.




Local School Gardens
Person James, F. A.
1011 Sunrise Rd., Palmtown
Tel. 9821
Call after 4:00 P. M.
Remarks: Will assist elementary school children
in preparation of school gardens.
Mr. James' time is limited, so have work well
planned before asking his help



The forms shown above are suggestive only, as local needs
may make modification desirable.








48 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


CHAPTER IV.
WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE

Science and the Nature of the Learning Process
Certain characteristics of children which make it normal
for them to be interested in science were described earlier in
the bulletin (Part I. Section: The Teacher of Elementary
Science). The teacher can count on the curiosity, eagerness,
creativeness, and energy of children as aids to instruction in
science. In like manner certain understandings regarding child
development and the learning process are of particular assist-
ance in instruction in science. Four such understandings are
described briefly.
Development as a Product of Experience. Normal children
develop gradually in their mental capacities and perceptual
growth. Processes and ideas that appear complex to a pupil of
a given age may be readily grasped at a somewhat later period
when his experiences have been more numerous. Time alone
does not produce this growth but rather the new experience en-
countered. School days barren of new experiences mean little
growth; days rich in carefully interpreted experiences mean
rapid growth.
Spreading Topics over Several Grades. Many concepts in
science are complex and need to be developed slowly through
many experiences. A child will need many simple contacts with
an idea before he can really grasp it. For example, if a sixth
or seventh grade pupil is going to understand the principle of
the electric motor, he needs early and frequent experiences with
magnets, with the north and south poles, and their magnetic
fields as shown by iron filings. He needs to feel the push and
pull of repelling and attracting poles long before he is called
upon to apply this knowledge to electromagnets in motors. If
all his experiences with magnetism are crowded into a short
time, he fails to observe all the implications and possibilities.
The Role of Individual Differences. It is usually out of
peoples' differences rather than likenesses that progress is made.
Science is one area where individual differences result in richer
experiences for everyone, if they are takn into account by the
teacher. One child pursues a special interest in moths and an-
other pursues an interest in radio. The field is so broad that
every member of the class can be a specialist in something and
thereby make a contribution to the class which can be valued
for its own sake.
The Use of Varied Procedures and Materials. Using a va-
riety of procedures and materials is one way of meeting indi-








WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE 49

vidual differences in pupils. Not all pupils learn the most eco-
nomically from the printed page, and every pupil, even the best
reader, benefits in some degree from the use of a variety of pro-
cedures and materials. Variety of procedures encourages in-
terest by its change of pace and introduction of new activities.
More fundamental, however, is the fact that variety of materials
and procedures appeals to different senses. Feeling the texture
of material, touching the smoothness of marble, lifting lead or
slag, smelling a crumbled camphor leaf, seeing the sparkle of
mica are direct, vivid ways of learning. Variety of procedure
also enlarges and refines concepts by allowing a pupil to recog-
nize the common element in different situations or under new
circumstances.

Ways of Learning Science
Children learn science in countless ways and often from
occasions that may be unique as far as a given child is concerned.
But for the purposes of planned work in the classroom and for
the purposes of description and analysis, the major ways of
learning science may be listed as discussing, reading, observing,
and experimenting. Such activities as field trips are included
under observing. Some suggestions for teacher-pupil planning
are included in the section on discussion.

Discussion As A Means of Learning
Values of Discussion. Discussion plays a large part in
science education. It is probably used more frequently than
any other one means of seeking or of transmitting information.
It is used as children voice their problems and ask questions,
seek information, plan for setting-up experiments, plan for field
trips and excursions (including social planning), compare notes
of observations, express the results or outcomes, evaluate their
progress, and point out further interests resulting from a par-
ticular study.
Discussion has many values. First, through their questions
children reveal their interests, as when a first grade pupil asks
where the sun goes at night or when the fifth grade pupil de-
scribed earlier asks whether people live on Mars. By their ques-
tions a teacher can judge the special interests of individuals as
well as the general interests of the large group. Second, through
their participation, the children acquire a sense of belonging-
ness, in the group. Few things tie an individual to a group as
closely as the satisfaction of having contributed an idea which
the group has found praiseworthy or even acceptable.
Third, each child extends his own experiences through shar-
ing the experiences of others. The child who picked up mica








50 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

from a road out in North Carolina has an experience to ex-
change with the child who was at the seashore. Fourth, he keeps
abreast of many current happenings, in that the special interests
found in the home background of each member of the class are
made available to all through the information brought into dis-
cussions. Fifth, in the give and take of discussion the child
acquires respect for a point of view different from his own. He
learns the value of proving his point rather than arguing it.
The classroom surroundings should offer many points that
stimulate discussion. Growing plants, an aquarium or vivarium,
bulletin boards, attractive displays of books, and children's con-
tributions should all serve as starting points for good discussion.
Barren, empty rooms do not invite or prompt worthwhile dis-
cussion.
Discussion, however, has limitations. Care should be taken
to see that discussion in itself is not considered adequate ex-

Experiments and group discussion encourage pupil participation and
interest in science.








WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE


planation of a thing, or proof of a point in question. Futher-
more, a few aggressive or talkative children must not be allowed
to usurp all the time for discussion.
Teacher-Pupil Planning. Pupil-teacher planning is an im-
portant phase of discussion. One characteristic of children's
growth is their desire to participate in planning their learning.
Many times they have astounded their elders by the honest, di-
rect, thorough thinking they can do if given the opportunity,
the encouragement, and the help they need.
In planning a unit of work with the children's help, the
teacher must be far more aware of his obligation than when he
himself makes all the decisions. He is responsible for pointing
out possibilities which would otherwise be overlooked, resources
and limitations which would otherwise be neglected. In other
words, in advance of getting the pupils to plan, the teacher must
do careful pre-planning for possible ways of approaching all
phases of the unit of work, including purposes, materials, meth-
ods, presentation, evaluation, and new planning.
When the opportunity or need arises for beginning the study
of a particular unit of work in science and the teacher and pupils
begin discussing the topic, many questions will arise that the
children want answered. These questions may be listed as they
are suggested and later arranged logically and in sequence.
Some of the children will think they already know the answers.
to some of the questions. The problem of how they can find
out whether or not their answers are correct will arise. Dozens
of suggestions will be made in regard to materials, method of
work, and presentation. Here the teacher will need to give care-
ful guidance in helping the children make intelligent decisions
so that the best learning will be attained.
Discussion of what common background is necessary before
dividing and working in small groups or individually is impor-
tant. It will also be helpful to discuss the things that the entire
group will need to do together as the work progresses, such as
excursions.
By discussion the appropriate time for the sharing of the
results of study and the best ways of presenting these findings
will be decided. The teacher discusses with the small groups
and individuals their findings before they are presented to the
entire group. Various ways of presentation will be suggested
by the children. These may include lively oral and written re-
ports, slides, charts, murals, models, and experiments. During
the period of presentation, time may be taken at intervals for
oral evaluation of it by class and teacher.
Developing the child's use of and confidence in his own
ideas gives him a growing independence and lasting security not
to be found where he must depend upon the teacher to tell him








52 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

what to do, how to do it, what to do with it, and whether he
has done it (by giving him a test and grade).

Reading as a Means of Learning
Science offers a rich experience for boys and girls in read-
ing. Children are curious. They ask many questions, and
through reading they find the answers to many of these ques-
tions. Collecting evidence or material on a problem is one of
the essential steps in problem solving. Observations made by
others have been recorded and many of these materials are
available only through books, newspapers, magazines, and pam-
phlets. If teachers capitalize upon the enthusiasm of children,
they find that the children are anxious to read to solve their
problems. Reading helps the child to a better understanding
of his environment.
Children often enjoy the fact that much knowledge remains
to be discovered in science. Many questions in science have
never been answered. Nobody knows how high the air goes at
the present time. Nobody has seen the other side of the moon.
We are not too certain of the internal composition of the earth.
Since our leading scientists must admit there are many things
about which they do not know, it certainly should not be beneath
the dignity of the teachers to admit that there are times when
they do not know the answers to some of the problems that are
raised. Reading is usually the means employed by both children
and teacher to find out if any answer is known, and here a well
selected library is important.
In this scientific age both children and adults are exposed
to a scientific vocabulary. The school can play an important
part in helping the child understand the terminology of the age
in which he lives.
Reading as a means to science learning is difficult for the
child if he is unable to use printed material and comprehend
meanings. It is normal for children of any class to vary widely
in their reading abilities, and teachers will want to analyze the
varying reading levels of their pupils in order to select materials
wisely. Texts from earlier grades can sometimes be used as a
source of information for a group of slow readers. A gradually
expanding library collection which includes books on many levels
and in many areas of science offers the best opportunity for se-
lecting materials to fit the individual's needs. Here the fast
reader can be challenged and the slow reader assisted in pursu-
ing an interest.
Science and the Reading Process. In helping pupils read
science material, teachers will want to employ all their knowl-
edge of how children learn to read. They will emphasize par-








WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE 53

ticularly the experience base of reading and the lifelong nature
of learning to read. The process of learning to read involves
the association of a printed symbol with a known idea. If the
idea is known, the child can acquire a symbol for it. If the idea
is unknown, even repetition and exhortation will not enable the
child to associate a symbol with it. Conversely, if the word sym-
bols are familiar, a new idea can be constructed from the ex-
periences they represent. But if both words and ideas are new,
learning can not take place.
In the primary grades, many ideas represent first hand
experiences of the children. Even so, good primary teachers
make sure that a child is ready to read a certain section of ma-
terial, first, by checking to see if he has the new idea at all;
second, by using pictures or more direct means of refining and
extending the idea; third, by using conversation to bring the
new word into the hearing and speaking vocabularly of the child
before he meets it in print. In the middle and upper grades
these same steps are essential. Here the ideas are more com-
plex and many far away places and times are involved. Thus
the pupil who is going to read from his text about cantilever,
suspension, and arch bridges needs to develop first from pictures
and discussion some concept of what the bridges are like. Read-
ing is often described as the reconstruction of experience. It is
paramount that the reader bring something to the printed page
in order to take something from it.
In spite of the fact that reading is an important way of
learning science, the admonition is sometimes given that the
science books should not be used as readers and that the results
will be disappointing, in both science and reading, if they are
so used. This warning is based upon the fact that the books
are intended for basic instruction, with teacher interpretation
and guidance a part of their use. To use the text for supple-
mentary reading, either independent silent work or oral sight
reading is usually unsatisfactory since the new ideas and the
new words interrupt and finally defeat understanding. To use
the text for further basal reading instruction is unprofitable
since the books were never designed to develop a sequence of
reading skills.

Observing as a Means of Learning
Observing is one of the richest experiences for learning
science. Teachers should encourage and develop the possbili-
ties that may arise from observation.
Field Trips. Are you teaching science within the four walls
of a school room? How much more interesting to go into the
out-of-doors which presents opportunities for seeing, hearing,








54 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

and discovering things that can never be found in the classrooms.
The excursion or field trip as a teaching technique is unique
in that it makes possible first hand experiences with many ma-
terials which cannot be brought into the classrooms. These
materials may be seen in their true relationship only in the field.
The excursion has many values. Particularly has it been
found that actual field study brings about shifts in social atti-
tudes, that it provides experience in finding the solution of
problems arising from individual and group participation in
natural social situations, that it stimulates discussion, furthers
research, and promotes language and creative activities. Ex-
cursions also provide leads for intelligent use of leisure, give
meaning to needs of conservation, stimulate curiosity, and help
the children know their own community.
If a field trip is to be pleasurable and profitable to the chil-
dren and teacher alike, it must be well-planned. Children can

Studying nature in the out of doors on a field trip sponsored by the
Children's Museum.








WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE


and should have a part in the selection of the excursion as it
relates to a need growing out of classroom activities. They
should have a voice in setting up the purposes, which should be
clearly defined and accepted by them. They can assume some
responsibility for gathering materials and equipment for the
trip and help make arrangements for transportation when
necessary.
It is important that the teacher make necessary arrange-
ments with school officials and other persons concerned. A
preliminary trip to the place to be visited gives the teacher an
opportunity to become aware of hazards to be avoided, to become
familiar with what is to be seen, and to enable him to suggest
equipment and materials that should be taken. If there is to be
a guide, it is wise for the teacher to discuss in advance with this
person the experiences which have led the children to this trip,
as well as their particular interests and level of understanding.
In the following up an excursion, there are many techniques
that may be used. While follow-up is essential, there is danger
that many of the values of the trip may be spoiled by requiring
detailed reports and examinations. The teacher must develop
his own technique in the light of the total situation. Group
discussion, articles written by children for the local newspaper,
other reports, further reading, laboratory activities, and writ-
ing letters of thanks are all valuable phases of the follow-up
activities.
Film, film strips, and slides. Film strips and slides may be
used to achieve many of the objectives of science teaching. They
are in many cases the next best thing to direct experience.
In selecting the film the following criteria should be ob-
served if the best learning is to be attained. It should be on
the level of the comprehension of the children, it must be suit-
able for the group, it must not be too long, it must be relative
to the subject, the photography must be correct, it must be up-
to-date, and it must further the child's learning.
The time of showing depends upon the purpose. Some films
are most appropriate to use as an approach, some during the re-
search period, some as a summary.
Before showing the film, there must be teacher-pupil prep-
aration. It is important for the teacher to preview the film and
read the handbook if there is one. This enables him to prepare
the children better for what they are to see.
The film strip or film should be shown slowly enough for
the children to comprehend it. Both the film and film strip
should be stopped at vital points for discussion. Teacher com-
ments should also accompany the showing if necessary. A sec-
ond showing may be helpful. The follow-up of the showing of
the film is important. It may include further discussion of what









56 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

has been seen, evaluation of the film by the group, more reading
on the subject, and other activities.
Homemade slides are often helpful. Children can create
their own material. The slides are inexpensive and can be washed
off and used again. Home made slides supplement commercially
prepared slides and permit local applications.
Bulletin boards. The bulletin board offers great possibilities
for helping the children keep track of current science happen-
ings. The children are encouraged to watch the daily newspapers
and magazines for accounts of science materials, clip any period-
icals or collect any pictures that are available for this purpose,
and then put these accounts on the bulletin board. It may also
be used as a place to exhibit work done by members of the class.
This type of activity may lead to further reading and dis-
cussion by the group, and may be made a valuable motivation
for increasing ability in reading.

Collecting and exhibiting science specimens peculiar to Florida.








WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE


The care and use of a bulletin board is important if it is
to be meaningful to the group. The materials to be used should
be grouped together as a unit, pupils should be encouraged to
assume responsibility for the care and arrangement of this ma-
terial, and care should be exercised in the length of time that
the material is to be kept on the board, depending upon the in-
terest span of the children.
Models and collections. Models, collections, and museums
are forms of visual materials that have a definite place in the
elementary school. The collecting of science material by the
children offers great opportunities through which to encourage
and direct interest. It is profitable to keep a record of each
piece of material brought to the schoolroom and accepted for
the collection. This record might give the name of the pupil
finding the material, its source, the name of the material, and
comments about it. The comment is an important part of the
record, and helps to prevent collecting from becoming an end in
itself. The pupil should be encouraged to learn something about
the material he has found and to write the comment himself.
When a child brings material and asks questions about it, he
should be helped to find the answers that are scientifically true
and that satisfy his curiosity.
As the process of collecting and labeling materials continues,
the problem of how to keep them will arise. This need may be
used as a motivation for establishing a museum in the school
room or a centralized one in the school. A museum collection
that is set-up through the scientific approach should consist of
the labeling and proper arrangement of the collection to give
those who look at the material a good understanding of it. The
specimen may be accompanied by pictures and a child's story.
In using material to put in a museum, it is well to observe the
following points: (1) secure or accept only such materials as
are related to the school program and which will help make the
content of the curriculum meaningful; (2) secure a few items
at a time so that their relationship to the curriculum may be
established and their value in making instruction meaningful,
assimilated by the pupils; (3) plan for student participation in
preparation and in explanation of materials to other students;
(4) look upon the museum not as a storehouse or showroom but
as a work and research center.
Models may be included as a part of the museum. They
have advantages and disadvantages. The children are fascinated
with things they can see and touch but sometimes the difference
in the size of the real thing and the model confuses the child.
Models constructed by the pupils are often valuable. Young
children should not be encouraged to make small models because
detailed work involving a high degree of muscle coordination








58 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

is avoided in the primary grades. Care should be taken to as-
sure the authenticity of the model, a too often neglected feature.
Good working materials for pupil-made models are soap and
clay.

Experimenting as a Means of Learning.
Experimenting has many values for science instruction.
First, experimenting offers the opportunity for children to
learn by doing, an often repeated principle in education which
is not always given a chance to function. Second, experimenting
is vivid and convincing. "Seeing is believing", in most situations
and for most youngsters. Third, through the actual use of ma-
terials and procedures that can be repeated or verified, children
are led to see the need for eliminating sheer guessing or argu-
ment as a basis for opinion. They often make the discovery they
must change an opinion in the light of the evidence there before
their eyes. Experimenting is a major factor then, in developing
a scientific attitude as well as in acquiring the use of elements
of the scientific method. Fourth, it encourages the exercise of
imagination and creative effort. It opens up opportunities for
subsequent individual investigations, the results of which can
be shared with the group.
The following principles are important in planning for ex-
periments if the work is to be meaningful and effective:
A. Experiments should be conducted in such a way as to
cause pupils to think. An experiment in which the teacher does
and tells everything offers little challenge to the thinking of
the pupils.
B. Children should be fully conscious of the purpose for
performing the experiment. It is never safe to take this aware-
ness of purpose for granted. The purpose should be stated in
several ways if possible and it is often desirable to write it on
the board in a simple, direct form.
C. Careful planning is essential to successful experiment-
ing. A plan of procedure must be set up, appropriate materials
must be assembled, by the children as far as possible, and then
the plan must be followed accurately to insure that the results
can be depended upon.
D. For the most part children themselves should perform
the experiments. It is interesting to note that all recently pub-
lished science texts address the experiments to the children and
that the illustrations show pupils, not teachers, performing the
experiments. Children benefit not only from the actual doing
and the close observation but also from the opportunity to as-
sume and discharge responsibility in a real situation.








WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE


E. Children should be encouraged to originate experiments.
Experiments need not always be complicated nor need they be
described in a book. Whether the plan is devised by pupils or
presented in a book, it must be followed carefully and the obser-
vations made accurately.
F. Simple apparatus is more appropriate for use in the ele-
mentary school than complicated material. Intricate pieces of
apparatus available for borrowing from high school laboratories
sometimes actually distract the attention of children from the
point of the experiment. If the class has available a few pur-
chased materials such as a magnifying glass and prism, prac-
tically everything else needed can be assembled readily by the
children from their school, home, and neighborhood environment.
G. Many applications to life situations should be made
from an experiment. As in the case of stating the purpose of
an experiment this step should not be taken for granted. An
experiment is done in order to make an idea real. The appli-
cations have to be made to show how important and useful the
idea is. Thus, in the familiar experiment of putting a water
glass over a lighted candle to show what happens when air is
shut off, the application remains to be made to such real situa-
tions as dampers on stoves and methods of putting out fires.
H. Pupils must exercise great caution in drawing conclu-
sions. Many children jump to conclusions and must be checked
again and again. It is often easy to make a large generaliza-
tion out of a small bit of evidence. Children must also learn to
hold their findings tentative until they can be confirmed by
additional experiments or by authentic sources. It is often
desirable to include a control in the plan for an experiment,
lest the children ascribe the outcome of the experiment to an
irrelevant factor.

Sample Unit
In use, the four means of learning just described are inter-
mingled. One means is seldom used for long to the exclusion
of one or more of the other means. Thus a good fifth grade
discussion of minerals will lead to the need for reading to locate
further information and then back to discussion, to observation,
probably including a short field trip, and even to experimenting.
In the following pages a sample unit of work is developed
to show how naturally the ways of learning weave together and
how the text serves as a guide and source of information with-
out confining the study to the book or allowing science learning
to become solely a reading process.
"The Influence of Changing Weather" was chosen as a
typical phase of work in the second grade.








60 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

THE INFLUENCE OF CHANGING WEATHER
GRADE TWO

Pre-planning by the teacher is an important step in the
attainment of the major purposes of science instruction. As
he plans ahead and as the work unfolds, he will anticipate op-
portunities for developing scientific attitude, using the scientific
method, building confidence in man's ability to control his en-
vironment for better living, increasing the child's understanding
of his environment so that he can react intelligently to it, and
extending the child's interests.
In the unit on weather changes, the actual content serves
largely the major purpose of helping children understand their
environment so that they can react intelligently to it. The
way of work, however, serves the other major purposes of
science instruction.

A. Understandings to be developed.
1. Changes in weather affect the way we live:
a. control the choice of clothing necessary for comfort
b. make necessary the protection of foods and food
sources
1. refrigeration
2. storage of food for winter
c. affect travel by air, land, water
d. control the use of light and heat
2. Changes in weather influence other parts of our environ-
ment:
a. make it necessary for plants and animals to store
foods, adapt to changes (or) and migrate
b. alter shape and condition of earth surface
c. cause destruction of natural resources through
floods, hurricanes and storms
3. Some changes in weather are helpful; some are harmful:
a. destroy crops and other plant life (such changes as
floods, hurricanes, frost, hail, drought, or fog are
destructive
b. supply water for living things
c. effect all forms of travel
4. Some scientific instruments help us understand and de-
scribe weather changes, as:
a. measure of temperature
b. direction and speed of wind








WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE 61

B. Approach
There are many everyday happenings and experiences in
the daily lives of children that give a natural approach to the
study of weather. The daily weather reports on the radio, or
the predictions listed in the newspapers are part of the child's
living, especially so when they refer to the possibility of a hurri-
cane. Often children are familiar with flags that are displayed
as storm or hurricane warnings and these may provide a good
approach.
Children are naturally curious and their questions cover a
wide area. They may involve such problems as, "Why don't we
see the sun today? Is it going to rain? What do birds do when
it rains? What picture can we use on our weather chart today ?"
These natural approaches that come from informal discussion
periods give the child the opportunity to fit his study into his
living. When they are given an opportunity to find answers to
their questions, the children become enthusiastic about their
learning.
If the children are reticent about telling their weather ex-
periences, the teacher might start the discussion by asking
questions, such as, "Are you doing anything different today
from yesterday because of the weather?" "Are your father
and mother doing anything different?" "How does the weather
make a difference in the lives of farmers, fishermen, pilots, and
other community workers ?"
Much of the discussion may be a review of some of the chil-
dren's experiences in the first grade. They may refer to dif-
ferent kinds of weather and they may recall experiments dealing
with evaporation.
The group may think together about, "What do we want to
know? Can we answer any of our own questions? Is there any
way by which we can check our answers? Where can we find
the information that we need?"
Here's an opportunity to develop an important phase of the
scientific attitude through the rejection of guessing and the
seeking of evidence.
The alert teacher will direct these new learning although
discussion has served as an approach to the study. She will
undoubtedly now include some experiments, reading, and pos-
sibly field trips.
C. Activities
In studying weather as it affects our ways of living, there
are activities which children, individually or in groups, find in-
teresting, and which bring out in a special way how weather








62 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

and temperature affect us and how we regulate and control
some conditions of weather.
One of these activities is a collection or a list of ther-
mometers, such as the oven thermometer, icebox thermometer,
candy or icing thermometer, clinical thermometer, automobile
thermometer. The children know from home experience that
mother's cake burns when the oven is too hot and that their
candy often fails to harden because their candy thermometer is
broken and they cannot test for temperature of the cooking in-
gredients. They see that it is often very desirable to measure
and control heat.
Johnny has noticed that father watches the tube or needle
in the automobile thermometer to see if the car motor gets too
hot. He knows that if the needle moves too far across the dial,
the motor is too hot indicating that something has gone wrong.
Thermometers tell us something about which it is not safe to
guess (a lead into safety).
As other types of thermometers are brought in or discussed,
it is noticed that the numbers on these are different, have dif-
ferent meanings, and that the instruments themselves are dif-
ferent (a lead into arithmetic).
For the more mature groups, thermometer models may be
made with movable tape which can be adjusted by hand for the
purpose of recording and comparing temperatures (more leads
into arithmetic: measuring).
Another activity is the making of a chart to be used for
a period of time to note the variable quality of the weather.
Class suggested symbols to indicate the kinds of weather each
day make the keeping of this record easy and interesting (a lead
into study of the days and months).
Many learning about weather conditions and how they
effect plants and animals grow out of observation. On a walk
during a hot day we see plants that are withered and curled in-
dicating their need of moisture and their way of protecting them-
selves. On the same day Johnnie's cat is apt to be in the shade
of the hedge. Plants and animals adapt themselves to intense
heat.
On the first cool morning in fall, coats and sweaters appear
for the first time during the school year. Children examine
and admire the new apparel of their friends. Perhaps for the
first time in their lives they hear this important event spoken
of as a way in which people prepare for winter ( a lead into
social studies).

D. Experiments
1. Through questions children often raise problems that can be suc-
cessfully solved by experimentation. "Is there water in the air?"










WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE


Assuming the children have had the experience of water evap-
orating from a dish, the teacher may have the children use the
following experiment in order to review it from another angle.
Place equal amounts of water in two similar containers (pint
milk bottles work well). Stopper one and set both on the win-
dow sill. Leave undisturbed for several days. Compare the
amount of evaporation from one with the other. It will be seen
that when water has an opportunity to evaporate into the air it
will do so. Suggested applications: Observe sidewalks after
rain.
2. During rainy weather children frequently ask, "What makes the
rain?" In helping the children to find the answer to this question
use three similar tin cans. Leave one can empty. Fill one can
with lukewarm colored water, and one with colored ice water. After
a short time small droplets of water will form on the outside of the
can filled with ice water. Where did it come from? Does the can
leak? No, water on the outside is not colored. Since it did not
come through the can, water comes from the air. Cool air holds
less moisture than warm air. The air next to the can was cooled
and the moisture collected on the can.
Children should see that the process just explained (called conden-
sation) is the opposite of evaporation. In evaporation water is
going into the air; in condensation water is coming out of the air.
The words themselves are not necessary for small children to re-
member but they should be able to observe the processes and see
their relationships.
3. When children come from play they often exclaim, "The water
outside from the fountain was so hot." "How hot do you think it
was?" asked the teacher. This leads to much guessing. A way of
answering this problem is by the following experiments.
Fill a tin can with water from the drinking fountain outside. Let
the children guess the temperature by touching the water. Record
the guesses; then check by using the thermometer. They may
be so surprised in their inaccuracy that often they call for a
second thermometer to check the first. This experiment illu-
strates the point that children must eliminate guessing and estab-
lish confidence in the use of scientific instruments.
4. "What happens to our flowers over the weekend?" "Was it too
hot or did we forget to water them?" The answers may be found
by the following experiments.
Take three similar pot plants (geranium, coleus, begonias may be
used). Place one in the refrigerator, one near the radiator, and
one in the room away from the radiator. The plants should re-
ceive the same care, watering them adequately. As plants are
observed from day to day the following will be noted: the plant
in the refrigerator will wilt, the leaves turn yellow and fall off.
This shows that this particular plant cannot survive under these
conditions. The plant near the radiator will wilt, because it can-
not adapt itself to the high temperature. The plant in the class-
room will thrive, because the temperature is neither too hot nor
too cold. This plant can adapt itself to its environment.
5. The children sometimes observe ice at school on wintry mornings.
After a few hours they notice it is gone. They raise the question,
"What has happened to the ice?" The following experiment will
show them the answer:
Bring some ice cubes into the room. As they warm the ice melts,
changing from a solid into a liquid.









64 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

E. Leads Growing Out of the Weather Study
In the study of the changing weather as it affects our ways
of living, many things other than science will be taught as it is
impossible, and not to be desired, to separate and divide the
areas of learning.
Teachers and their classes will be able to use and pursue
leads suggested to them in their own study, and here only a few
possible ones are offered.
In the thermometer experiments and activities an excellent
opportunity for teaching arithmetic arises, and it can be carried
as far as the interest and the ability of the class make it prac-
tical. The relationship of numbers to everyday experiences is
a valuable thing for the children to see.
From a field trip, a study of bird's nests (homes of animals
in general) contributes to the understandings of how animals
protect themselves from the weather. People also protect them-
selves from the weather by building homes which might suggest
a further study of materials of homes, how and where obtained,
and how constructed.
Throughout all this study the language arts play an im-
portant part. The discussion, the planning, and the experiment-
ing give opportunity for both oral and written language, in-
cluding drawings, diagrams and charts.

F. Evaluation
I. Immediate outcomes-understandings
a. A thermometer shows the degree of temperatures.
b. It is better to use a thermometer than to guess about the tem-
perature.
c. Water evaporates more rapidly when the weather is hot and dry.
d. Heat makes ice melt.
e. There is water in the air.
f. When warm air is chilled, moisture condenses.
g. Water goes into air by evaporation.
h. We cannot see moisture in the air unless it is condensed in some
form such as clouds, fog, rain, snow, etc.
i. Plants need sunshine and moisture.
j. Sometimes wind helps us and sometimes it harms us.
k. It is important to know about the temperature so that we may
know what kind of clothing to wear. Weather conditions affect
our work and play.
II. Long range evaluation
Can you see that:
a. there has been critical thinking by the group?
b. the group has found that they cannot guess the answers?
c. there has been social sharing of experiences?
d. the study has given more confidence in the use of scientific ma-
terial?
e. the unit has been a part of the child's total living and not apart
from the rest of his day?
b. the children use the knowledge in their every day living?
g. they are eager to gather more information?









WAYS IN WHICH CHILDREN LEARN SCIENCE


G. One Example of the Interdependence of the Ways of Learning
The ways in which a particular class may combine the vari-
ous types of procedure are almost endless. In one class, the ap-
proach was through discussion of an unusually heavy rainstorm
the afternoon before which had caught many children on their
way home. The comments led to such questions as "How does
water get into the air?" "What makes rain?" Two experi-
ments were outlined for the next day. The experience also
prompted the class to start a weather chart. Following the two
experiments on evaporation and condensation, further discus-
sion occurred. This led to the question of why thermometers
are used. The third day an experiment involving thermometers
was used. The discussion led to reading from the text on the
fourth and fifth days regarding the ways in which some animals
prepare for winters (prolonged weather change). The reading
stimulated additional questions and the use of pictures (observ-
ing) of animals preparing for winter. The effects of weather
on what we do and on our surroundings led to the discovery
(sixth and seventh days) that water has three forms. The text
was used again and was followed by an experiment. On the last
day the pupils formulated a story of what they had learned, and
listed three questions for which they still wanted answers.
Another class approached the study of weather with a short
field trip around the school grounds to observe the effects of
frost.

H. Materials Needed
The equipment used in the experiments may be obtained
locally. The materials needed for the unit on weather are few:
(two pint milk bottles, a cork or bottle stopper, three tin cans,
ink or vegetable coloring, thermometer, three similar potted
plants, and ice cubes.)
References:
A. Teacher references:
1. Wonderworld of Science, Book Two, Knox, Stone, Meister,
Noble, pp. 39-41, 56-58. 65-80
2. Pathways in Science, Book Two-Out of Doors, Craig and
Baldwin pp. 95-100, 105-124
3. Science for Elementary Teachers-Craig
4. Everybody's Weather-Gaer
B. Pupil references:
1. Wonderworld of Science, Book Two
2. Pathways in Science, Book Two, Out of Doors
C. Suggested library list:
1. Raindrops Splash-Tresslet-Lathrop
2. Water Appears and Disappears-Blough-Row Peterson
3. Thermometers-Heat and Cold-Parker-Row Peterson








66 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


CHAPTER V.
USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS OF
ELEMENTARY SCIENCE

Quantities of material exist today which can be useful to
teachers as they plan for effective instruction in science. The
actual use of these materials, however, is determined not only
by the forethought of the teacher as to what kind of instruc-
tional material is appropriate in a given situation but also by
the specific information as to where and how to obtain such
material or how to proceed with a certain activity. For instance,
it is one step to decide that watching ants build a nest would
be a suitable activity at a given point in the work, but it is still
another step to find out how to arrange the glass container and
how to feed the ants.
Often desired information can be obtained from other fac-
ulty members or from people in the community. Individuals in
the class sometimes have a surprising fund of special knowledge.
In printed materials, specific information on how to do certain
activities can be obtained, in the main, from four sources: one,
textbooks from the grade concerned, texts from other grades,
texts of other series than those currently in adoption; two, pro-
fessional material for teachers, such as the books by Craig and
by Croxton described on the bibliography on page 71; three,
library material for children; four, service leaflets from publish-
ers and science supply houses, such as the Turtox Leaflets de-
scribed on page 74. Thus, information of such specific a matter
as how to balance an aquarium can be found in all four places.
The sections of this chapter-equipment, references for
teachers, library material for children, audio-visual material,
topical index to science material in state-adopted texts, materials
and services from Curriculum Laboratories have been prepared
in the sincere hope that the information assembled will help
teachers expedite their efforts to create rich learning experi-
ences for children.
Equipment
Through participation in experiments and science activities
children develop and clarify understandings. Some equipment
needs to be made available and provisions made for space in-
which to carry on these activities.
Room Equipment. Most classes will want to arrange a
science corner or area. It might include a large table for work
space of projects, shelves for exhibits, equipment and commonly








USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS 67

used books. A bulletin board is useful for pictures, articles, and
displays. The children can set up the science corner, with the
help of the teacher. In upper elementary grades they can build
some of the room equipment and in some cases construct simple
apparatus.
A faucet in the room is an asset although not a necessity,
as water can be brought into the room when needed for experi-
ments. However, in planning new buildings, it is well to keep
in mind the need for water in science, art, and other activities.
So many uses for heat are found in science that some means
of heat should be provided. If electrical outlets are accessible,
a hot plate is an excellent source and presents little danger. In
many experiments requiring little heat, candles are useful and
sufficient. An alcohol lamp may be used. This lamp can be
made by punching a hole in the top of an empty ink bottle, in-
serting a small piece of lamp wicking, and filling the bottle with
alcohol.

A third grade science class develops and uses a science corner.








68 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Globes and maps are frequently needed. A globe is espe-
cially important when studying seasonal changes or night and
day. Maps are needed in the study of climate and natural re-
sources.
School rooms should have adequate closet or cabinet space,
for the storage of equipment and supplies. This need should be
kept in mind when planning new school buildings. A counter-
height, wide shelf could be built along the rear wall of the room,
with storage space or cabinets underneath. The counters can
be used as work space for the children and the cabinets will hold
equipment. Over the counters open shelves and tackboard space
can be used for display and for reference books.

Materials For Experiments:
Equipment frequently used should be stored in the room,
while materials used occasionally can be stored in a central place,
making it possible for the same materials to serve several class-
rooms at a different time. The material may be stored in the
library or the principal's office, if there is no central library, and
charged out to the teacher as she needs it.
A large part of the necessary equipment needed for experi-
mentation can be secured from the local environment at little or
no cost. Expense of equipment is not a handicap to elementary
science instruction. Collecting of the equipment should be a
cooperative undertaking of the teacher and the children. Most
of the materials can be brought in by pupils, some will need to
be purchased locally, and just a few items will need to be ordered
from science supply companies. In some cases simple apparatus
can be constructed by pupils. Jars, jugs, bottles of different
sizes, saucers, plates, tin cans, flower pots, glasses, pieces of wire,
corks, pliers, and other simple tools should be kept on hand and
ready for use.
There are two types of science materials; those used a few
times during the year, which should be borrowed, and those that
are needed frequently, which ought to be obtained for the room.
In the list following the items starred are those which are used
most frequently. It is suggested that the teacher keep a "ready
box" containing these items available at all times.
Care of equipment is important, as it will become damaged
or misplaced unless properly used and stored. Every piece of
equipment should have a definite place to be kept when not in
use. A simple system of organization will facilitate use, with
boxes labeled with such titles as, Electrical Supplies, Glass. Ordi-
narily cardboard boxes plain or enameled, make good attractive
containers.










USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS


LIST OF USEFUL MATERIALS

Most of the following material can be brought in by the
pupils. If these can not be obtained by pupils, they may be pur-
chased from the sources listed.


Five and Ten Store
or Hardware Store
Nails
Pint and Quart bottles
*Cord (ball) wrapping
Garden tools
Zinc metal 8"x12"
Copper metal 8"x12"
Iron roll 6" or 8" in length
Door bell (electric)
Dry cells (batteries 3 # 6)
Push button switch (electric)
Switch (electric-knife)
Copper wire # 18 insulated
Copper wire # 22 insulated
*Flash light
Flash light bulbs
*Small triangle file
*Screw driver
*Paring knife or pocket knife
*Scissors
*Candles (small)
*Sand paper
*Steel wool
*Paste and glue
*Flower pots
*Sealing wax

Grocery Store
Table salt
Baking soda


Sugar
Vinegar
Household Ammonia
Cellophane
*Pins
*Corks
*Tumblers
*Matches (safety)
*Pans
*Balloons
*Thermometer (weather type)
*Clay (modeling)
*Tinfoil
*Rubber bands
*Thread
*Tacks
Mirror (hand)
* Saucers

Drug Store
Peroxide
Iodine
Denatured alcohol

Miscellaneous
Assorted cardboard boxes
Wood blocks
Pieces of silk, fur, wool cloth


Science Supply Company. These materials should be purchased
from a scientific supply company if not available locally. The
original cost will be about $20.00. The materials will last year
after year since they are not of a consumable type. The first
five items have the greatest frequency of use.
2- Magnifying glasses tripod form, reading glass form
1- Prism right angle
1- Pair bar magnets 6" lengths
4 oz. Package of iron filings
1- Compass (magnet mounted on needle support preferred)
1 lb. Rubber stoppers-assorted
1- Ring stand with two rings-Medium size dia. 3"
1- Burette clamp to use with the ring stand
5 lb. Glass tubing (6 mm. dia. outside)









70 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Smaller amounts are not available. This amount will sup-
ply the elementary school for two or three years.
1- Alcohol burner (glass form)
5 ft. Rubber tubing to fit 6 mm. glass tubing
4- Minature light bulbs (for battery voltage)
2- Pyrex flasks 250 cc. Florence Flat bottom
4- Beakers Pyrex 400 cc. low form with lip
2- Wire test tube clamps
1- Thermometer Fahrenheit-Centigrade
6- Test tubes Pyrex 6" lengths
1- Wire gauze 4" x 4". Asbestos center
1- Funnel, glass 3" dia.

The following are a few of the many supply houses from
which these materials may be ordered:
Central Scientific Company
1700 Irving Park Blvd., Chicago, Illinois.
220 East 42nd Street, New York, New York.
Chicago Apparatus Company
1735 North Ashland Ave., Chicago, Illinois.
W. M. Welch Manufacturing Company
1515 Sedgwick Street, Chicago, Illinois

SELECTED REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS
Several kinds of printed material are available to teachers
for guidance and for resource use. A few outstanding examples
of three types are listed here: one, professional books, bulletins,
and magazines; two, publications available through state agen-
cies; three inexpensive reference material.

Professional Literature for Teachers of Elementary Science

BOOKS AND BULLETINS
Individuals interested in teaching science in the elementary
school and in the construction of a curriculum in this field will
wish to become familiar with these more recent books which
treat the teaching of science in the elementary school in its many
phases.
1. Arey, Charles K., Science Experiences for Elementary Schools, New
York: Bureau of Publication, Teachers College, Columbia University,
1942, 80 p. 54c. A clear presentation of many experiments and activi-
ties suitable for elementary grades.
2. Brandley, Franklin, Science Experiments for Ten to Twelve Year Olds.
3. Craig, Gerald S., Science for the Elementary School Teacher, New
York: Ginn and Company, 1940, 55 p. $2.90. An excellent reference
book for all teachers in the elementary grades. It presents a discus-
sion of the place of science in the elementary school. It presents many










USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS


important understandings in science, activities and experiments suit-
able for use with children.
4. Craig, Gerald S., Science in Childhood Education, New York: Bureau
of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1944, 86 p. 54c.
Bulletin dealing with science in the elementary school curriculum.
5. Croxton, W. C., Science in the Elementary School, New York: Mc-
Graw-Hill Book Company, 1937. Presents discussion of methods of
teaching science, aims, teacher's preparation, evaluation of results.
Part two contains details of an activity program.
6. Forty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu-
cation, Part I. "Science Education in American Schools," Chicago,
University of Chicago Press, 1947. 296 p.
7. Garrison, Charlotte G., Science Experiments for Little Children,
Charles Scribner and Sons.
8. Heiss, E. D., Obourn, E. S., Hoffman, C. W., Modern Methods and
Materials for Teaching Science, New York: MacMillan, 1940, 351 p.
$4.72. Contains a section on principles of science teaching, one on
materials and devices for teaching science.
9. Pitluga, George E., Science Excursions into the Community, New York:
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1943, 145 p. $1.58. Describes
techniques for planning and conducting excursions and gives specific
examples of excursions in areas of health and safety, and home life.
10. Preston, Ralph C., Science an Approach in the Elementary School,
Philadelphia Public Schools. 1945. 39 p. An informal discussion of
some of the practical problems of science instruction.
11. Science Education for the Elementary Schools of Ohio, The State De-
partment of Education, Columbus, Ohio, 1946. 192 p. Curriculum Bul-
letin No. 3.
12. Science for the Elementary ,School. State Superintendent of Public
Instruction, Raleigh, North Carolina, 1941. 115 p.
13. Science in the Elementary School. California State Department of
Education, Sacramento, 1945. 416 p.-A source book of general back-
ground material including units, activities and bibliographies.
14. This is Science. Bulletin of the Association for Childhood Education.
Washington, D. C., 1945. 43 p.-Contains practical material useful to
teachers of elementary science.
15. Thirty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa-
tion, Part I. A Program for Teaching Science. Bloomington, Ill.,
Public School Publishing Co., 1932, 370 p.-Contains a treatment of
trends in science teaching and indicates recommendation for further
work. Treats present practices, criticism of practices, contributions
of science teaching, etc.
16. Time for Science. Yearbook, National Science Teachers Association,
Washington, National Education Association, 1946. 51 p.

MAGAZINES
Magazines, both those of the professional type and those
in the content field, are an essential part of the library for ele-
mentary science teachers. Some are useful to children as recrea-
tional reading and in supplying them with information in con-
nection with the study of science. The following list contains
only a few of the more outstanding periodicals which are widely
used. There are many additional useful ones available.









72 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

1. Current Science, published weekly during the school year at 40 South
Third St., Columbus, Ohio, by the American Education Press, Inc.
One to 4 copies, 75c per copy; 5-29 copies, 50c per copy, 30 or more
copies, 40c per copy per year.-General science subject matter for
older children.
2. Nature Magazine, published monthly from October to May; bi-
monthly June to September, by American Nature Association, 1214
Sixteenth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. $3.00 per year.-Contains
articles on natural history and devotes pages to astronomy, conser-
vation; etc.
3. Science Education, the official organ of the National Association for
Research in Science Teaching, the National Council on Elementary
Science, and the Association of Science Teachers of the Middle States.
Published in February, March, October, and December. $2.50 per
year. Single copies 65c. Send subscriptions to editor, C. M. Pruitt,
Room 234, Natural History Building, University of Illinois, Urbana,
11.-Contains articles of general interest to all science teachers.
4. Science News Letter, published weekly from September to June at
2101 Constitution Ave., Washington, D. C., by Science Service. $5.00
per year.-Brief discussion of all science developments. Keeps reader
informed on current developments in science.
5. Science Teacher, official journal of The National Science Teachers As-
sociation of the U. S., published October, December, February, April,
at North School St., Normal, Ill. $1.00 per year.-Articles of general
interest to all science teachers.

Publications Available through State Agencies

STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
The following texts and bulletins are available from the
State Department of Education through the usual requisitioning
procedures:
The Wonder World of Science, Knox and Stone, Charles Scribners
Sons, (state-adopted, 1946) grades 1-6.
Pathways in Science, Craig and Baldwin, Ginn and Company, (state-
adopted prior tq 1946 and still available in most schools) grades 1-6.
Exploring Our World, Powers, Neuner and Bruner, grade 7.
Our World Changes, Powers, Neuner, and Bruner, grade 8.
Understanding the Universe, Carrol, John C. Winston Company,
grade 9.
Florida, Wealth or Waste? Junior High.
A Guide to Improved Practice in Florida Elementary Schools, Bulle-
tin No. 9.
A Guide to Teaching in the Primary Grades. Bulletin No. 46.
A Guide to Teaching in the Intermediate Grades, Bulletin No. 47.

Regardless of the grade level which is her special interest,
each teacher should find a wide range of information and source
material in the texts listed above. The book Florida, Wealth or
Waste? has much pertinent material not found elsewhere in
print. If these materials are not already available in your
school bookroom and professional library, consult the principal
and supervisor about obtaining copies.









USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS 73


Bulletins from Florida Board of Forestry and Park Service

(TALLAHASSEE)
ARBOR DAY
Very good teacher information and actual program material. Com-
mon Trees of Florida, Diagrams, pictures, and descriptive paragraphs
are a guide to identifying Florida trees.
ELEMENTARY SCIENCE TEACHING UNITS
Grade I The Rabbit
Grade II The Bob White
Grade III The Woodpecker
Grade IV The Honey Bee
Grade V The Pine Forests
Grade VI Reproduction of the Pine Tree
PROGRAM OF FORESTRY AND STATE PARKS
Contains a list of available free publications from the State Forest
and Park Service.
STORY OF THE WOODS THAT THE FARMER OWNED
Leaflet for elementary school use. Second grade and above.

Bulletins from the U. S. Department of Agriculture

(WASHINGTON)

BURNING YOUR DOLLARS
Forest fires-measures of prevention
FLORIDA'S NATIONAL FORESTS
The out-of-doors as instructional material
FORESTRY ON PRIVATE TIMBERLANDS
A record in pictures
SOUTHERN PINES PAY
Good pictures
AMERICAN FORESTS
SOME PLAIN FACTS ABOUT THE FOREST
TAMING OUR FORESTS
TREES FOR TOMORROW

Bulletins from Florida Department of Agriculture

(TALLAHASSEE)
AFTER VICTORY
An insight into the various resources and attractions of Florida
AGRICULTURAL CONSERVATION
Includes erosion
BULLFROG FARMING AND FROGGING
Encouraging a rather new industry; informational also
FLORIDA CROPS
What and when to plant
FLORIDA TODAY AND TOMORROW
A picture of Florida's resources at the present and possibilities
KNOW YOUR STATE
Florida's resources and possibilities









74 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

OPPORTUNITY IN FLORIDA
A survey of possibilities
SOIL OF FLORIDA
Includes a general soil map and a vegetation map
The following titles are self-explanatory:
BEEF CATTLE IN FLORIDA
BEEKEEPING IN FLORIDA
BETTER PASTURES FOR FLORIDA
BIRDS IN FLORIDA
CANNING IN FLORIDA
CITRUS INDUSTRY IN FLORIDA
COMMERCIAL BULB PRODUCTION IN FLORIDA
COTTON PRODUCTION IN FLORIDA
DOMESTIC RABBIT RAISING IN FLORIDA
DUCKS AND GEESE IN FLORIDA
FLORIDA DAIRYING SHOWS PROGRESS
FLORIDA'S SUGAR BOWL
FLOWERS FOR FLORIDA HOMES
FUTURE POSSIBILITIES IN FLORIDA? VOL. II.
GROWING ASPARAGUS PLUMOSU, IN FLORIDA
GROWING NEW ISLAND COTTON UNDER FLORIDA CONDITIONS
HOG PRODUCTION AND MARKETING IN FLORIDA
LANDSCAPE PLANTS FOR FLORIDA HOMES
MARKETING EGG AND POULTRY IN FLORIDA
PINEAPPLE GROWING IN FLORIDA
POSSIBILITIES OF THE EVERGLADES
RAMIE
ROOT CROPS GROWN IN FLORIDA
SPANISH MOSS IN FLORIDA
SOIL IMPROVING CROPS FOR FLORIDA
SOILS AND FERTILIZERS
SOME FLORIDA TRUCK CROPS
STRAWBERRY, BLACKBERRY, AND YOUNGBERRY
TERMITES AND OTHER INSECT PESTS
TOBACCO GROWING IN FLOIDA
TUNG OIL
TUPELO HONEY
WATERMELONS IN FLORIDA

Bulletins from the State Board of Health

(JACKSONVILLE)
The State Board of Health has available a number of
printed materials, often well-illustrated, which are of help in
health instruction, including nutrition. Write to the State
Board of Health, Jacksonville, for a listing of current material.

Inexpensive Reference Material

The Turtox Service Leaflets are typical of the excellent in-
expensive materials now available to teachers. These leaflets
are intended primarily for the use of biology teachers in the
secondary schools, but many of the leaflets contain information
desired by elementary teachers in carrying out activities. The
leaflets cost 11/2c each and can be ordered from the General









USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS 75


Biological Supply
Illinois.
Leaflet No. 1.
Leaflet No. 2.
Leaflet No. 5.
Leaflet No. 8.
Leaflet No. 10.
Leaflet No. 13.
Leaflet No. 23.
Leaflet No. 35.
Leaflet No. 45.
Leaflet No. 46.
Leaflet No. 47.
Leaflet No. 48.
Leaflet No. 49.
Leaflet No. 53.


House, 761-763 East 69th Place, Chicago, 37

How to Make an Insect Collection.
Preserving Zoological Specimens
Starting and Maintaining a Balanced Fresh-Water
Aquarium.
How to Prepare Microscope Slides of Simple Objects.
The School Terrarium.
Rearing the Silk-Worm Moth.
Feeding Aquarium and Terrarium Animals.
Studying Ants in Observation Nests.
Lantern Slides Any Teacher Can Make.
The Study of Fossil Plants.
The Study of Fossil Animals.
Aquarium Troubles: Their Prevention and Remedies.
Nutrition Experiments.
The Care and Breeding of the Golden Hamster.


Library Material for Children
The School Library. Reading has been emphasized as one
of the ways in which children learn science. Every class should
have access to a variety of attractive books written and illu-
strated in a style that challenges the children to further reading.
The books selected for the library should cover a wide range of
subject matter in order to help meet different interests of chil-
dren. At the same time, the. books should represent a wide
range of reading levels in order to meet the varying degrees of
reading skill possessed by pupils.
Teachers and others responsible for selecting library books
will find that the 1947 List of State Adopted Library Books is
an excellent source of information and guide for buying, what-
ever the source of funds may be. The list now contains several
thousand titles. The subject index makes it easy to locate the
science books. Each book is annotated and it is therefore pos-
sible to determine which books will be appropriate. The read-
ing level is indicated by an "E" for easy, "A" for average and
"M" for mature. Some of the books included under Science in
the subject index are primarily narrative in nature, but these
books were not included in the list unless the science informa-
tion contained in them was also authentic.
Extension Library Service. The General Extension Divi-
sion has materials available that are of assistance to many
classes. In the main these materials are of four types:
1. Unit libraries for children. The unit library is a col-
lection of children's books on one subject. Each library
contains approximately 20 books on varying levels of
difficulty. Fiction is often included, but a library is
planned to offer factual information told entertainingly








76 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

to children on their own levels of reading ability. Unit
libraries on about 250 subjects are now available, includ-
ing such science topics as airplanes, fire, food, light, saf-
ety, seed dispersal, time, and weather.
2. Unit picture collections. Unit Picture collections have
been prepared to accompany a number of the subjects in
the unit libraries. Each collection consists of from three
to thirty pictures carefully mounted.
3. Package libraries. A package library is a collection
of printed materials dealing with a single subject. It
contains books, pamphlets, reports, magazine articles,
and reprints. It contains reference material for older
pupils and for teachers.
4. Dramatic materials. Plays for children and adults are
lent for reading only, not for production materials.
Some of the materials relate to science, particularly plays
on health and safety.
Libraries are lent as requested by any Florida teacher,
and the only charge is postage from Gainesville and return.
For a complete listing of titles and directions for ordering, write
to Miss Bernice Mims, Extension Library Service, General Ex-
tension Division, Gainesville.

Audio-Visual Materials
The use of audio-visual materials in the classroom holds a
definite place if they are used to:
1. Develop correct initial concept
2. Enrich and vitalize instruction
3. Effect an economy of time in learning
Accurate representation ranks next in value to the use of
the object, in the forms flat pictures, photographs, models,
museum specimens, film strips, movies, hand made slides, and
different crafts, and recordings. Two types of material, flat
pictures and hand made slides, are of frequent use in the
classroom.
Flat Pictures. Of all the means of presentation the flat
picture is the most familiar. It is present in newspapers, in
magazines, in advertising and displays, as well as in textbooks.
Visual images are basic to ideas and thinking. There are many
advantages in using flat pictures. They can be used for close
or protracted study, can be used repeatedly with little effort
in handling and with little loss in deterioration. They are eco-
nomical and cover almost every subject.








USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS


Pictures of flats used for teaching should be acceptably
mounted on paper that tones in with the neutral value in the
pictures. Soft shades of tan, brown, and gray are most often
satisfactory.
In the evaluation of pictures the group will consider:
1. That the picture be appropriate to the maturity of
the children and to the unit being studied
2. That it have just one center of interest
3. That it be true in color
4. That it be true size or have some familiar object by
which the child can estimate size
For the lower grades pictures are preferably selected with
larger objects and fewer details. It is also important to know
how to place the mounted pictures on the board considering cor-
rect space, balance, and proportion
Hand-made Slide. Slide projections are so widely used in
teaching that it is not necessary to give example of classroom
applications. Hand-made slides consist of several types: etched
glass, clear glass, cellophane, and special transparencies. Hand-
made slides have advantages over other slides and movies in
that the children can create their own material; they are inex-
pensive; they can be washed off and used again; they can sup-
plement other slides with local applications; and they can be
ready for use whenever needed. The production of hand-made
slides is in itself a valuable learning activity, not only for the
subject-matter of the slide but also for the subsidiary skills.
If children have never had any experience in making
slides, results will be better if the class as a whole is given in-
struction in how to make the slides before beginning to work.
Instruction on such problems as the following will save time and
materials:
1. Beginners will probably want to make their drawings
on a piece of paper the size of the slide and then
transfer it to the etched or frosted side of the glass
slide.
2. Draw the picture near the center of the slide so that
the frame will not cover any part of the drawing.
3. Color the slide with special colored pencils or ink.
4. Try the slide in the lantern. Some will probably be in-
distinct. They may need to be colored more heavily
and outlined more clearly.
The teacher and class may wish to keep good and unusual
slides to be shown to other groups of children or even to ex-
change with other schools.








78 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

The Audio-Visual Way. The State Department of Educa-
tion Bulletin No. 22B, The Audio-Visual Way contains a descrip-
tion of the values to be found in each type of audio-visual mater-
ial and sets up criteria for judging the effectiveness of the many
materials now being offered to the schools. All teachers will
find it helpful in their work. Those who are concerned with
ordering material are especially urged to consult the bulletin.
Services of the General Extension Division. It is now possible
for schools to supplement their own efforts by borrowing ma-
terial from the General Extension Division. The Department of
Visual Instruction is in a position to supply four types of ma-
terials for classroom use:

1. Florida Cooperative Film Library-The films in this
collection are available to those schools having a mem-
bership in the Library.
2. Florida Film Depositors-Films in this collection are
available to all schools and citizens within the State
of Florida. Users are required to pay postage both
ways.
3. Lantern Slides-Approximately 225 sets of lantern
slides cover-a wide range of school topics are avail-
able. Users may obtain same by payment of postage.
Lantern slide projectors are available on the same
basis.
4. Filmstrip collection-Approximately 150 filmstrips
are available. Users may obtain same by payment of
postage both ways. Filmstrip projectors are avail-
able on the same basis.

For further information as to the titles of films and slides
and as to procedures for ordering materials, write to Mr. George
L. Crutcher, Department of Visual Instruction, General Exten-
sion Division, Gainesville.

Materials and Services from Curriculum Laboratories
Each state university maintains a curriculum laboratory.
Here are gathered professional books, courses of study and cur-
riculum guides from states and cities having outstanding schools,
library books, and a variety of textbooks. Individuals or faculty
groups are invited to make use of these materials either by
coming to the Curriculum Laboratory or by requesting specific
material by mail.









USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS 79

Topical Index

Topical Index of Science Material in Current and Formerly

State-Adopted Texts in Science, Health, and Safety

This topical index of science material found in current and
formerly state-adopted texts in science, health, and safety will
be a handy guide to the teacher in locating available informa-
tion for grades 1 through 6.
This index has been organized to show the type of material
that can be found in the major areas of the scope and continuity
chart of Chapter II in this bulletin. This guide also illustrates
the fact that there is an abundance of science material to be
found in the state-adopted texts.
The index should be of great service to teachers who are
seeking, for a given topic, reading material of several levels. A
glance at the index will show where supplementary material at
lower and higher reading levels can be found. In a similar way,
a teacher doing large unit planning can quickly locate supple-
mentary material.

I. The Earth as a Part of the Universe
Wonderworld of Science
Book I. The Sky Above Us 61- 81
Book II. The Earth 95-110
Book III. Motions of the Earth 117-136
Book IV. The Moon 131-145
Book V. The Solar System 149-180
Book VI. Wonders of the Sky 163-194
Pathways in Science
Book II. The Sky Above Us 131-152
Book III. The Story of the Sky 3- 58
Book IV. The Earth 3- 48
Book V. The Sky 143-194
Book VI. Wonders of the Sky 5- 28
Birth of the Solar System 29- 50

II. The Earth and Its Changing Conditions
Wonderworld of Science
Book I. Water and Land 30- 42
Book II. Getting Ready for Winter 39- 62
The Earth 95-100
Book III. The Changing Earth 36- 64
Book IV. Plants and Animals of the Past 37- 66
Book V. Time and Seasons 35- 66
Changes All Around Us 67-106
Conservation 213, 245
Book VI. Weather and Climate 43- 82










80 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Pathways in Science
Book II. The Story of Weather 95-130
The Story of Ground 153-188
Book III. Plants and Animals of Long Ago 59-100
The Earth We Live On 225-236
Book IV. The Earth 3- 48
The Changing Earth 49-102
Book VI. Layers of the Earth as a Story Book 70-110
Men Discovered Much About the Earth 257-284

HI. Matter and Energy Are Subject to Change
Wonderworld of Science
Book I. The Air Around Us 21- 60
Book II. Water and its Form 63- 81
Magnets 82- 94
Book III. Heat 65- 86
Making Work Easier 87-116
Book IV. Electricity 67-106
Light 107-130
Book V. Changes All Around Us 67-106
Air 106-148
Conservation 213-248
Book VI. Food for Growth and Energy 7- 42
Electricity and Its Uses 83-130
The World of Sound 131-162
Pathways in Science
Book I. Heat and Cold 87-116
Working with Machines and Magnets 117-140
Book III. Magnets and What They Do 85-110
Book IV. Two Forces Which Man Has Put to Work 275-298
Book V. What are Magnetism and Electricity 111-142
Around Us 195-238
Book VI. Men Have Learned Many Things
About Electricity 284-310
American Health Series
Book III. Power for Work 55- 57
Yeast Plants and Alcohol 69- 71
Sound Waves 125-126
Book V. A Lesson from the Doctor (digestion) 175-180
Book VI. How Plants Make Food 59- 61
What Foods Do 61- 64
How the Body Uses Food 87-105
Light and Sound 1- 58
How Teeth Decay 113-115
Air and Oxygen 159-171
Health Hazards in the Air
(carbon monoxide) 75-180
The Effects of Exercise
(oxygen, carbon dioxide, lactic acid) 95-198
Checking Important Facts about Muscles
and Exercise (carbon dioxide, lactic
acid) 219-220
Health, Happiness and Success Series
Book IV. What Is Alcohol 219-220
Book V. Alcohol (fermentation) 246-247










USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS


Book VI. The Use the Body Makes of Air 146-148
Alcohol Affects the Body 233-234
The Road to Safety Series
Book D. Mother's Surprise (Heat Changes Matter) 144-148
Book E. The Storm 179-186
Wind (kites) 209-214
Earthquakes, Windstorm, Floods, Dust,
Lightning 235-244
Book F. The Storms (Flood, snow) 229-289
Book G Thunder and Lightning 297-306
Book H. Making Matches 101-105
New Adventures of the Poison Squad
(food spoilage) 243-250

IV. Conditions Necessary to Life
Wonderworld of Science
Book I. The Air Around Us 43- 60
The Sky Above Us 61- 80
Book II. Animals and Their Food 7- 38
Water and Its Forms 63- 81
Book III. Food Makers 12- 35
How Plants Are Produced 137-163
Book IV. The Balance of Nature 185-213
Book V. Plants and Their Foods 7- 34
Air 107-148
Conservation 213-245
Book VI. Food For Growth and Energy 7- 42
Keeping Fit for Work and Play 243-274
Pathways in Science
Book I. Air and Water 57- 86
Book II The Story of Weather 95-120
Book III. The Waters of the Earth 237-254
The Air Around Us 254-284
Book IV. The Air and How It Works 103-120
Book V. Around Us 195-238
Book VI. Men Make the World a More Healthful
Place 389-422
American Health Series
Book I. Getting Up for Breakfast 7-16
Lunch Time 30- 39
Growing Up 82- 85
The Market 86- 88
The Lost Kitten 83- 93
The Doll House 96- 97
Early to Bed 44- 50
Book II. Foods and Drinks for Health 2- 12
Good Health and Growth 97-120
Book III. Bad Colds 132
Sunlight and Fresh Air for Health 18- 34
The Teeth and Good Health 96-103
Book IV. Good Light and Pure Air in School 11- 15
Home Lighting and Fresh Air 40- 45
Water and Food in Country Homes 72- 78
Healthful Water and Food for City Homes 105-109
Caring for Your Own Pets 123-132










82 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


Growing Plants
How Desert People Live
Food and Water in Holland
Chinese Foods
Book V. Camp Food and Water
Good Food for Health
A Lesson from the Doctor
Book VI. What the Sunlight Does
Stories About Sun and Light
Sources and Uses of Food
How to Care for Teeth and Gums
Water and its Uses
How the Body Uses Air
Many Ways to Grow Up
Health, Happiness and Success Stories
Book III. John's Wish (air)
Sunshine in Bottles
The King of Good Health (eat and drink
Food for Fairies (milk)
The Health Fairy (balanced diet)
Two Sets of Twins (malnutrition)
Book IV. Mr. Fresh Air and Mr. Sunshine
Your Food and Drink
Book V. Foods You Should Eat for Health
and Growth
Air, Sunshine, and Water for the Body
Building Good Teeth
Book VI. Foods and Health
Air and Sunshine

V. Living Things and Their Activities
Wonderworld of Science
Book I. Where Plants and Animals Live
The World in Spring
Where We Get Our Food
Book I. Animals and Their Food
Getting Ready for Winter
Animals and Their Babies
Useful and Harmful Animals
Book III. Food Makers
How Plants Are Produced
Useful Plants
Book IV. Animals and Plants Communities
Flowers and Seeds
The Balance of Nature
Book V. Plants and Their Food
Changes in Living Things
Conservation
Book VI. Food for Growth and Energy
Improvement of Plants and Animals
Keeping Fit for Work and Play
Pathways in Science
Book I. All Around Us
Animal Homes
About Animals
The Garden


143-146
170-175
179-181
187-189
23- 25
71- 97
175-185
5- 13
3- 15
59-105
106-127
128-158
159-192
228-273


93- 97
98-102
124-131
140-145
146-151
217-222
94-104
153-180

1- 91
92-110
147-149
1-102
132-164




9- 30
81-102
103-120
7- 38
39- 62
111-136
137-152
12- 35
137-163
164-184
7- 66
153-184
185-211
7- 34
181-212
213-245
7- 42
195-242
243-274


3- 30
31- 40
141-156
163-176


)










USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS


Book II. Changes Out-of-Doors
Learning About Plants
How Animals Grow Up
Book III. Plants of Long Ago
Animals of Today
How Animals Care for Their Children
The Story of Plants
Book IV. Social and Solitary Life Among Animals
How Other Animals Live
Value of Animals and Plants
Plants
Book V. Getting Ready for Winter
Color That Protects
Plants and Forests
Animals That Change Their Appearance
Insects
Book VI. Early Life of Plants and Animals
Plants and Animals of Today
American Health Series
Book I. Animals
Joe and His Playmates (dog)
Play and Rest (dog)
Safe Play (dog)
Early to Rise (bird)
First Aid (dog)
Book II. Autumn is Fun
Plants A Happy Walk
Outdoor Work
Animals Good Drinks (dog)
A Happy Walk (bird)
A Trip to the Park (ducks)
A Bed in the Woods (deer)
Fun on the Farm
Air A Keen Nose (dog)
Vacation Plans (seashore)
Book IV.
Safety Safety at School
Safety Needs and Ways
A Health Program for the Future
Keeping Safe in the Country
Keeping Safe in the City Homes
Book V.
Clothing Clothing, an Aid to Health
Doing Work Good Health and Work
Exercise
and Rest Good Fun and Health
Food Good Food for Health
Prevention
of Disease Our Unseen Enemies
Safety Camp Accidents
The Safety Way to Health
Alcohol and Tobacco
Book VI.
Adaptation Air at High Altitudes
Cleanliness Water Outside the Body
Community
Life Working Together in a Community
Doing Work Working with Others


3- 69
71- 94
189-262
59-100
101-142
143-184
187-223
121-190
207-219
231-254
255-265
3- 82
83- 92
239-310
311-340
341-376
111-202
203-256



1-6, 10, 3
26- 27
40- 41
63- 68
98- 99
1
26- 29
51- 53
6- 7
26- 29
35- 36
47- 48
65- 70
118-119
132-144

18- 20
31- 35
52- 53
84- 87
112-114

120-142
194-216

1- 37
71- 97

143-193
28- 31
38- 70
98-119

167-152
144-152

289-295
274-296










84 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

Exercise
and Rest Muscles and Exercise, Sleep and Rest 193-221
Food The Sources and Uses of Food 59- 86
Growth Many Ways to Growth 248-273
Prevention
of Disease How to Care for Teeth and Gums 106-127
Health Hazards in Air 175-186
Safety Safe Drinking Water 140-144
Using Light
and Sound Sound, Sight, Hearing, and Speech 1- 58
Health, Happiness and Success Series
Book III. Cleanliness 20- 92
Exercise and Rest 103-123
Your Habits of Elimination 194-199
Book IV. Protection of the Neighborhood 212-215
Fire Prevention 280-281
Your Work 121-129
Work, Play, Rest and Sunshine 102-103
Your Posture 107-119
Your Play, Your Rest 129-135
How to Grow Bigger and Stronger 141-150
Food Your Food and Drink 153-190
Prevention
of Disease Protection Against Disease 201-214
Safety Dangerous Enemies 218-235
Care of Eyes and Ears 238-251
Safety and First Aid 271-303
Book IV. Electricity and Light 67-130
Flowers and Seeds 151-182
The Balance of Nature 183-213
Book V. Change All Around Us 67-106
Air 107-148
Conservation 213-245
Book VI. Food for Growth and Energy 7- 42
Weather and Climate 43- 82
Electricity and Its Uses 83-112
The World of Sound 131-162
Improvement of Plants and Animals 195-242
Keeping Fit for Work and Play 243-274
Pathways in Science
Book I. Heat and Cold 87-116
Machines and Magnets 117-140
Garden 163-176
Book II. Changes Out-of-Doors 3- 69
Learning About Plants 71- 94
The Story of Weather 93-130
How Animals Grow Up 189-262
Book III. The Story of Plants 185-223
Waters of the Earth 237-253
Magnets and What They Do 285-300
Book IV. Social Life Among Animals:
Man, Bees 121-152
The Value of Animals and Plants 231-274
Two Forces Which Man Has Put to Work 275-290
'ook V. Weather 93-110
What Are Magnetism and Electricity 111-142
Around Us 195-238










USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS 85


Forests
Insects
Book VJ. Men Discover Much About the Earth
Electricity, Communication and
Transportation
Men Make the World a More Healthful
Place
The Future of the Earth and Man
American Health Series


Book I.
Cleanliness



Doing Work

Exercise
and Rest



Food
Book II.






Book IV.


Book

Book


Getting Up for Breakfast
Lunch Time
Early to Bed Early to Rise
Clean White Teeth
Good Helpers
Reading and Writing (light)

Play Games and Rest
Playing Games
Standing and Walking (posture)
Fun and Play
The Market
Animals
Sunlight and Growth (chickens)
Early Risers (quail)
Eye Pictures (zoo)
Clothing and Health
Alcohol and Plants
Animals that Bathe (seals)
Learning to Talk
Cheerfulness in School (aquarium)
Jim Tells About Mosquitoes
Pets, Hobbies and Health
How Desert People Live
Australian Animals and Birds
Where to Make Camp
Care of Clothes (Moths)
Air and Oxygen
How Plants and Animals Sleep
Many Ways to Grow
Bees and Ants


Health, Happiness and Success Series
Book III. Bad Habits Hinder (dog)
One Pig Grew Big and Strong
Book IV. A Lesson Taught by Animals and Birds
At the Zoo
Book VI. Carriers of Disease
The Road to Safety
Book B. At School
Leaves
Book C. John and Rags Go to a Fire
Book D. Follow the Leader
Dogs and Fires-Greyboy
Skags the Milk Horse
Safety for Animals
Nanny Goat
Book E. Ringtail (Raccoon)


283-310
341-376
257-284

285-387

385-442
423-428


7- 15
30- 32
44- 51
52- 55
37- 39
76- 78

21- 29
70- 74
79- 81
103-107
86- 87

22- 24
36- 37
115-117
59
72- 74
84
87- 89
4- 6
56- 60
115-152
170-175
197-200
21
136-141
159-162
226-229
248-273
274-275

41- 43
219-221
9- 10
181-184
187-191

7- 11
27- 31
52- 61
7- 34
66- 75
77- 83
106-128
149-157
111-131










86 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


Wag's New Trick (Pets and bees)
Svante Falls into the River (dog)
Book F. Animals (pony, dog, cat)
Abe Lincoln's-Frontier Boy
(animal tracks)
Book G. The Seeing Eye (dog)
A Stormy Day (Black Beauty)
Book H. Rattlesnake

VI. Man and His Environment
Wonderworld of Science
Book I. Where We Get Our Food
Book II. Getting Ready for Winter
Useful and Harmful Animals
Book III. Heat
Making Work Easier
Plants
American Health Series
Book I.


Growth


Safety


Thermometer
Book II.
Cleanliness
Doing Work
Exercise
and Rest

Food
Growth
Book III.
Cleanliness

Clothing
Doing Work

Exercise
and Rest

Food
Prevention
of Disease
Safety


Book IV.
Adaptation

Cleanliness

Clothing
Community


Joe and Jean are Growing
Growing Up
Healthy Sunshine
Safe Play
On the Way to School
First Aid and Safety
Too Cold or Too Hot

Keeping Clean
Work for Health

Play for Health and Safety
Rest and Sleep
Food and Drink for Health
Good Health and Growth

Neatness and Good Order
The Skin and the Hair
Clothing and Health
Work and Health
Hands and Good Health

Good Games to Play
Good Posture
The Teeth and Good Health

Safe from Colds
Health and Safety
Use and Misuse of Alcohol
The Health of the Eyes and Ears
Vacation Health and Safety

Health of Outdoor People
Health in Different Countries
Cleanliness in School
Keeping Clean
Healthful Clothing in the Country
Better Schools for Health.


198-206
247-254
79-119

292-304
93-119
120-124
390-402



103-120
39- 62
137-152
65- 86
87-116
137-184


17- 20
82- 85
94- 95
40- 41
57- 62
98-102
108-111

13- 23
51- 64

24- 38
39- 50
2- 12
97-111

35- 43
75- 85
59- 67
52- 58
104-113

1- 8
9- 17
96-103

132-138
44- 51
68- 74
114-131
145-154

153-175
176-200
8- 11
35- 40
82- 84
..46- 47










USEFUL INFORMATION FOR TEACHERS 87

Health in Country and City Homes 68-114
Doing Work Comfortable Chairs and Desks 16- 18
Ernest's Story 48- 51
Making a Parkview a Better School 53- 56
Work and Play in the Country 78- 80
Work and Play in Cities 109-111
Pets and Health (care of) 115-132
Exercise
and Rest Sleep and Rest 26- 31
Healthful Sleep and Rest 80- 81
Sleep and Rest in City Homes 111-112
Food Health and Home 22- 26
Prevention
of Disease Jim Tells About Mosquitoes 56- 60
A Mosquito and Fly Hobby 135-137
Book V.
Cleanliness Keep the Teeth Clean 150-155
Take Care of Your Skin 168-180
Clothing Wear Healthful Clothing and Shoes 183-197
Community
Life Clean and Safe Schools and Neighborhood 206-212
Exercise
and Rest For Health and Growth 111-123
Posture 158-166
Food Foods for Health and Growth 1- 91
Building Good Teeth 147-149
Clean Homes
Safety How to Protect Your Eyes and Ears 228-243
By-paths on the Road to Health 246-264
How to Avoid Accidents 266-290
Book VI. Cleanliness and Community Life 169-191
Exercise and Rest 110-131
Food 1-102
Prevention of Disease 199-212
Safety Alcohol, Tobacco, and Other Drugs 233-250
Eyes and Ears 251-265
Safety and First Aid 266-295
The Road to Safety Series
Book A.
Doing Work In the Snow 34- 47
Exercise and Rest 48- 53
Safety At Home and School 12- 33
Book B.
Doing Work 107-115
Exercise
and Rest Fun at Home 66- 95
Fun in the Yard 117-131
Safety Fun with Scissors 12- 17
Fun in the Leaves 27- 37
Stop and Wait 40- 65
Book C. Clothing 15- 21
Exercise and Rest 82-118
Safety 22- 51
Help 120-131
Book D.
Doing Work Fire in the Box Factory 40- 53
April Fool 168-173










88 TEACHING SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL


Exercise
and Rest

Safety




Book E.
Community
Life


Safety





Book F.
Community
Life .
Safety




Book G.
Safety




Book H.




Safety


Playing Fireman
Play
Goodwork
Home
Sunburn and Strawberries
Safety First
Terry and the Frogs
School is Out


School Bus (Transportation)
Doing Work
Exercise and Rest
Signs and Patrol
In Time of Fire
Travel (bus, bicycle)
Grandmother (toys)
Wind and Water
When We Are in Trouble
On Spring Days-Summer Fun


Airport
School Safety Council
Fires
Roller Skates
Helping Young Children
First Aid
In the Out-of-Doors
Conservation
Eric Saved the School House
Safety and Home
Winter Hazards
Know What to Do
Safety on the Water (first aid)
Transportation
Conservation
Doing Work
Exercise and Rest
Machines
Prevention of Disease
Fire Prevention
Fire Hazards
First Aid
Water Safety


37- 39
181-189
54- 65
97-105
134-142
159-167
174-180
191-209


22- 27
262-279
219-234
28- 34
37- 76
83-105
104-160
163-178
189-206
209-283


110-120
29- 34
37- 76
120
123-158
222-228
257-306
33- 90
3- 14
137-196
199-216
265-294
309-348
125-126
3- 11
27- 46
253-292
80- 91
295-300
49- 79
106-116
301-326
410-4311