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A brief guide to the teaching of science in the secondary schools

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Title:
A brief guide to the teaching of science in the secondary schools
Series Title:
Its Bulletin
Creator:
Florida -- State Dept. of Education
Place of Publication:
Tallahassee
Publisher:
[s.n.]
Publication Date:
Language:
English
Physical Description:
127 p. : illus. ; 23 cm.

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Subjects / Keywords:
Education -- Curricula -- Florida ( lcsh )
Science -- Study and teaching ( lcsh )
Genre:
government publication (state, provincial, terriorial, dependent) ( marcgt )
bibliography ( marcgt )

Notes

Bibliography:
Includes bibliographical references.
Funding:
Bulletin (Florida. State Dept. of Education) ;
Statement of Responsibility:
Prepared at University of Florida science workshop.

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Source Institution:
University of Florida
Rights Management:
All applicable rights reserved by the source institution and holding location.
Resource Identifier:
09289158 ( OCLC )
e 51000069 ( LCCN )

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UNIVERSITY
OF FLORIDA
LIBRARIES
NUP'










A BRIEF GUIDE

maie

TEACHING OF SCIENCE




SECONDARY SCHOOLS



Bulletin No. 8



Prepared at
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA
SCIENCE WORKSHOP
ED. HENDERSON, Director
HANOR A. WEBB, Consultant
W. L. GOETTE, Consultant



DIVISION OF INSTRUCTION
JOE HALL, Director
CLARA M. OLSON, Special Consultant


- c STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
STALLAHASSEE, FLORIDA
COLIN ENGLISH, Superintendent







'"
B,/U C~
V I'









Foreword


At the request of many teachers, principals, supervisors,
county superintendents, and the State Course of Study Com-
mittee, A Brief Guide to the Teaching of Science in the Sec-
ondary Schools, Bulletin No. 8, has been prepared. Volumes
dealing with the teaching of English, mathematics, and social
studies have already been issued. This bulletin completes the
series of guides for the four basic fields.
The four fields of English, mathematics, science, and social
studies represent a large portion of the secondary curriculum,
particularly of that part dealing with general education. The
degree to which these basic fields meet the needs of society and
of the individual will determine, in a large measure, whether or
not as a nation we shall meet our world responsibilities of the
future.
The material in this bulletin varies somewhat from that found
in the usual guide to science teaching. It does not present a
syllabus or outline of what is to be taught. In many instances a
determination of just what is to be taught can be wisely reached
only after the teacher becomes familiar with the community
and its possibilities. The group which compiled the suggestions
contained in this bulletin considered it more important to point
out ways of increasing the effectiveness of teaching than to
repeat specific instructions such as those contained in the pub-
lisher's teachers manual.
The bulletin is written to furnish ideas that will enliven
and enrich teaching rather than to give specific instruction for
presenting topics or units. The suggestions in the bulletin in-
clude some by outstanding authors, but most of them are drawn
from the rich teaching experiences of the participants and con-
sultants in the workshop group. The list of suggestions is not
thought to be exhaustive. Many teachers will know of others
as effective as the ones in this book. Each teacher is urged to
consider the suggestions carefully, to choose those which seem
applicable to his teaching situation, and to add to them as
imagination and initiative suggest the additional activities.
The participants in the workshop included Miss Eloise Briz-
zard, John Gorrie Junior High School, Jacksonville; Edward
Brunk, Supervisor of Instruction, Apalachicola; Miss Kathryn









Carlin, Miami Beach High School, Miami Beach; Mrs. William
A. Gager, Gainesville High School, Gainesville; Joel Martin,
Key West High School, Key West; Miss Mary Ruth McCracken,
Leesburg High School, Leesburg; D. E. Moomaw, Andrew
Jackson High School, Miami; Mrs. Margaret Oliver, Fort
Lauderdale High School, Fort Lauderdale; Miss Mary O'Quinn,
Kirby Smith Junior High School, Jacksonville; Miss Nina Per-
cival, Pasco County High School, Dade City; Miss Alice Van
Cleef, DeLand High School, DeLand; Miss Louise Williams,
Lakeland High School, Lakeland. Ed Henderson, State Depart-
ment of Education, served as director of the workshop. The
consultants were Dr. Hanor A. Webb, George Peabody College
for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee, and W. L. Goette, P. K.
Yonge Laboratory School, Gainesville.
The illustrations of this bulletin are reproduced from draw-
ings made by Miss Mary Ruth McCracken, teacher of biology,
Leesburg High School. She has skillfully translated the compo-
site sense of humor of the workshop group into the cartoons that
enliven the bulletin's pages.
The workshop group is indebted to the College of Education,
University of Florida, for making available its facilities and for
the unstinted cooperation given by its staff members, to the
George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tennessee, for
making possible the services of Dr. Hanor A. Webb, to Mrs.
Clara Olson, Special Consultant, for her guidance and help in
editing materials, to Mrs. Mildred H. Williams for her patience
and the speed and accuracy with which she prepared the mul-
titudinous typed copy needed in such a project, to the State
Department of Education staff members who visited the group
and rendered valuable assistance.



STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION












TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I. THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL
Section 1. Trends in Secondary Education 2
Section 2. The Objectives of Science Teaching 7
Section 3. Scope and Sequence of the Elementary Science Program Chart following P. 9

PART II. SUBJECT MATTER COURSES IN SCIENCE
Section 1. Junior High School Science 10
Section 2. "Everyday Living" for the Seventh and Eighth Grades 13
Section 3. Conventional Science Courses for the Seventh and Eighth Grades 19
Section 4. General Science at the Ninth Grade Level 20
Section 5. The Teaching of Biology 25
Section 6. The Teaching of Chemistry 36
Section 7. The Teaching of Physics 42
Section 8. The Place of "Physical Sciences" in the Senior High School 51


PART III. AIDS IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE
Section 1. Reading as a Tool for Science -
Section 2. The Inter-Relation of Science with Other Subject Fields


SSection 3.
Section 4.
Section 5.
Section 6.
Section 7.
Section 8.
Section 9.
Section 10.
Section 11.
Section 12.
Section 13.
Section 14.
Section 15.
Section 16.
Section 17.


- - 53
- - 58


Mathematics in Science -
Teaching the History of Science -
Health and Safety -
Audio-Visual Devices -
Field Trip or School Journey -
Laboratory and Classroom-Integrated Procedures
The Equipment of the Laboratory -
Science Clubs -
Evaluation and Testing -
The Book of Genesis, and Science -
Social Implications of Science -
Personality and Leadership of Science Teachers


The Place of the Science Teacher in the Guidance Program of the School
The Science Teacher in His Profession -- -
The Teacher's Load: An Administrative Problem -


PART IV. INFORMATION SUPPLEMENT
Section 1. Laboratory Equipment and Supplies for the Small Biology Laboratory 97


Starting the Small Physics Laboratory -
Starting the Small Chemistry Laboratory -
Suggested Science Periodicals for Students -
Reading List for Students -
References for Florida Identification -
Professional Periodicals for Science Teachers -
Bulletins for Science Teachers -
Professional Books for Science Teachers -
Suggested List of Science Tests -
List of Trade Publications -
Science Source Lists -
Scientific Supply Companies -
Names and Addresses of Publishers -


- 100
- 107
- 117


- 118
- 120
-121
-121
- 122
- 122
- 123
- 124
- 125
- 126


Section 2.
Section 3.
Section 4.
Section 5.
Section 6.
Section 7.
Section 8.
Section 9.
Section 10.
Section 11.
Section 12.
Section 13.
Section 14.


f t









TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


PART I
THE PLACE OF SCIENCE IN THE SECONDARY
SCHOOL

SECTION 1. TRENDS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION
SECTION 2. THE OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING
SECTION 3. SCOPE AND SEQUENCE OF THE ELEMEN-
TARY SCIENCE PROGRAM

SECTION 1. TRENDS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION1
Certain changes in emphasis are emerging in the secondary
school program because of youths' dissatisfaction with its op-

'The paragraphs that follow this heading are digested from more exten-
sive comments on the general philosophy of education, as presented in Ways
to Better Instruction in Florida Schools, State Department of Education,
Bulletin No. 2, and A Guide to a Functional Program in the Secondary School,
Bulletin No. 10. The concerned teacher will also find the Citizens Committee
Report Education and the Future of Florida and Florida: Wealth or Waste?
helpful in further study.


2








TRENDS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 3


portunities, adults' disappointment at its results, and certain
new requirements of post-war living. The five most significant
trends seem to be the following:
1. Using the school to develop democratic living. The ideal
of democracy is the recognition of the personal worth and dig-
nity of every individual. The obligation of every individual is
to further the general welfare of the group. The school has a
direct responsibility to teach the meaning and the values of
democracy to every youth.
This instruction involves careful planning and guidance both
in and out of the classroom. Certain procedures are helpful:
(a) delegating responsibility to individuals and committees;
(b) permitting the minority always to be heard, but accepting
the decisions of the majority; (c) encouraging youths to decide
what they will study on a basis of future usefulness to a com-
munity.
Such activities, however, may result in chaos in the name
of "freedom and democracy"-a sort of "mob rule" in school
life. They will train for true democratic living only if there is
actual experience in intelligent social action, in which every
student has a share.








4 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

2. Relating the school to community resources and needs.
A school should continuously raise the level of living in its
community. To do this, each school official and teacher must
have definite knowledge of the community's resources. The
natural resources are the most obvious, the cultural resources
most satisfying, the human resources most precious. A com-
munity's chief needs will become apparent as its resources are
studied.
The program of the secondary school should be projected into
the life of the community, especially in the areas of health, home
living, applied economics, and recreation. Any agencies already
at work for the community's betterment should receive coopera-
tion. Individually and in groups, school officers and teachers
should plan and carry out instruction, direct and incidental, to
develop the community's social intelligence and sentiment.
3. Providing a wide range of opportunities. Florida's invest-
ment in secondary schools should bring good returns in voca-
tional competence, health, personal living, and democratic citi-
zenship. To provide these a school must offer the following:
(1) Development of individuals. The special interests
and talents of each youth deserves the personal
attention of principals and teachers. No student
should be merely a name on a roll, his abilities merely
an entry on a grade sheet. Each student's future
place in a community-as leader or efficient work-
er-will depend largely upon the discovery and
cultivation of his possibilities by his teachers in
secondary school.
(2) Vocational guidance. Youths should make notable
progress while in school toward self-support.
Earnest study of vocations should be made, with
comparisons of their required skills and economic
rewards. Actual work experiences, and trial em-
ployment, are within the scope of a school's well-
planned guidance program.
(3) Instruction in family relations. Youths in sec-
ondary schools are rapidly developing their ideals
of marriage, homes, and children. At this particular








TRENDS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION 5

grade level certain instruction in family problems
may be of highest value. This should emphasize
practical matters such as personal adjustments of
each partner; family finance including budgets,
insurance, savings; selection of clothing and food;
furnishing a home; the care of infants and children.
The continuing intellectual and social growth of
each partner in marriage should be stressed.
(4) A health program. Adequate physical examina-
tions should be followed by immunizations and
correction of defects. Classroom instruction should
furnish background for the community's health
sentiments and practices. The lunchroom should
serve educational as well as dietary purposes. Men-
tal and emotional fitness should rank with physical
fitness as worthy of earnest study and exercise.
There should be continuous effort to raise the com-
munity's present health level and to assure the
future vigor of its citizens.
(5) Recreational facilities. The wholesome experi-
ences that should be planned for leisure time will
have many by-products of present and future
value in physical, mental, and social development.
(6) Courses fundamental to democracy. Earnest
presentation should be made of the historical back-
grounds of our institutions, the rights of a citizen
in a democracy, and a citizen's duties of participa-
tion in a democratic society. Typical experience
in the "school democracy" include discussions, de-
bates, forums, student participation in government,
student administration of affairs. The business life
of a community may be studied by visits to stores,
offices, and factories. Civic administration may be
seen in courts and councils. Attending the services
of all churches in a neighborhood should give a broad
concept of the religious effort in the community.
Reports of these visits will develop attitudes and un-
derstanding necessary to a democratic citizenship.








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


4. Broadening the program to meet the needs of youth groups.
From the viewpoint of society there will be need to see: (1). that
all youth receive sufficient general education to make them
socially competent both as individuals and citizens; (2) that
a sufficient number be educated to perform the work and services
needed by a complex, industrial, democratic nation; (3) that
the supply of scientists, frontier thinkers, mathematicians,
statesmen, and creators in fine and applied arts, be adequate
for the maintenance and growth of a great nation. To meet
these obligations the school must develop a strong basic program
of general education, a vital and varied program of special inter-
ests, and a cooperative program with individuals and agencies
in the community, county, state, and region.
5. Focusing the efforts of all teachers upon common goals.
In order to realize the goals set forth, or implied, in the four
previous trends, it will be necessary to develop community of
effort of teachers at all levels of instruction. Subject-field
specialists must learn to work together. No single teacher, and
no one division of a school, may accept mere responsibility for
an isolated area of a youth's education. Unrelatedness and isola-
tion are psychological impossibilities in the learning process.
Many matters must be adjusted to fit each other as the youth
develops. If a teacher does not aid in these adjustments, the
youth will make them-in some way-by himself. The trouble
with such unplanned education is that the adjustments may not
be desirable.
All teachers have the common responsibility to develop the
following in all students:
a. Skills in reading, oral and written expressions, interpret-
ing visual and auditory information, wise use of resources.
b. Habits of intellectual curiosity, critical thinking, desir-
able work methods, healthful practices, pride in clean and
attractive surroundings.
c. Abilities to understand social relationships, standards of
recreational activity, school-community relationships,
democratic living, enjoyable living.
d. Appreciation of spiritual values to be found in nature,
art, music, religious worship, and unselfish service.








OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING


e. The most desirable outcome-a determination to make
the most of a life from the standpoint of usefulness and
citizenship.

SECTION 2. THE OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING
Science teachers should know what they are trying to do.
They should have reasons for their topics and their methods.
They should understand what is desired in the development of
young people who study science.
Science in the secondary school will play a significant role in
preparing the individual for understanding the social, economic,
and political aspect of an age which obviously is to be dominated
by atomic energy.
The broad objectives of science teaching may be stated in
a few well-expressed principles, even though the more detailed
purposes and by-products of this instruction may be numbered
by the hundreds. The following objectives, in five statements
of the first order and twenty-six of the second order, seem
worthy of earnest consideration by each science teacher in
Florida. Science in the secondary high school should:
1. Present factual information:
(1) To illustrate the laws of nature, the principles and
processes at work in the environment, thus imple-
menting the maxim: "Knowledge is power."
(2) To train in accurate, selective observation, and pre-
cise methods of arranging and interpreting data.
(3) To show how data may be translated into maps,
graphs, charts, and tables for clear interpretation.
(4) To give practice in the expression of scientific
ideas in clear and correct English speech and writ-
ing.
(5) To encourage reading of scientific books and maga-
zines at each student's level of understanding.
(6) To show that the accomplishments of science are
limited by its laws, and that science is not magic.








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


MAGIC OR 5CIENi


2. Correlate facts with human interests and problems:
(1) To give insight into the history of science as the
background of its present significance.
(2) To develop appreciation of the effects of science-
past, present, and future-throughout the world.
(3) To demonstrate the practical applications of science
to community, home, and personal problems.
(4) To increase the understanding of our Nation's
need for conservation-the wise use of its resources
and of science as the basis of its practice.
(5) To acquaint each student with the part science
plays in the development and prosperity of Florida.
3. Recognize and respect individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, and interests:
(1) To open up new fields of interest for inquiring
minds.
(2) To develop habits of analytical thinking.
(3) To discover native abilities and develop them to
their highest degrees.
(4) To discover and overcome deficiencies in back-
grounds for science study.








OBJECTIVES OF SCIENCE TEACHING 9

(5) To offer guidance, giving particular attention to
the vocational opportunities open to those trained
in science.
4. Produce responses in desirable behavior:
(1) To challenge young people to wholesome recrea-
tional and cultural activity in the outdoors, the
laboratory, the library, and elsewhere, both in-
dividually and in groups.
(2) To produce immediate and continued improve-
ment in personal habits related to health, conduct,
and grooming.
(3) To encourage self-expression through science hob-
bies.
(4) To train the hand and the eye in making and using
practical laboratory apparatus and home devices.
(5) To foster habits of economical buying and efficient
consumption of goods.
5. Develop attitudes that result in wholesome living:
(1) To substitute scientific methods of thinking for
superstition and prejudice as bases of judgment
in civic, economic, and social problems and in the
development of character.
(2) To appreciate science as a major factor in the estab-
lishment of our Nation's present agricultural and
industrial civilization and its public services.
(3) To recognize science as a bulwark in the protection
of our Nation's way of life.
(4) To realize that science knows no boundaries but
may contribute to the economic and social welfare
of all nations willing to join in world cooperation.
(5) To convey the point of view that the truths of
science demonstrate the prevading wisdom of High-
er Power.












PART II
SUBJECT MATTER COURSES IN SCIENCE

SECTION 1. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE


SECTION 2.

SECTION 3.

SECTION 4.

SECTION 5.
SECTION 6.
SECTION 7.
SECTION 8.


"EVERYDAY LIVING" FOR THE SEVENTH
AND EIGHTH GRADES
CONVENTIONAL SCIENCE COURSES FOR
THE SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES
GENERAL SCIENCE AT THE NINTH GRADE
LEVEL
THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY
THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY
THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS
THE PLACE OF "PHYSICAL SCIENCES" IN
THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL


SECTION 1. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE
The junior high school is a time of adjustment. Boys and girls
at this level are confronted with many individual and group
changes to which they have to make adjustment. Some of these
changes are:
1. Personal changes:
a. Changes in body functions.
b. Changes in growth and appearance.
c. Awareness of themselves as individuals.
d. Awakened interest in their own personal appearance.
e. Awakened interest and curiosity concerning the un-
derlying reasons for many natural phenomena.
f. More personal freedom and less teacher supervision
outside the classroom during the school day.








JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SCIENCE 11


g. New friends.
h. Increased need
for self-direction
in making his
own decisions.
i. Additional
homework.
j. Increased home
responsibilities.
2. Group changes:
a. More varied
school programs.


lk)
1L-ZL THE
t~LS~~:~-.


b. Different rules and regulations.
c. Different teachers.
d. New school activities.
e. Departmentalization of studies'.
For these and possible other reasons a student's life during the
junior high school years is concerned largely in reacting and ad-
justing to physical and social environment. His science studies,
therefore, should be related to his life. A unified course in gen-
eral science necessary to understand modern living is more ap-
propriate at his level than short courses in special science areas.
General science in grades 7, 8, and 9 also connects the science
of the elementary grades-which has centered around familiar
facts-with the sciences of the senior high school-which pre-
sent the foundations of special science areas. The junior high
school sciences, therefore, serve as a link between the general
and the particular, the simple and the complex, the fact and the
principle, in the presenting of science.
Objectives of junior high school science. Among the pur-
poses of instruction in general science the following are im-
portant:
1. To show how environment is related to the affairs of men
in order that the pupil may more fully appreciate the services
'The trend is toward less departmentalization in the seventh and eighth
grades.









TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


of science in the community.
2. To develop a variety of contacts and interests which will
be helpful for vocational and avocational activities.
3. To help the pupil discover his needs, interests, and abilities
in order to select his future science courses.

The place of junior high science in the state programs of study.
Because of the differences in school organizations (the
6-6 plan, the 8-4 plan, the 6-3-3 plan, etc.) and other local dif-
ferences, there is no one required course of study for the junior
high school science program. Below are given some comments
from State Department publications:
"In the junior high school, the areas of health, science, and home
economics have many major, co-related contributions to make to the
experiences desirable for boys and girls to have as a part of their general
education. An integrated course taught by a single teacher or separate
part-year courses using teachers on a rotation plan is recommended. If
more than one person teaches the course, it is expected that the teachers
in each of the areas will collaborate in planning the essential and related
learning experiences in these fields to insure the richer treatment of basic
problems and the elimination of inadvisable duplication."
". (General) Science may be offered in grade 9 in place of Area 4
(agriculture or industrial arts and home economics) as outlined in the
Junior High School chart."
Florida School Bulletin, Vol. IX-No. 1. Programs of Study in Florida Secondary
Schools. Pages 25 and 28, October, 1946.
The following are required items for recognition of the school
by the State Department of Education:
Some offering in health is available in grades 1-8, inclusive.
(Everyday Living in grades 7-8 will meet this requirement). There
is a well planned series of experiences in science in grades 1-8, inclusive.
(Everyday Living in grades 7-8 will meet this requirement).
There is a well planned series of experiences in biological science
definitely stressing personal and social living available in at least one of
the grades 9, 10, 11, or 12.
There is a series of experiences in physical science involving the prac-
tical applications of science principles in one of the grades 9, 10, 11, or 12.
Florida School Bulletin, Vol. IX-No. 3. Florida School Standards, Page 36,
December, 1946.









"EVERYDAY LIVING" 13


SECTION 2. "EVERYDAY LIVING" FOR THE SEVENTH
AND EIGHTH GRADES
This is an integrated course of study to which three areas-
Science, Health, and Home Living--offer assistance in solving
problems of living of both boys and girls of this age. Bulletin
No. 29, Everyday Living, is suggested as a guide both to inte-
grating the course and for methods of presentation of the mate-
rial. Since the administrative procedures have varied so greatly
in scheduling the three courses of health, science, and home liv-
ing, a course such as Everyday Living is highly recommended.
In many cases all of these areas have not found their place in the
school curriculum at the most appropriate times. In other cases,
one, two, or even three have been offered at various times and
places. In some schools certain areas have been offered only to
boys, while other areas have been offered only to girls. Everyday
Living eliminates the repetition of certain material in many
cases and the omission of needed material in others.
Because the bulletin Everyday Living may not be immediately
available to each reader of this Bulletin, the following paragraphs
are reproduced from page XIII:
A SUMMARY OF PROBLEMS OF EVERYDAY LIVING
FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE
GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH PROBLEMS OF EVERYDAY LIVING
(Approximately one week)










14 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


I. What are some everyday problems that concern us now?
II. What are our best ways and means for making progress in adjusting
to our problems?


LIVING WITH OTHERS


(Approximately four weeks)


I. How can we most enjoy our school life?
II. How can we live most happily with others at home?
III. Why is successful living with others largely dependent upon our own
personality traits and the'way we express ourselves?
IV. How can we live most successfully on twenty-four hours a day?


FINDING FOOD FOR FITNESS (Approximately eight weeks)
I. Is fitness worthwhile?
II. How does food make a difference in one's fitness?
III. What do we need to know in order to make best use of our protec-
tive foods?
IV. How do our bodies prepare and use the foods we eat?
V. How does income influence food selection and expenditure?
VI. What can we do with surplus food?
VII. Can we live on foods produced in Florida?
VIII. How does the storage and preparation of food make a difference?
BUILDING BETTER BODIES (Approximately five weeks)
I. How do we build our bodies?
II. How do we keep on guard against the opponents of better bodies?


LEARNING FIRST AID

EXPLORING THE WORLD AROUND US
I. How does air work for us?
II. How does air affect the way we feel?
III. How is water necessary to life?
IV. How does water change form to hel
V. In what other ways does water influ
VI. What is good water?
VII. What is good earth and why is it so


(Three weeks)
(Five weeks)


p us and to work for us?
ence our work and play?

I important to us?


LOOKING AT LIFE AROUND US (Five weeks)
I. What problems do all living things have in common?
II. How do plants meet life problems and adapt to varying conditions?
III. What similarities and differences do plants and animals have?
IV. How do conflict and cooperation bring about a balance of life?
V. What is to be gained by living in groups?










"EVERYDAY LIVING" 15


VI. How does conflict help to maintain the balance of life?
VII. How are living things fitted to the environment in which they live?
PUTTING POWER TO USE (Four weeks)
I. How do we make use of the force of gravity in our everyday living?
II. In what ways do we attempt to control motion and make the energy
of motion serve us?
III. Why would our present methods of living be impossible without the
energy of heat?
IV. How have we used our knowledge of electricity?
V. How have we improved our method of using energy in our everyday
living?


GOING AND GROWING
I. How can we know our powers?
II. How can we strengthen our powers?
III. How can we use our powers?


(Approximately one week)


FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE
MAKING THE MOST OF OUR LOOKS (Approximately seven weeks)
I. What is the importance of personal appearance?
II. What is a good complexion and how can we insure ours?
III. How can we keep our hair most attractive?
IV. What can we do to have attractive hands, feet, and nails?
V. How do our living practices influence our personal appearance?
VI. How do we express ourselves through our clothes?
TALKING ABOUT THE WEATHER (Approximately eight weeks)
I. What are stars?
II. What is the center of our universe?
III. What causes the moon to shine?
IV. How does the energy of the sun cause weather?
V. How does the weather man study the weather?
VI. What is the difference between weather and climate?
SEEING THE WORLD OF YESTERDAY AND TODAY (Approximately seven weeks)
I. How does weather aid in the formation of soil?
II. What forces change the earth's face?
III. How old is the earth?
IV. What kinds of plants and animals lived in the past?
V. What do green plants need to produce the foods we eat?
VI. What animals help us or hinder us in our production of food?









16 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

VII. What are some of the pests that reduce man's productive ability?
VIII. How do all animals adapt themselves to the regions in which they live?
LIVING AT HOME IN FLORIDA (Nine to twelve weeks)
I. Why do we have homes?
II..How do we choose the location for our homes?
III. How does house planning affect our daily living?
IV. How do we make our own climate in our houses?
V. How do we light our houses?
VI. How do we get and use our water supply?
VII. How can we make the most of what we have in our homes?
VIII. How can we keep our homes and our community clean?
IX. How can we further keep our homes and community safe?
X. How is safe food supplied to our homes?
XI. How should food be served in our homes?


USING THE HIGHWAYS SAFELY


(Approximately three weeks)


GROWING IN RESPONSIBILITY (Approximately one week)
I. What are your growing social responsibilities?
II. What are your growing home responsibilities?
III. What are your growing vocational responsibilities?

Choosing the teacher for Everyday Living. The success of
Everyday Living depends primarily upon the teacher. Although
not difficult from a standpoint of technical science, the course
will test the resourcefulness and ingenuity of the most experi-
enced instructor. This is because it comes close to matters of
everyday living in which the children themselves will have
definite experiences and strong impressions.
Which instructor-the teacher of health, of home economics,
or of science-should be selected for the classes in Everyday Liv-
ing? The answer is-the best.' No consideration of schedule or
of convenience should compete with genuine qualifications.
The most important factor is that the teacher selected should
understand junior high school students. The specialists in senior
high school subjects are not necessarily the best selections, in
spite of their familiarity with technical science. On the other
hand a teacher of special sciences will undoubtedly possess a
background of home experience to make the practical topics








"EVERYDAY LIVING"


of Everyday Living easy to present. It would be a mistake if this
teacher chose to raise the level of science difficulty in the course.
The home economics teacher has had adequate experience in
the sciences for handling any topic of Everyday Living and in
addition has the experiences of home management required for
the proper presentation of many units in this course. Since
home economics is a junior high school course in Florida, the
home economics teacher already has the understanding of the
students at that level which is advisable for teaching Everyday
Living.
The health teacher may lack experience in both technical
science and home economics, but a combination of the elemen-
tary courses in science, special courses in health, and the home
background which the teacher without a doubt possesses, should
make successful instruction in Everyday Living probable. The
only condition is an earnest attitude that will approach the units
of Everyday Living in the spirit of the good teacher.
There are many reasons why Everyday Living should be
taught by one teacher continuously throughout the school year.
There should be a previous consultation, however, in the pre-
school planning period, among the teachers of science, of health
and of home economics. This group should go over all units in
Everyday Living. Materials needed for the units should be lo-
cated, reference books placed on separate shelves, trips planned,
and all other types of profitable experiences discussed. This co-
operation should continue throughout the year. Although one
member of the group is selected as instructor for a class in Every-
day Living, each of the others should contribute demonstrations
or complete lessons in appropriate topics.
Since boys and girls need each other's reactions to home and
life situations, the class in Everyday Living should not be divided
on the basis of sex. The size of class should not be above the
recommended maximum of laboratory classes, which is twenty-
five students. This permits adequate attention to the varied
activities which are required in teaching Everyday Living.
Suggestions for teaching Everyday Living. The State Bul-
letin Everyday Living lists state adopted textbooks to be used








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


as a foundation for this course. It also gives extensive lists of
other valuable references, materials, visual aids, and the like.
Its richness in activities should challenge every earnest science
teacher.
Activities should be selected from a wide range to help solve
each problem. The teacher, after careful study of the commu-
nity and the needs of the students, can suggest and direct the
school activities significant to the group. These activities will
provide for pupil committees as a means of adding interest and
variety, of developing leadership, of bringing in community
contacts, and of increasing the scope of the whole experience.
The discussion material offers excellent opportunity for panels,
forums, and for bringing in outside speakers. The outside speak-
ers may be selected from parents (trained in any special area),
doctors, the county agricultural agent, the county home dem-
onstration agent, members of the county health unit, Boy Scout
and Girl Scout officers, representatives of the American Red
Cross, and other civic leaders.
The field trip serves as a very worth while activity in this pro-
gram. The teacher should refer to the general suggestions in this
bulletin concerning field trips. A trip to the grocery store would
provide experience in problems of health, science, and home
living. Some suggested problems are refrigeration of meat, vege-
tables, and dairy products; methods of preserving foods; cuts
of meat and their cost; consumer buying; cleanliness and sani-
tation of foods; and insect control.
The notebook has a distinct and important place in the pro-
gram outlined in Everyday Living. It is suggested however, that
pupil interest not be sacrificed for the notebook. The note-
book may be divided into sections. One section may be used to
write up in the best form all important experiments, field trips,
and demonstrations and as many other items as time permits.
Another section may be used to keep a list of new words for the
scientific vocabulary and for class notes. The keeping of a note-
book should develop habits of self-expression, neatness and
orderliness, responsibility, and the ability to select the im-
portant from the unimportant and to follow directions.








SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADE SCIENCE


Adequate and suitable storage space should be provided for the
things brought in by the pupils and for those provided by the
school. Care should be taken to label them correctly.
Evaluation of Everyday Living. Continuous growth is the
chief factor to be measured in evaluating the results of the course
in Everyday Living. This growth is in the attitudes, under-
standings, and skills of each student. It will be of value to con-
sider the proportion of development rather than the "absolute"
level of achievement. Methods of remedial instruction for those
who fall too far below the average growth of the class will sug-
gest themselves to any experienced teacher.
Th exact type of test to be used is less important than variety
and appropriateness to the topic. Many of the testing techniques
of the lower grades should be continued. Some of the testing de-
vices of the senior high school should be introduced. The teacher
who uses good judgment in selecting test types or even uses orig-
inality in an entirely new type of test that seems suitable is to be
commended.

SECTION 3. CONVENTIONAL SCIENCE COURSES FOR
SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES
This section is devoted to the discussion of ways in which the
conventional textbook method of teaching science can and
should be enriched. General science in these grades should be
closely related to the immediate environment of the students.
The adopted textbooks are Exploring Science for the seventh
grade and Enjoying Science for the eighth grade. These texts
lend themselves well to the study of the surroundings. The
theme of these books is that through the use of scientific method
man has learned about himself and his environment, and how to
use the environment to his own advantage.
Teachers are warned not to use the texts as mere readers. The
subject matter should be flexible. There is no good reason for
the teacher to feel hesitant in diverging from the textbook. The
textbook, an important learning aid, gives guidance to the stu-
dent, but other aids should be used. The fundamentals of the
biological and physical sciences are the same regardless of the








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


environment, but the problems, applications, illustrations, field
trips, and excursions will be very different.
A workbook and a teacher's manual are available that suggest
related activities. The workbook should be used by the teacher
for suggestions and not as mere busy work for the students. Stu-
dents should be encouraged to experiment and read outside the
laboratory and classroom; to make collections of plants, butter-
flies, insects, rocks; to go on class field trips; visit museums; and
make excursions of their own. These experiences provide inter-
esting material for oral and written discussion.
Aside from the teaching aids suggested in the foregoing para-
graphs, the teacher should find help from local sources. The
teacher should subscribe to professional magazines and be on the
watch for authentic materials in newspapers and popular maga-
zines. Radio and screen programs frequently provide interesting
and up-to-date science information.
Visual aids at the correct level of understanding should be
used as freely as they are available. Suggestions for these are
found elsewhere in this bulletin.
The practices concerning health instruction in Florida vary
widely. Special health courses are sometimes assigned to the
science teacher, the home economics teacher, or a special health
teacher. It is likely that this practice results in a failure to ob-
tain good health instruction at all, for all too often the health
course is taught in isolation.
There are many advantages in the integration of health with
science, physical education, and home economics, rather than in
presenting it as an isolated subject. Even if a separate course is
provided, the teachers of science, physical education, and home
economics are not relieved of definite responsibility for teaching
the principles of health in every appropriate lesson of their own
field.

SECTION 4. GENERAL SCIENCE AT THE NINTH GRADE LEVEL
The ninth year of science instruction finds a student in the
midst of certain psychological changes that are inevitable. Here
the student must choose between specialized fields of study, he


20








NINTH GRADE SCIENCE


has special teachers, and he begins earning his high school credits.
He is no longer an immature youngster, but an adolescent who
has become interested in being a community citizen as well as a
school citizen. In the elementary school and at the seventh and
eighth grade levels the student has learned much about his en-
vironment. He now starts seeking the reason rather than accept-
ing the solution without question. New habits of study must be
employed, and new excellence in achievements required.
Additional teacher techniques must be applied. These involve
increased guidance with the beginnings of vocational aspects.
The interests, attitudes, and peculiarities of each student should
be focused to their fullest realization.
A sense of security should be developed by giving the student
added confidence in his own ability and by making him feel that
he is a member of the group. This can be done by leading him
to participate in clubs, and engage in essential activities in class,
such as taking care of the stock rooms, operating projectors,
manipulating apparatus, keeping records, presenting reports
and experiments in class. These activities should be designed to
develop in each student certain desirable attitudes and abilities.
Tasks requiring special skills should be assigned to those having
specific qualifications.


j 4JILLWe e 5








TE ENVIRONMENT
In the development of this course certain factors of the stu-
dent's environment are explored. During the transition period
the formation of certain health habits and abilities are important.








22 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The student needs to know something of the achievements of
scientists. He must know social and industrial procedures and
devices for the economy of time and effort. He should be given
an insight into many occupations. He must understand, appre-
ciate and be able to apply this knowledge to his everyday en-
vironment. The present state-adopted text, Using Science, of-
fers a satisfactory outline of areas and topic for the general
science course.
Considering that many of these students will continue in the
high school science, the teacher may well direct the awakening
interest in the fields of specialized science, such as biology, chem-
istry, and physics.
Demonstrations and experiments. Teaching by demonstra-
tion and experiment is an important part of general science.
Students should see the materials and processes being discussed
and should handle the things themselves. Demonstrations and
experiments help answer certain problems. The laboratory
work should accompany the classroom discussion of a problem
or a principle. The teacher should perform many of the dem-
onstrations in order to train students and to save time and mate-
rials. It is good practice to have students assist in demonstra-
tions, but such assistance should be distributed widely among
the class.
Since students learn by LLUTIONS-
doing they should be al-
lowed to do individual ex- REPoRrf
periments when practica- /" 1% -
ble. The number of indi- /
vidual experiments will
vary according to available
facilities Studen.ts should
be encouraged to demon-
strate models and experi-
ments which they have
prepared outside class. PP.
A record of demonstra-
tions and experiments IMPROVE REPORTS
should be kept by students.








NINTH GRADE SCIENCE 23

If an exercise is worth performing, it is worth recording. Usu-
ally the exercise may be reported in a brief time by such means
as:
1. Making and labeling a diagram.
2. Writing a short summary.
3. Answering a few questions.

Ways of enriching the course. A course in general science
may be vitalized in many ways. The following are examples:
1. Excursions or school journeys:
(1) Conducted tours of: water plants, electric plants,
communications offices, industrial plants, packing
plants, mining enterprises.
(2) Making surveys of: health and safety, erosion and
control, weather, climate, soil (soil profile), local
plants and animals.
(3) Making studies of: truck farming, groves (citrus,
pecan, tropical fruit, and tung oil), nursery, naval
stores, timber, sponges, fish, cattle raising.
2. Class Activities:
(1) Collections (often outgrowth of school journeys):
rocks, shells, fossils, minerals, Indian relics, insects,
flowers, leaves, wood sections, seeds, specimens to
preserve.
(2) Models (mechanical): airplanes, boats, locomo-
tives, coaches, telephone, telegraph, radio, wiring in
series and parallel, generators, electric motors, elec-
tromagnet, electric bells, wiring model houses, wet
cell batteries, simple machines.


3. Designed materials:
(1) Cartoons (to


bring out principles of science).


(2) Maps (weather, polar, magnetic, pictorial, sky,
products).
(3) Globes for sky and earth study.
(4) Charts: commercial and home made.








24 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

4. Use of audio-visual aids (Refer to section on audio-
visual aids in part III of this bulletin).
5. Supplementary reading:
(1) Library of science materials on different grade
levels.
(2) Current readings in science. (Refer to section on
reading in part III of this bulletin.)

THE GENERAL SCIENCE TAUGHT WITH PHYSICAL
OR BIOLOGICAL EMPHASIS
The requirements for high school graduation as stated in the
most recent State Board Regulations, include: one unit in bio-
logical science for all students; for boys one unit in physical
science; for girls one unit in home economics. The two units in
sciences should be the minimum.
The Programs of Study for Florida Secondary Schools pro-
vides that where it is not possible to offer both physical and bio-
logical science, general science may be substituted for either the
biological science or the physical science requirement, but in no
instance shall the general science in the same school be permitted
to serve as a substitute for both the biological and physical
science.
It is recommended that the general science not to be used as a
substitute for either the biological or the physical science re-
quired courses, but that the general science be used, as it properly
should be used, as a general overview of all the science fields.

The physical science emphasis. If, because of lack of equip-
ment for the senior high physical sciences, the ninth grade gen-
eral science must be used as a substitute (not the recommended
procedure) the course should definitely carry major emphasis
on the physical sciences for which it is to substitute. If this em-
phasis is to be pursued the biological section of the course will be
reduced to a simple overview. The physical science section will
need to be expanded by the use of related reading materials, addi-
tional experiments and demonstrations, applications to industry,
development of inventions, and history of scientists.








THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY 25

The biological science emphasis. It is definitely not recom-
mended that the general science be substituted for the biological
science requirement. This substitution is allowed by State
Board Regulations merely to provide for those schools which
cannot arrange for the students to have a course in biology. The
general science textbooks do not adapt themselves to a biological
emphasis at the general science level. Teachers find it extremely
difficult to organize a general science course around biological
science.
If a school is forced to offer general science as a substitute for
biology, then the teacher must show real ingenuity in planning
a worthwhile course. The course should begin with the units on
biology. These should be expanded by additional reading,
projects, experiments and demonstrations, observation of local
plants and animals, and use of audio-visual aids. When units
such as air, water, and weather are introduced, special emphasis
should be placed on their relationship to living things.













THE- RST BIOLOGY STUDENTS
SECTION 5. THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY
This section of the bulletin devoted to biology is for the pur-
pose of presenting methods of teaching the subject wholly dif-
ferent from merely memorizing botanical and zoological clas-
sifications and structures. Although necessary at certain levels,









26 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

the taxonomic approach will kill interest in any course in high
school. Biology must live, as it is the science of living things.
Even in the laboratory live objects are better than dead ones.
More than in any other science, the living environment furnishes
the place for class activities.

Special objectives of the teaching of biology. Among the more
significant are these:
1. To understand the most important principles of living
nature.
2. To develop a reasonable degree of skill in the scientific
method of thinking on matters biological.
3. To develop an objective attitude toward the give and take
of nature, which is both cruel and kind.
4. "(Teach) Not only labors, but the loveliness of the earth."
-Ruskin.
5. To acquire attitudes on life, health, and conduct that may
develop from the understanding of biology.
6. To appreciate the work of great biologists who have con-
tributed toward our understanding of nature.

The trends of biology teaching. The 46th Yearbook of the
National Society for the study of Education, Science Education
in American Schools, presents the following, (page 184):
"During the past ten years, particularly, the trend has been toward
focusing attention less on the organization of subject matter and more
on the results in the lives of the learners. It has been demonstrated that
changes in behavior can accompany learning.
"More specifically, the subject matter of the high-school biology
course should include materials related to:
1. Health (personal and public, including physical fitness, food and
nutrition, disease, safety, mental health, etc.).
2. Reproduction, heredity, and the effect of the environment (as re-
lated to personal and social problems, individual and group dif-
ferences, improvement of living organisms, etc.).
3. The conservation of living things.
4. The structure and functions of living things, especially of the
human body.
5. The conditions necessary to support life, and adaptations of liv-
ing things.









THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY


6. Living things of the past, and the changes that have occurred.
7. Relations between individuals, between groups, and among liv-
ing things in general."
Textbooks for use and ready reference. The present adopted
textbook, Everyday Biology, Curtis, Caldwell, and Sherman, has
many features to aid the teacher. Its eight broad units are:
I. Some Major Problems Which Living Things Must
Solve.
II. Plants and the World's Food Supply.
III. The Kinds of Living Things.
IV. Conservation of Living Things.
V. Structures and Processes Concerned -with Nutrition.
VI. The Responses of Living Things.
VII. The Control of Disease and the Improvement of
Health.
VIII. The Continuance and Improvement of Living Things.
These units distinctly show the relationship of biology to per-
sonal and social uses.
Other teaching aids are sections on how to study, questions
each chapter answers, interesting activities, exercises on scien-
tific attitudes, self-tests, and the like. A glossary provides val-
uable references for expanding vocabularies. The teachers
manual has proved very helpful. Workbooks and published
tests are available.
The texts formerly in adoption, Problems in Biology, by
Hunter, and New Introduction to Biology, by Kinsey, will con-
tinue to be used for some time in many classes. These texts in-
clude topics similar to those of the adopted text, although not
in the same order. A desk copy of Everyday Biology would be
helpful to each teacher.
Let's make biology live by these, and other plans.
1. Preparing for class thoroughly and ahead of time.
2. Making definite and clear assignments for study and
laboratory work.
3. Using a great variety of assignments-written, oral,
reference, field, experiment, and others.








28 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

4. Making provision for individual interests and abilities.
5. Planning liberal displays in classrooms, hallways, and
other public places, changing these frequently.
6. Adopting varied devices that will arouse interest such
as question and answer boxes, reference and clipping files,
and novel approaches.
7. Accepting unexpected opportunities for timely discus-
sions. (If something turns up suddenly, use it.)
8. Explaining com- /"
munity problems,
particularly in
health matters. R
9. Encouraging vigor-
ous discussions, par-
ticularly after dem- 1
onstrations. -[
10. Adding regularly [--
to each student's
vocabulary by sci- SOMETHING TORS- UP
entific terms, care- SUDDENLY- USE IT
fully explained.
(Study technical names and local common names in
parallel.)
11. Preparing lists of supplementary reading for practice in
looking up material and reading for pleasure.
12. Encouraging students to build a personal library and
collections.
13. Steadily enlarging the classroom library with books,
bulletins, magazines, and other published materials.
14. Keeping the bulletin board current with (a) material
relating to subjects under discussion, and (b) items of
daily interest.
15. Using audio-visual aids effectively, in cooperation with
related science areas.
16. Remembering that the best teaching aids in biology are
actual specimens.








THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY


Put value in evaluation by giving recognition for
1. Citizenship-attitude toward others, spirit of cooperation.
2. Participation in class and laboratory activities.
3. Contributions to school museum and laboratory materials.
4. Cleanliness, orderliness, and efficiency in the laboratory.
5. Efforts toward excellence in drawings and diagrams.
6. Efficiency in one or more major projects.
7. Clarity and organization in reports on books, references,
and current material, written and oral.
8. Achievement on quizzes, tests after units, and final ex-
aminations.
The spirit of the laboratory-is it labor? or oratory?
1. Biology can be taught with very little expensive equip-
ment. Let most of the supplies, especially specimens, be
obtained locally by students and the teacher.
2. Have plenty of little items before purchasing large items.
Examples: hand lenses, screw-top jars, scissors.
3. Substitute much common material for purchased items,
as jelly glasses for beakers, odd saucers for watch glasses,
razor blades for scalpels.
4. Rotate expensive equipment among students by planned
assignments. It is not necessary that every student have
an individual microscope, but he should have numerous
experiences during the year with this instrument.
5. Obtain adequate equipment and supplies in addition to
local and improvised material. A microprojector has
proved particularly valuable for class use. Become thor-
oughly familiar with the planned laboratory work in
the textbook and with the suggestions in the teachers
manual. It is the teacher's responsibility to prepare lists
of practical equipment that is actually needed and will
be used.
6. Learn how to take care of live material and how to pre-
pare preserved material. Much of this information can
be found in Methods and Materials for Teaching Bio-
logical Sciences, by Miller and Blaydes, in Handbook for








30 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Teachers of Elementary Science, by Hudspeth, and in
the service bulletins of many supply houses.
7. Insist on cleanliness and orderliness in the laboratory.
Start with clean equipment and quarters at the begin-
ning of school. Set the example of neatness and efficiency
yourself. A final cleanup of the laboratory is imperative
at the close of the school year.
8. Encourage students to make all possible varieties of
equipment for the laboratory and for their own projects.
Examples: plant presses, insect drying boards, cyanide
jars, nets, aquaria, terraria, specimen cases and cages.
9. How much dissection? The question has many answers.
A conservative policy is as follows: (a) dissect plants
freely, and in all plant structures; (b) offer more com-
plex dissections on larger animals as teacher's demon-
strations; (c) limit animal dissections to earthworms,
crayfish, insects, fish, and frogs; (d) give tactful atten-
tion to the feelings of a "squeamish" student.
Often the dressing of familiar food animals, such as
chickens, or fish, at home will furnish interesting back-
ground for laboratory dissection.
10. Embryology should be studied by examination of suc-
cessive embryos of chicks in nest or incubator.
11. Keep up with the new techniques of laboratory prepara-
tions, such as the use of plastics in preserving specimens.
12. Large classes introduce serious handicaps to good teach-
ing of biology. If possible, keep the classes and the lab-
oratory sections to sizes convenient for the type of in-
struction recommended above. If this is not possible,
work out various schemes for sectioning inside your
class, with certain students reading while others experi-
ment, and still others work on individual projects. In
recitations use individual responses of students as far as
possible, requiring the full attention of all other students.
Let's go outdoors! Journeys into the field are for two pur-
poses: (1) observation, and (2) collection.








THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY


Eyes to see, ears to hear, noses.... The spirit of observation is
exploration. The following are typical of the emphases of a
field trip:
1. Form and color. The chief aspects of identification, the
principal terms of description, the progressive changes of
growth, are usually given as aspects of form and color.
Practice to develop form and color consciousness is of
highest value.
2. Plants and animals living together as friends or enemies.
Stress lessons as to man's place in nature.
3. Habitats and habits of the local animals, particularly
birds, insects, frogs, lizards, fish, mammals. Identify
those friendly to man.
4. Habitats and adaptations of plants, particularly the form
and arrangement of leaves, mechanisms of pollination,
seed dispersal, protection.
5. Recognition of abundant local plants and animals by
common names, and the technical names as far as their
orders or families. Learn to avoid dangerous plants and
animals.
6. Special attention to the production of important local
crops and farm animals, such as citrus, truck, ranching,
and the like. Know your community's resources.
Keep collecting! Bring 'em back . The trophies should
include:
1. Specimens for study. Students are willing helpers in pro-
viding this material. Even the students of the lower grades
should be encouraged to be scouts for the biology depart-
ment.
2. Live specimens. Stocking the aquarium and terrarium is
particularly easy in Florida. This activity should occupy
many field excursions, and carry over into many inter-
esting classroom hours.
3. Soil, rocks, and minerals of the region. A supply should
be on hand for study of subjects related to biology.








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


4. Fossils. They are ----\
abundant in many C IA LLLV IR
Florida areas, and
should be collected Ac P
and identified.
5. Shells. They are es- F
pecially abundant
and varied along the
Florida coasts, and I "
the shores of inland
lakes. No school /
should be without its
shell specimens.
6. The school museum.
Its problems involve /0
(a) selecting the best
specimens, (b) accu-
rate labeling, (c) at-
tractive display, (d) IT
planned use, and (e)
continuous care.
Enrichment activities-program pepper-uppers. These
clude:
1. Special projects-individual. Voluntary choice of


ities based on personal interests may lead into lifelong
science hobbies. 1000 Science Projects is available from
Science Clubs of America in Washington. The service
bulletins of various supply houses contain many valuable
suggestions for these activities.
2. Special projects-group. These furnish superior oppor-
tunities for developing cooperation. Examples are school
gardens, beautification of school grounds, surveys of liv-
ing creatures in the area, health in the community, and
others.
3. Special reports. These involve training in collecting and
digesting information. Their presentation gives practice


TO

RE

"OR


activ-


-----


32


32-








THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY


in writing and speaking. All reports should be founded
on interest, both of the reporter and his audience.
4. Programs. These should be of great variety. Among
the types are panel discussions, dramas, songs, outside lec-
tures in the classroom, assembly programs by class or club.
5. Clubs. The Biology Club differs from the biology class
chiefly in the following respects:
(a) It is organized and conducted by students. The
teacher is primarily the sponsor, and should not
project himself unduly into the club's activities.
(b) Membership should be voluntary with rules for ad-
mission worked out by students. Standards of activ-
ity for maintaining membership are advisable.
(c) Programs should differ decidedly from a class recita-
tion. Bulletins of Science Clubs of America (Wash-
ington, D. C.), offer many suggestions for club pro-
grams.
(d) If time outside of class is not available, use a regular
class period for each club meeting.
(e) The club should affiliate with the State's Junior
Academy of Sciences. One of the major projects of
the club should be the participation, by selected stu-
dents, in the annual programs of the Junior Academy
of Sciences. Information concerning the Junior
Academy may be obtained from the Librarian, State
Academy of Sciences Library, Biology Building,
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
(f) The club should affiliate with Science Clubs of
America, 1719 N. Street, N. W., Washington 6,
D.C.






TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


WHAT

I -

DRAW


TRULY
5EEl\ /
Nature is art. A little maxim will impress the student with
the value of the trained eye guiding the willing hand.
1. What I draw, I truly see. The primary purpose of biology
drawings is to help record information gathered through
observation and experimentation. These drawings should
be scientifically accurate, clearly labeled, large enough to
show required detail, and well arranged. These drawings
may include: (a) laboratory drawings, sketches, and
diagrams, (b) charts and posters, (c) maps, and (d)
lantern slides.








THE TEACHING OF BIOLOGY


WHAT I MAKE I5 PART OF ME

: :. [










2. What I make is part of me. Interest is greatly enhanced
by the following art activities: (a) making models using
clay, soap, papier-mache, plaster of Paris, and other
media; (b) preparing photographic, ink, spatter, block,
and blue prints; (c) constructing notebook covers and
organized scrapbooks; (d) improving the appearance of
bulletin boards and displays.








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


CHEMISTRY IS WELL ADVERTISED

SECTION 6. THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY
Chemistry is already well advertised to the students who en-
roll in the subject's classes. Its wonders have been emphasized-
indeed, glamorized-through the newspapers, magazines, and
even the "comics." The chemistry teacher's obligation is to
direct this preliminary interest into the channels of true science
and to sustain it through the school year.
As is true with other sciences in the secondary school, the
main purpose of chemistry instruction is to present the simpler,
more fundamental principles in such a manner that the environ-
ment may be better understood, and an appreciation of chem-
istry's contribution to civilization developed. The laboratory
should give such insight into the value of direct evidence as to
impress the student with experiment as fundamental to the
scientific method. Applications of chemistry should be those
the student meets in person, rather than those of theoretical sig-
nificance only.
College professors often contend that high school chemistry
does not give that advance information which would be helpful
to a student in college chemistry. Teachers of the subject should
not be troubled by this criticism. It is not founded on any clear








THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY 37

understanding of the objectives of science instruction in the
secondary school, nor on a recognition of the psychology of
youth at the high school level.
Center interest on chemistry for Florida. At present many in-
dustries exist in Florida because of chemical research. The alert
teacher will investigate local and state industries to have these
serve as a hub for the study of applied chemistry. Outstanding
fields in which chemical research is playing a major part are
citrus products, paper manufacture, starch derivatives. Indus-
tries in which chemical processes are basic produce sugar, lime
and cement, charcoal and wood derivatives, sulphuric acid, and
dry ice.
For its future development, Florida is unique in having many
potential industries which are chemically feasible such as those
based on the use of soy bean, peanut, lemon grass, and native
plants such as palmetto, coconut, mangrove and kelp. New in-
dustries based on Florida resources, which are now being shipped
for processing outside the state, may be developed from phos-
phate, zirconium, magnesium, titanium, turpentine, tung oil,
ceramics, diatomaceous and fuller's earths.
Problems in communities of Florida which can be solved
through the application of chemistry are water purification,
sewage disposal, weed eradication and suppression of pollen, in-
sect control, soil deficiency, reclaiming waste products.
Objectives of the teaching of chemistry. The following ob-
jectives seem valid:
1. To show the powers for good and evil of man's control of
nature through chemistry.
2. To enhance the appreciation of chemistry's contribution
to the welfare of mankind.
3. To train the students to become intelligent consumers of
our nation's goods and services.
4. To teach the chemistry of the human body in such a man-
ner as to contribute to health and safety.
5. To give a basic understanding of agricultural and indus-
trial processes.








38 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

6. To explain many familiar home phenomena.
7. To offer guidance into chemical vocations.
8. To develop appreciation of researches of great chemists
who have laid the foundations of our present chemical
knowledge.

The classroom-nucleus of directed activity. Certain methods
may be used to maintain a high level of interest.
1. Correlate class and laboratory work closely. Failure to
do this ignores the learning characteristics of young
people.
2. Arouse interest or clinch a fact by interspersing a class
discussion or explanation with short illustrative experi-
ments.
3. Endeavor to have assignments develop as logical need
felt by the students. Planned work should be clear,
definite, and reasonable.
4. Allow free exchange of ideas.
5. Encourage questioning on the part of students.
6. Promote the use of clear, concise English in class dis-
cussions.
7. Broaden the vocabulary by constant application of
chemical nomenclature and enlarge concepts of familiar
terms.
8. Use reading to supplement the text, to provide in-
formation on present and future use of chemistry in
Florida, and to supply an interesting background of
chemistry.
9. Use carefully chosen audio-visual aids such as wall charts,
radio programs, slides, filmstrips and films.
10. Advocate wherever possible carefully planned trips to
points of chemical interest.
(a) Make preliminary plans for arrangements with
school and industry officials.
(b) Get faculty cooperation.








THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY 39

(c) Plan details of trips, such as transportation, time
required, arrangements for guides, well in advance
of trip.
(d) Prepare class for points of interest and application
of these to chemistry.
(e) Have a complete "follow-through" of the trip by
reports, discussions, and the like.
11. Take advantage of current happenings as they apply to
phases of chemistry in order to arouse new interests.
12. Have students exchange letters and collections of local
materials with students of chemistry classes in other
localities.
The laboratory-where interest expands. Laboratory work is
primarily to develop spe-
cific skills and to motivate IN THf ~- A
learning. Laboratory expe-
riences properly guided will
also result in habits of re-
sourcefulness, responsibili-
ty, honesty, neatness and
respect for other people's W HER
property and for school
property. Naturally the
alert teacher will adapt lab-
oratory procedure to the
size of the class, and to the
facilities and equipment at
hand. Often students can
be trained to assist in the
maintenance and operation
of the laboratory. Students /
will learn better if special
attention is paid to effective
presentation of subject
matter by careful planning
of the sequence of explana- 'L
tions, class discussions, and & PXN D I
laboratory experiments.








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


The ideal procedure is the individual or small group activity.
Only by this method will the following be attained:
1. Ability to follow directions (Do not assume that the stu-
dent already knows how to read and follow directions.
Teach this skill!)
2. Initiative in meeting unexpected situations.
3. Skills in handling equipment.
4. Responsibility for care of equipment.
5. Regard for safety of others and of oneself.
6. Willingness to accept honesty as the spirit of the labora-
tory-to stand or fall on one's own work.
7. Understanding causes of lack of agreement among
scientists.
8. Appreciation of varying degrees of accuracy in publica-
tion.
9. Habits of proving things for oneself.
10. Ability to draw appropriate conclusions from experi-
ments.
The demonstration experiment by either student or teacher
may be preferred:
1. When a unit is to be introduced.
2. When experiments are too complicated for students
to perform.
3. When experiments require expensive material or when
laboratory facilities are limited.
4. When we wish to teach manipulation or skills (A dem-
onstration involving similar skills, but different chemicals
may be appropriate).
5. When we wish to develop leadership and responsibility
by student planned and conducted experiments.
Laboratory "follow-up" lends itself to written and oral re-
ports. In either case definite conclusions should be drawn, and
applications should be made of the principles involved in the
experiment. This will bridge the gap between the classroom and
real life situations.








THE TEACHING OF CHEMISTRY


The habits of safety learned in the laboratory may have fre-
quent application in everyday life. Some are:
1. Properly label all containers. Before using read all labels
carefully.
2. Never return unused chemicals to the original containers.
3. Use minimum quantities of materials.
4. Develop proper methods of testing by taste and smell.
5. Teach correct technique of handling bottle stoppers; of
inserting glass tubing in stoppers.
6. Arrange for proper disposal of waste material, residues,
and broken glass.
7. Explain fire control. Have material such as sand, water,
or commercial extinguishers freely at hand.
8. Have students know the location and use of first aid sup-
plies.
The teacher will exemplify good home practices by keeping
dangerous chemicals inaccessible until intelligent use is assured.
He should further be acquainted with antidotes and trained in
first aid. It is suggested that a chart pertaining to chemistry first
aid be on the wall in the laboratory.

The testing program-a continuous inventory. Tests are
given:
1. To determine background of chemical knowledge.
2. To motivate learning by drill on symbols, formulas, and
chemical terms.
3. To determine remedial work needed for normal progress.
4. To test ability to apply chemical knowledge to new situa-
tions.
5. To discover superior talents for understanding chemistry.
6. To measure effectiveness of teaching methods employed
in chemistry.
Final grades should be based on:
1. Results of varied tests: subjective (discussion, essay,
thought provoking, problem solving); objective (com-








42 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

pletion, multiple choice, matching, short answer, true-
false).
2. Class discussion and participation, giving each student an
opportunity to take part in class activities. (Mastery at
each student's own level is expected.)
3. Laboratory work which gives the teacher an excellent
opportunity to judge whether or not the student has
reached his level of perfection as well as to find improve-
ment in neatness, orderliness, resourcefulness, responsibil-
ity, ability to work with others and in willingness to con-
tribute to the work of the group.
Chemistry clubs-outlets for student energy. This energy
may be directed into:
1. Hobbies that may lead to vocations and avocations.
2. Social and recreational values based on mutual interests
in chemistry.
3. Group service to the school in programs, investigations
and plans involving chemical knowledge.
(Science Clubs of America, Washington, D. C., offers
practical suggestions through bulletins for the organiza-
tion and conduct of chemistry clubs.)

SECTION 7. THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS
If physics is to be an interesting subject for students, the
teacher must make it so. The specific suggestions outlined in
this section are chosen for this single, simple purpose. They
have been selected from a voluminous list of school-tested prac-
tices known to have worked under average Florida conditions.
Students frequently, through misinformation, consider
physics a hard, useless course. This conception can be shown
to be in error because physics is really interesting and touches
the lives of all in a worthwhile way. Deft manner of introduc-
tion of each new principle, elimination of needless drudgery,
and the advertisement of physics to the students will be con-
sidered.








THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS


The teacher's self-evaluation is as needful as grading stu-
dents' papers and will be considered in this context because
every student grade measures teaching effectiveness.along with
pupil effort.
Special attention is given to laboratory problems. Meaning-
fulness is stressed. Teaching laboratories should be differentiated
from research laboratories in the teacher's mind as well as in the
student's.
Scientists are working day and night to change our under-
standing of the world, and science develops because of this. A
constant re-evaluation of concepts is the very spirit of Science,
and in this spirit the teacher is invited to make use of the sug-
gestions that follow.
Objectives of the teaching of physics. Among the most ob-
vious are these:
1. To give experience in precise observations and measure-
ments.
2. To establish a factual basis for understanding the
mechanics of the environment.
3. To emphasize the contributions of great physicists to
human progress.
4. To show the clear and simple relationships of mathe-
matics to the operation of physical laws.
5. To offer guidance toward a great variety of occupations
based upon physics.
Physics can be fun, if we can do these things:
A. Show real need for knowledge of basic physical laws in
each new principle taught.
1. Sell the unit by arousing enthusiastic curiosity by one
or more of the following methods:
a. By short demonstrations; for example-the law of
inertia can be introduced by slapping a paper from
under a fountain pen or small cylinder balanced on
end. The paper must be slapped by moistening fin-
gers slightly. Do not attempt to jerk paper.








44 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

b. Use historical approach by biographical sketches,
such as Galileo, Archimedes, and Newton; by giving
origin of physical principles, such as the origin of
weights and measures.
c. Take advantage of the student's background of ex-
perience. Some students have had practical training
in radio, garages, or construction work and can con-
tribute greatly to class discussion. The effect of alti-
tude on the boiling point may have been noticed by
some student and others may have felt the variation
of air pressure with altitude by "ears popping" going
up in an elevator or in an airplane.
d. Draw on practical applications in schools, sports,
home, in the working world, and in amusement de-
vices. One could use the following examples in teach-
ing the value of levers: window pulleys for shades,
baseball bats, scissors, wheel and axles, see-saws.
e. Ask challenging questions; such as "Can iron float?"
when introducing Archimedes' principle. Before dis-
cussing latent heat, ask, "Why does heating a sub-
stance not always change its temperature?" To
arouse interest in the law of acceleration, ask, "Will
a big rock and a little one fall at the same speed?"
B. Introduce the metric system as an easy scientific tool.
1. Show students that it is a system planned with a
definite relationship between units of length, weight,
and volume.
2. Show it as an outgrowth of a system of tens.
a. Other familiar systems are U. S. money, per-
centage, centigrade thermometer, electrical pow-
er unit, radio frequency and Olympic sports
records.
b. Demonstrate how convenient it is to use:
(1) Show how easy it is to find area of card in
metric system.
(2) Compare changing one mile to inches with
one kilometer to millimeters.









THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS 45

(3) Use metric scale in drawing graphs and
force (vector) diagrams.
3. Emphasize its internal use.
a. Basis of measure in all countries except U. S. A.
and British Empire.
b. In 1886 Congress set legal equivalents between
U. S. and metric system.
4. Show that because certain constants of water are
taken as unity, conversion is made simple. Sp. gr. 1,
density 1 g/cc, 1 calorie.
5. Suggest memorization of length, weight, and vol-
ume reduction units. 1 meter, 39.37 inches; or 1
inch, 2.54 centimeters; 1 liter, 1.06 quarts; 1 kilo-
gram, 2.2 pounds.
6. Use charts and models freely to visualize these units.
C. Simplify mathematical operations to fit basic needs.
1. Review simple seventh and eighth grade arithmetic
as need is anticipated.
Most needed review is in the four fundamental opera-
tions, common and decimal fractions, ratio and pro-
portion, percentage, finding area and volume, and
square root.
2. Formulas are extremely important but must have
meaning.
a. A teacher should learn where students have met
the formulas in mathematics and general science
and take advantage of the value of recall.
b. Principle must be taught before formula is given.
c. Some memorization must be done but in most
cases recognition and choice of correct formula
from posted list is sufficient.
D. Sell its everyday use by:
1. General applications-show that physics teaches the
principles underlying new developments in trans-
portation, communication, and entertainment de-
vices.








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


2. Safety applications show how the quantitative
relations of acceleration, momentum, inertia, cen-
trifugal force, and center of gravity apply to safe
automobile driving.


APPLES!


3. Application to practical problems, such as: repair-
ing many household appliances (faucets, light cords,
doorbells); proper lighting at home and in school
room (intensity and law of inverse square, how to
correct inadequate conditions); minor repairs to
autos and farm machinery.
4. Investigation of local industries which use mechan-
ical and electrical devices.
E. Arouse interest by good salesmanship.
1. Before pupils enroll in physics:
a. Put on interesting well-planned assembly pro-
grams in playlet form containing striking experi-
ments which are visible to the audience, force-
fully presented, and which carefully adhere to a
prepared script. Preliminary advertising, spot-
lighting, and proper sound effects help to carry
the program. Science quiz programs have proved
successful if properly planned.


46








THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS 47

b. Use science displays; special bulletins, poster
work, workable models and display cases in hall.
Make special display for P.-T. A., civic clubs, and
store windows.


I 7 I _N % U'"Wr
WANT TO SEE-
STAND ON


c. Invite other science classes to visit labor,
while in action.
2. After pupils enroll, interest will continue if we


a.


atory


Present student demonstrations for science classes
in lower grades.
(1) Contact principal and offer to have stu-
dents demonstrate.
(2) Be certain that students have mastered the
demonstration.
(3) Anticipate questions asked by younger
children. (Be prepared for surprises.)


b. Have field trips (school journeys).
(1) Make preliminary plans with school and
industry officials.
(2) Explain nature and purpose of trip to
other faculty members to insure their
cooperation.
(3) Carefully plan all details of trip-time
element, transportation, arrange for guides








48 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

who have been warned of probable ques-
tions group will ask.
(4) Provide check-list for each student, devel-
oped by committee of teacher and students.
c. Sponsor clubs based on physics, physics hobbies,
and science fairs. Examples photography,
radio, airplane, projectors club, and Science
Clubs of America.
d. Show "new worlds to conquer" in the fields of
air-conditioning, more effective use of electric
power, increased efficiency of machines (most
automobiles only five to ten percent efficient),
new mechanical devices to lighten work, safety
devices.
e. Have many interesting books, dealing with
physics, for class use.
(1) Diagnose students' level of reading by
standard reading tests, vocabulary tests or
by observation of difficulties evidenced in
their learning processes.
(2) Have books available for each reading
level.
(3) Encourage student to increase reading
speed and comprehension.
(a) Of interesting material based on
level of each student.
(b) Show improvement as a time-saver
in preparation for physics.
f. Plan for student participation in all experiments.
(1) Work in small groups or individually if
experiment is short, simple, and not too
expensive.
(2) Use lecture demonstration for more
difficult and expensive experiments, allow-
ing different students to prepare and take
part in demonstration and to answer ques-
tions.








THE TEACHING OF PHYSICS 49

(3) Require brief but carefully and accurately
written reports containing simple and
analytic drawings when advisable.
g. Use audio-visual aids such as slides, films, film
strips, wall charts, radio programs, recordings,
and flat pictures.
F. Vitalize laboratory work.


1. Provide activity for each member of the class.
2. Use laboratory guides properly.
a. Precede experiments or any assignment by a thor-
ough explanation of what pupils are about to do.
(1) Use challenging questions.
(2) Determine what tables, sketches, or write-
ups will make experiment more clear.
(3) Have careful plans worked out for best
presentation of experiment using either
individual method, demonstrations, or
problem project method.
(4) See that pupils are stimulated to self activ-
ity which will result in a feeling of accom-
plishment and satisfaction.
3. Have proper materials on hand making sure they
are easily accessible, in perfect repair. When expen-
sive equipment is not available, encourage conversion
of home and "junk yard" materials.
4. Be available at all times during laboratory periods to
anticipate difficulties and give helpful suggestions.
5. Follow up experiments by varied methods of evalua-
tion.
a. Have students draw up conclusions and make
practical application of experiment using oral
or written method.
b. Ask problem type questions which will involve
the use of the principles learned by mastery of
the experiment.
6. Give every opportunity for full training in habits of
neatness, orderliness, resourcefulness and respon-








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


sibility; in ability to work with others and respect
their point of view and accomplishments.
G. Evaluate work effectively.
1. Test should be given with definite purpose in view.
a. To motivate learning and as a teaching aid.
b. To determine students rank in class on basis of
mastery obtained.
c. To test student's ability to apply knowledge
gained to a new situation.
d. As a basis to determine remedial work required.
e. To measure effectiveness of teacher's own work.
2. Vary type of tests used and combine several types.
a. Prognostic-to determine background of knowl-
edge.
b. Diagnostic-to find pupil's level of learning.
c. Objective-Such as multiple choice, matching,
completion, true-false. Caution: This type tends
to encourage memorization of facts, guessing
and unfair work; units of thought and expres-
sion are too short to give chance for organization
and integration of knowledge; tests require
much more time to make out.
d. Essay type includes discussion, thought provok-
ing, problem solving. Remember: This test cov-
ers fewer points, takes more time to score, and is
largely subjective.
3. Vary scoring methods.
a. Exchange papers or self-scoring can be used
where less emphasis is placed on grades but more
on improvement.
b. Teacher scoring. All major tests and unexpected
daily tests should be scored by teacher. Errors
should be merely indicated. Papers should be re-
turned promptly and test questions discussed in
class. Encourage pupils to save test papers for
purpose of review.








SENIOR "PHYSICAL SCIENCES" 51

4. Final grade. Let the final grade be a composite re-
cording growth in interest, skill, understanding, and
appreciation as aspects of learning physics. Increas-
ing ability to contribute to group activities should
also be taken into consideration.
H. Point out vocational opportunities-in fields; such as:
1. Local opportunities include repair shops (auto-
mobiles, mechanical, radio, electrical appliances);
the building trades; communications.
2. Regional opportunities are in the fields of aviation,
meteorology, engineering (heating, ventilating,
lighting, electrical, highway, construction, elec-
tronics, and others), architecture (drafting, design-
ing), civil service, research.
3. Teaching physics and its applications.

SECTION 8. THE PLACE OF "PHYSICAL SCIENCES"
IN THE SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
The State Department requirement of one year of physical
science beyond the ninth grade is ideally met by chemistry and
physics. However, certain substitutes are permitted, such as two
years of agriculture or home economics, or the one year course
of physical science herein discussed.
The course in physical science is seldom a standard subject for
high schools. In small schools where adequate laboratory equip-
ment is not available it may have a place. If for some reason in
larger schools a number of local students are not adapted to the
standard chemistry-physics sequence, this course might be
offered for them to meet the graduation requirements in physical
science. Under whatever circumstances it is offered the advanced
physical science teacher must be well grounded in both chem-
istry and physics. This course should demand fully as much
work from the students as any other course in science, and should
be made equally interesting and instructive.
Objectives of advanced physical science. These seem to be
appropriate:








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


1. To present in an introductory manner a group of prin-
ciples from earth science, physics, chemistry, and
astronomy.
2. To describe selected phenomena and processes as types of
applied science.
3. To offer in a terminal course material as a basis for the
general interests of adult life.
4. To give students in a single year a more basically meaning-
ful course than either chemistry or physics alone.

Use of the adopted text. The present adopted text The
Physical Sciences, by Eby, Waugh, Welsh, and Buckingham, is
divided into four major parts: Sun and Stars, Earth Science,
Physics That All Should Know; Chemistry That All Should
Know. Each unit contains many suggestions for enrichment,
such as study questions, summaries, and leisure time activities.
The book contains large, clear interesting pictures and dia-
grams. There is no integration of the separate fields. Each unit
of necessity is greatly condensed and contains basic concepts.
There is a limited amount of mathematics. Basic industries are
treated in an interesting and practical way. The book seems to
serve the purpose outlined by the objectives above when used
with groups of mature students. A laboratory guide and teach-
ers manual are available, both of which are essential to the effi-
cient presentation of this course.
This course, like other science courses, is more meaningful
when adequately enriched. In the physics and chemistry units,
standard experiments from those sciences are usable, with per-
haps slight modification.
The teacher's manual accompanying The Physical Sciences is
helpful because it contains practical suggestions for class and
laboratory activities. If many of these activities are conscien-
tiously performed by students and teacher, the course will be
adequately enriched.
In Unit Two, Earth Sciences, it is strongly recommended that
Florida geology be incorporated. Helps are available from the
Florida Geological Survey in Tallahassee. Bulletins 17, 24, 27,








SENIOR "PHYSICAL SCIENCES" 53

and 29 will give the teacher information needed to work up a
unit on this subject.
For teaching Unit Three, "Physics That All Should Know"
the section of this bulletin concerning physics will be found
helpful.
In Unit Four, "Chemistry That All Should Know," special
material relating to Florida should be introduced. Pertinent
suggestions are outlined in the regular chemistry section of this
bulletin.
Experience in Florida seems to indicate that the course in
"Physical Sciences" is adapted to the needs of more mature stu-
dents. It is being used successfully in groups of veterans who
need an accelerated course in science. Insofar as the committee
could determine, the course in "Physical Sciences" is not being
used to meet successfully the needs of high school age students.
Additional experimentation is needed in developing a course in
advanced general science for high school students. The course
should be developed as a terminal course for those students who
are not going to attend college.












PART III
AIDS IN THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE


SECTION
SECTION

SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION

SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION


SECTION 15.



SECTION 16.

SECTION 17.


READING AS A TOOL FOR SCIENCE
THE INTER-RELATION OF SCIENCE
WITH OTHER SUBJECT FIELDS
MATHEMATICS IN SCIENCE
TEACHING THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
HEALTH AND SAFETY
AUDIO-VISUAL DEVICES
FIELD TRIP OR SCHOOL JOURNEY
LABORATORY AND CLASSROOM-INTE-
GRATED PROCEDURES
THE EQUIPMENT OF THE LABORATORY
SCIENCE CLUBS
EVALUATION AND TESTING
THE BOOK OF GENESIS, AND SCIENCE
SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE
PERSONALITY AND LEADERSHIP OF
SCIENCE TEACHERS
THE PLACE OF THE SCIENCE TEACHER
IN THE GUIDANCE PROGRAM OF THE
SCHOOL
THE SCIENCE TEACHER IN HIS PROFES-
SION
THE TEACHER'S LOAD: AN ADMINIS-
TRATIVE PROBLEM








READING AS A TOOL FOR SCIENCE


SECTION 1. READING AS A TOOL FOR SCIENCE
Only by reading can one learn the science of the past. Only
by reading can one follow directions for experiments of the
present. Only by reading can one grasp the prophecies of the
future. As instructors of science we accept responsibilities as
teachers of reading. We undertake this work not to help in the
teaching of reading, but rather to help our own classes to grasp
our subject. We are obligated to teach the type of reading
found in science.
Do not depend upon the TO
English teacher to teach all
the skills needed in reading MAKE A
scientific matter. The Eng-
lish teacher will probably OO
lack a sufficient amount of D
science-type teaching ma- r
trials. K -
Reading should be taught 75
regularly in science classes,
especially in the beginning
of a course. Tests of read-
ing ability, given early, in- .
form the teacher of the in-
dividual needs of the group
in order that materials at j
suitable levels of difficulty
may be recommended for
the different students. The
classroom and library
should have many books,
magazines, and other at-
tractive reading matter for
the science students.
In order to learn to read
efficiently students should HIT THE BOOK/
be encouraged: H I








56 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

1. To read by phrases instead of word by word recogni-
tion.
2. To make use of running heads and topic heads in their
books.
3. To develop the ability to select topic sentences and key
words.
4. To make special efforts to learn new words.
Increase in the vocabulary may be aided by assisting students
to-try to infer the meaning of words from their context; by
using the dictionary and glossary for pronunciation, spelling,
and exact meanings; by fixing the meanings of words by their
frequent use in the expression of ideas; and by associating words
with the objects or concepts they represent.
Assignments in the subject should be made in such ways that
students will be encouraged to read with definite purposes in
mind and so improve their reading ability. The teacher can
also help by pointing out and explaining the aids for study in
the books that are used. Many young people reach high school
unaware of the real benefits that are to be had from using the
table of contents, index, italics, darker print, headings, sub-
headings, footnotes, pronunciations, and other devices used to
make the texts more clear.
Often there are difficulties in grasping content material in
the sciences because so many new concepts are encountered so
rapidly. For instance, in high school biology the student should
master 693 basic concepts; in physics 530; and 520 in chem-
istry.1 This may make reading for mastery a slow process as
compared with reading for pleasure. Reading laboratory direc-
tions involve special concentration which should be developed
by practice.
In general, emphasis should be placed on reading for com-
prehension first. Subject matter in science is of the type that
does not lend itself to too rapid reading. Here a sentence often
contains words which are in themselves concepts. If the student
is to gain the full meaning of such a sentence, he must read at a
rate that will enable him to comprehend these concepts. As his
'The Technical Vocabulary, Louella Cole.








READING AS A TOOL FOR SCIENCE


familiarity with the science vocabulary advances and his ability
to read with comprehension increases, his rate of reading will
usually take care of itself.
A reading period of ten or fifteen minutes can be used effec-
tively as a part of the General Science program for the first
semester or for both semesters if results prove advisable.
During the first two weeks of school some type of diagnostic
test should be used to determine the strength and weakness of
every student in each of the six areas of science. It is well also
to gather all facts possible from other standardized tests con-
cerning the reading ability of each member of the class. The
science teacher should confer with the English and language
teachers to find out whether or not any eye defects have inter-
fered with the student's progress in reading.
It is possible to obtain excellent books that contain individual
"reading exercises" in the field of science by which the instruc-
tor may determine the comprehension and speed of each stu-
dent. If a different group of about eight to twelve students
take these "exercises" each day, the other members of the class
may be reading science material during the same period.
Remedial reading may be selected on the basis of the area of
science in which the student is weakest, but on his grade-level
of comprehension. For example, one student may be doing
remedial reading about "The Heavenly Bodies" on a 5.6 reading
comprehension at the same time that another student may be
reading about "Living Things" on a comprehension level of 7.8.
Individual record sheets or cards should be prepared so that
regular conferences may be held with students and suggestions
for improvement discussed with each student.
If a folder is kept for each student, this folder may contain
the record sheets just mentioned, a summary of his weak con-
tent areas, and a suggested list of books that he has selected dur-
ing his conference with the science teacher. It should also con-
tain a complete list of all books that he reads during the year.
The evaluation of the reading period may be in terms of the
increased interest of the student in science reading, of his many
reports and other contributions to his class, and also in terms of








58 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

results of other diagnostic tests that may be given in the middle
of the year, or two or three weeks before the close of the year.

SECTION 2. THE INTER-RELATION OF SCIENCE WITH
OTHER SUBJECT FIELDS
Science is not an isolated subject that can be confined to such
classes as biology, chemistry, or physics. Science today is in-
timately connected with every phase of living. This points to the
necessity of the science teacher's working in close cooperation
with teachers in the other subject fields. An understanding of
the work carried on in all subjects will bring appreciations that
will work to the good of all concerned in achieving the common
objective, the education of the child.
The bulletin Programs of Study in Florida Secondary Schools
(October, 1946) shows where correlations may be made with
other courses.
In agriculture we see the application of science principles.
In agriculture classes these principles are developed. The com-
position of the earth's soils, the elimination of soil waste, soil
erosion by wind or water, the study of the seasons, and the
study of climate and weather are all adapted from phases of
earth science. The application of chemistry can be found in such
sections as the development of fertilizers, and healthful food.
Electricity on the farm, the study of farm machinery, irrigation,
and drainage are phases of physics. Agriculture is rich in appli-
cations of biology. These include study of farm animals, growth
of crops, control of insects, and conservation of birds, fish, and
wild animals.
In home living and home economics courses we find another
field of applied sciences. Applications of heat, use of energy,
time saving devices, maintenance of home machinery, color
effects, rules of architecture and design, choice and preparation
of foods, all are related to science.
Mathematics and other sciences are intimately related. Many
problems arise directly from scientific situations. Science uses
basic mathematics in interpreting the findings of experiments.








THE INTER-RELATION OF SCIENCE 59

Scientists in seeking the unknown, use mathematical formulas
to point the path of their research.
The social sciences are concerned with science development.
Much history is the history of scientists and their discoveries.
Scientific discoveries have dramatically affected society in its
social and economic aspects. Society must make adjustments
as science solves more and more of the mysteries of life and mat-
ter.
The English and literature classes, which study the speech and
thoughts of our people, tell of the important place science now
occupies in our lives. New words are added as new inventions
and processes are developed. Science stories and essays take their
place in our anthologies of literature. The teachers of science
and of English have much to gain by active cooperation in plan-
ning the written and oral reports of students who are in the
classes of both.

SECTION 3. MATHEMATICS IN SCIENCE
Many students fear science courses because they have heard
that these involve complex mathematics. Their fears are un-
founded, and the students should be set at rest promptly by the
science teacher.
The mathematics required in each level of science will not
need any specialized teaching if the student has mastered the
various fundamentals as they are taught in the grades. Mathe-
matics has been taught earnestly in the grades. .Students, how-
ever, forget; and it is our responsibility to take them at what-
ever mathematical level we find them. The need for mathe-
matics as a tool should be shown and skill improved by review
and reteaching. It would be well for the science teacher to have
at hand copies of the texts for seventh and eighth grade mathe-
matics and for Algebra I for reference and review.
In the seventh grade and through the ninth grade science
classes and biology, very little mathematics is needed. It would
be well to review the abilities of students to substitute quan-
tities in a simple formula and to solve for an unknown. A
familiar example is the conversion of temperature scales.








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


For chemistry, in addition to the above, simple ratio and
proportion should be reviewed. The metric system will be in-
troduced for the first time for practical use. We do not recom-
mend that any great amount of time be spent on conversion to
English systems of measurement; for this is seldom necessary.
In science courses only one system need be used-the metric
system. It is important, however, that all the relationships be-
tween metric measurements be thoroughly understood.
In physics, besides the mastery of the use of the metric sys-
tem, a review will be needed in common and decimal fractions,
in ratio and proportion, in percentage, in finding area and
volume, and in square root. The very simplest principles of
geometry, such as diagonals and angles, may be presented with-
out previous courses in plane geometry.
Problems will have meaning only as pupils are able to visual-
ize materials used. This can be done by showing models and by
having students measure objects by the units to be used. Science
teachers should secure the help of the teachers of mathematics
in having students actually use the metric system. Students
should be led to see a need for solving scientific problems, and
as far as possible problems should be practical and within the
realm of their interests.

SECTION 4. TEACHING THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Someone has said, "History is biography, and the stories of
science are the stories of scientists." One of the best ways to
arouse interest at almost any point in a science course is by lead-
ing the students to find-for themselves and for each other-
the historical facts behind the phase of science at hand. Stories
of early investigators and inventors and the processes or devices
that they used, of explorers and research workers along many
lines, and of authors who have preserved the records for us, add
life and human interest to the course.
As we study biographies of scientists, we are impressed with
the insight of early workers and investigators, their persistence,
the hardships they endured, and the real results obtained in spite
of difficulties. We are also impressed with the facts that scien-








TEACHING THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE 61

tists still face difficulties and GALLILIO
must study, work, and sac-
rifice for the advances they
hope to make. And we find
that the future holds great
promise for the ones willing
to accept its challenge.
Biographies and historical
materials should be studied
all through the year. The
great contributions made by w
the early scientists will have DID
a vastly greater interest for
students when they know IT
about the lives and circum- 11
stances under which these
scientists labored. Pictures ..
of many scientists are avail-
able, and the teacher should
have a large number of them.
For teaching the histori-
cal background of science
there are many aids, includ-
ing the following:
(a) Bulletin board -
catchy pictures,
short articles, small
objects, clippings,
drawings, reports, and other commendable work by
students.
(b) Library-biographies, true science stories, science fic-
tion, encyclopedias, magazines, and booklets.
(c) Audio-visual aids-slides, film strips, films, opaque
projections, and recordings.
(d) Programs-reports and demonstrations, book reviews,
"lecturettes," pantomimes, and plays.








62 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

In addition to the information they provide, the above mate-
rials may lead to activities on the part of the student that may
bring to light hidden abilities and interests.

SECTION 5. HEALTH AND SAFETY
There is no more important aspect of living than good health.
Good health reaches beyond freedom of disease. It should be a
matter of personal and community pride. To build a strong na-
tion, we first have to build strong minds and bodies. The stu-
dents need to be reminded that "cleanliness is next to godliness."
A minimal health knowledge includes the areas of diet, exercise,
posture, rest, and care of the body in general; allergies; sex edu-
cation and heredity; drugs and preparations; safety.
There are known effects of diets on growth, vitality, disposi-
tion, complexion, and susceptibility to disease. Much of this
knowledge should be made known to the science student. The
student needs rather detailed information of how much, and
what kind of, exercise is good for him-in terms of his growth,
his self-confidence, his bodily functions, and his social life. It
seems plausible that some knowledge about the complex inter-
relationships which exist between skeleton, viscera, muscles, and
nerves may contribute to the student's attaining and maintain-
ing a satisfactory posture. The body demands a certain amount
of rest and sleep. The care of eyes, ears, teeth, skin, and hair is
of most importance.
Certain diseases are so widely spread that a fairly detailed
knowledge of their cause and prevention is necessary for all high
school students. For older adolescents information concerning
venereal diseases, the recognition of infection, and reliable pro-
cedure in case of infection, constitutes some of the most im-
portant health education that the school can give. This may be
approached through the study of the physiology of the human
body. The miracle and wonder of life should be made known
to each student through the study of reproduction and em-
bryology; and his responsibility to society, through genetics.
The old secretiveness on these matters is not part of our modern
attitude.








HEALTH AND SAFETY


Drugs are a valid part of medical treatment of disease, but
they are dangerous in the hands of laymen, since many medi-
cines can become habit forming. The science teacher's most
important role in this connection is to develop a well fortified
determination to use no drugs at all on the recommendation of
advertisements, friends, or any one but a doctor. Alcohol and
narcotic drugs are habit forming, and no one knows to what
extent he or she may be susceptible. This fact, as well as the pos-
sible consequences which come when alcohol has loosed the con-
trol of emotions through its narcotic action, should be known
to every pupil.
The lessons about alcoholic beverages and narcotics should be
based on science and not on propaganda. They should be based
on experimental evidence. The vividness of the dangers of
"drunk driving," or the effects of lack of training in athletic
games, have far more virtue in the minds of young people than
any amount of moralizing. Most of all we should stress at this
time the.theme of cooperation for sober and temperate living.
In a society where every action is so closely bound up with the
lives of others, we cannot afford to lose our own vigor. Loyalty
and helpfulness to the group and the ultimate health of the
group may depend upon each individual's action. For informa-
tion helpful in class instruction, write the Consultant in Nar-
cotics Education, State Department of Education, Tallahassee,
Florida.
The problems of safety are of extreme importance. It is be-
lieved that proper education can go a long way toward lower-
ing the number of accidents and deaths from accidental causes.
Science can contribute much to this education, for many of the
causes of accidents are related to science. Examples are preven-
tion and control of fires, the automobile and safety on the high-
ways, electric shock, drownings, and safety in the home and at
school. The science student should know the meaning and pur-
pose of first aid and be able to apply some of its principles.
Science plays an outstanding part in the plans which a com-
munity has for its future development, such as zoning, park
development, public utilities, and safe highways. These matters
should receive earnest study in science classes.








64 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

SECTION 6. AUDIO-VISUAL DEVICES
Audio-visual aids provide sensory experiences which, added
to common teacher-textbook situations, will vitalize science
teaching. The term "aids" implies addition, but the proper use
of these materials demands their incorporation into the course
as an integral part.
The visual aids are numerous and flexible. The teacher will
spend much time examining and appraising them to fit par-
ticular needs. The science course that is well rounded with ade-
quate audio-visual aids will give high returns to students in
interest, learning, and retention.
The blackboard is one of the most common and least effective-
ly used visual aids. Can the students see it? A small investment
in a fluorescent light can "light the way." Is it kept clean? Is
the handwriting plain? Are the diagrams and sketches clear?
Use of colored chalk will simplify labeling and make parts of dia-
grams stand out more clearly.










THE BULLETIN BOARD-
The bulletin board is the most variable, the least often varied,
aid. Keep it current, attractive, and interesting. Opportunity
for students to handle the bulletin board material is afforded.
Student competition in this activity is a good motivation. File
much of the material for future use. Posters, charts, and the like
may be obtained free, or at nominal charge, from many com-
mercial sources such as DuPont, Westinghouse, General Motors,
General Electric.








AUDIO-VISUAL DEVICES 65

Reference material such as charts, maps, graphs, flat pictures,
posters, biological charts, and magazine articles serve as colorful,
meaningful, informative aids. Vary the material to correlate
with the topics under discussion.
Models, exhibits, and specimens furnish the most concrete
visual aids. Store these systematically in order to find them with
minimum effort. Encourage students to collect material of this
kind from local sources, and by exchange with students in other
parts of the country. The secondary and elementary schools
can also exchange specimens. Many manufacturers offer mate-
rial free or at low cost. Magazines for science teachers are con-
stantly listing these offers.
Filmstrips, opaque materials, and slides are the most econom-
ical and the least complicated of the aids that require a screen.
An entire lesson may be woven around a few well selected slides
or frames of filmstrip. The lesson can be carried on entirely by
students. These aids may be used individually by students or by
student groups to enrich their experiences.
Slides both 2"x2" and 3 I"x4Y4" may be student-made as
well as rented or purchased. The General Extension Division of
the University of Florida has many of these. The opaque type
projector may be used for thin objects, flat pictures, or pictures
in books. Frequently a chart, outline, or map may be projected
in outline on the board and filled in by students as the lesson
develops. A project in which some of this material is prepared
may prove to be a useful activity.
Many local libraries have filmstrips for loan. The General
Extension Division of the University of Florida, the United
States Department of Agriculture and the United States Office
of Education distribute many free.
The motion picture as an audio-visual aid. The unique char-
acteristics of the motion picture, such as animation, micro-
photography, time-lapse photography, and slow-motion, great-
ly enhance realism in science teaching. Since the motion picture,
both silent and sound, is an integral part of the curriculum, it
is best to have the films shown in the classroom itself. The re-
sponsibility of the teacher is to select the film, plan the proper








66 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

presentation, and utilize the many divergent outgrowths fol-
lowing its use. In many schools the leadership in film use may
fall to the science teacher because his training makes him the
logical person to help in the selection of equipment and the
training of projectionists.
Suggestions for planning the effective use of films.
A. Prepare yourself.


1. Know the purpose of the film.
2. Read catalogs and study the guides.
3. Become familiar with it well in advance, by preview.
Do not use any film that is unsuitable.
4. Consult your file of films previously used (see be-
low).
5. Cooperate with the central distribution bureau of
your school.


B. Prepare the class.
1. Explain the purpose of the film.
2. Call attention to scenes that should be noticed with
special care.
3. Explain and define any unfamiliar technical termin-
ology.
4. Tell the class to be on the alert for activities sug-
gested by the film.
C. Present the film.
1. Ideal length of showing is 10 to 15 minutes of a
period, to allow time beforehand for introduction,
and afterwards for discussion, representation, and
followup.
2. Encourage informal class questions and discussion
immediately after film.
D. Follow-up.
1. Have exhibits, experiments, or reports suggested by
the film.
2. Evaluate learning by a suitable check-up.








AUDIO-VISUAL DEVICES 67

3. Draw practical application from the scenes of the
film.
E. For your use keep a record of each film. Ask yourself
these questions:
1. Was it suitable for the unit?
2. Was the content clear and specific?
3. What is its proper lesson use-as an overview, intro-
duction to unit, development of unit or review?
4. What were the weak and strong points of the show-
ing?
File the answers to the above questions for your information
regarding each film. They will be useful in recommending it
for future use in the same and related units. This evaluation
will also lend itself to the general improvement of the whole pro-
gram. The alert science teacher will keep informed on the new
audio-visual aids by reading professional magazines such as the
Journal of the Florida Education Association, Journal of the
National Education Association, Educational Screen, and
School Life.
Good teaching with films is best done by classroom showing.
In a number of Florida schools this is done by using portable
dark curtains. These are of several types adapted to various
windows. Dark shades on permanent rollers, or draped curtains
of black cloth, are used where permanence is preferred in the
installation.
The problem of ventilation is minimized if the classroom
showing is brief-ten to fifteen minutes-with windows opened
for the discussions.
Administrators may feel that a projection room for use by
the entire school is satisfactory. Classroom showings, however,
have the following advantages over projection rooms:
1. The film may be more closely integrated with the class-
room activities of a lesson, such as experiments, bulletins,
and the like.
2. The learning situation is more normal in the classroom.
3. Time is saved since no movement of classes is involved.








68 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

4. The attitude of "going to a movie" is avoided.
5. Crowding two or more classes together is prevented.
6. Using assorted films just to fill an hour is less likely.
(This misuse sometimes develops in an effort to keep
classes from passing through the hall at times when other
classes are at study.)
If at first the classroom showing is not feasible, plan with the
whole faculty to establish this more effective use of films as soon
as practicable.
Audio Aids. Strictly auditory devices have advantages and
disadvantages all their own. Advantages are that they do not
require darkening a room, with attendant problems of ventila-
tion; they resemble the accustomed classroom method, and they
do not require special projection rooms or seating. If the stu-
dents can hear clearly the teacher speaking, they can hear a
radio or record-player.
Of the audio aids, radio is the simplest to put into use, but
the most difficult to plan. Many educational broadcasts do not
occur at the scheduled class time. Others are of an unexpected
nature and may, or may not, be given advance publicity. These
factors limit the classroom use of the ordinary radio. For either
direct class use of radio, or delayed use following recording, ad-
vance publicity sent out by the networks and local radio stations
may be obtained. Teacher requests will help create an increased
supply of these broadcast guides.
With a dual-speed reproducer the science teacher may use
any past events which have been recorded or transcribed. Voices
of famous scientists are available on educational records, as well
as speeches and dramatic episodes. Hearing a voice seems more
personal than looking at a picture. The voices of Edison, Mar-
coni, and Einstein make them more real to students. Many of
the regular broadcasts of the series "Cavalcade of America" and
"Exploring the Unknown" have been recorded and may be bor-
rowed from the Extension Division of the University of Florida
or from the U. S. Office of Education. Others are for sale by
numerous educational recording companies. The National
Broadcasting Company is one of the networks having files of








FIELD TRIP OR SCHOOL JOURNEY 69

transcriptions which can provide almost any of the scientific
broadcasts that they have carried in the past.
A school can build up a nucleus of science transcriptions at
no cost by arranging with the local radio station for the broad-
cast of "Adventures in Research" as a sustaining feature. After
use the "platters" will be turned over to the school.
In several Florida communities disc recorders are used to catch
"off-the-air" broadcasts which come over the radio at times un-
suitable for school use. Some Florida science teachers have used
wire and tape recorders and found these devices convenient and
economical. These recordings are then used in the classes for
which they seem suitable. The local radio station sometimes has
facilities for cutting records and may be induced to help the
school when there is no interference with their proper commer-
cial duties.
Students will become enthusiastic about earning money for
purchasing audio-visual equipment. Many schools have ob-
tained all their audio-visual equipment through student effort.
If the students believe their learning will be more interesting,
they will be willing to exert the necessary effort to obtain the
desired equipment.
Science teachers are urged to take advantage of this student
interest. If funds are not available from public sources for the
purchase of visual aids, the teacher can develop the feeling of
ownership in the school, so that the students will purchase the
needed equipment. The successful practice of group action aids
in developing school pride and a real desire for protecting the
school's property.

SECTION 7. FIELD TRIP OR SCHOOL JOURNEY
The main purpose of the field trip (school journey) is to pro-
vide sensory experience with things and phenomena which can-
not be brought into the classroom. The field trip can be help-
fully educative if it is chosen wisely, planned well, and managed
properly.
While selecting the route of the field journey, the teacher
should keep in mind the following objectives:








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


1. To make possible first hand knowledge which is more
educative than pictures, models, and other visual material.
2. To stimulate interest in natural as well as man-made
things and situations.
3. To enable students to know their environment more inti-
mately.
4. To give training in careful observation.
5. To associate science of the classroom with the natural and
applied science outside school.
6. To provide helpful practices and cultivate the habit of
spending leisure time profitably.
7. To take advantage of the opportunity to teach conserva-
tion. (Do not denude area visited. Avoid and guard
against developing a souvenir collecting attitude.)
8. To arouse vocational interests.
The school journey (field trip) should be planned well in ad-
vance. The purpose and all details of the planning should re-
ceive the prior approval of the principal. If bus transportation
is involved, the principal should make the arrangements. If per-
mission to visit an industry is necessary, the principal should
make the first contacts with the owners or managers, even if a
later request, specific as to time and number of visitors, is to be
made by the science teacher or by a committee of students. If
any private property is to be crossed by a class on a field trip,
the principal should be certain that it is with permission and
that no trespass is involved.
The teacher should make a preliminary visit to any field or
factory to which a class journey is planned. If the chief items
of interest in a manufacturing plant are agreed upon by the
teacher and the prospective guide, the visit will be more effi-
ciently carried out.
The school journey should always be followed by a review
such as reports, discussions, and other activities. This should be
done so that the journey is summarized and new problems set-
tled.








LABORATORY AND CLASSROOM INTEGRATION 71

Florida2 is particularly rich in material for field trips to study
plants, crops, and animals. In many communities local indus-
tries are distinctly worth the first-hand study of school groups.

SECTION 8. LABORATORY AND CLASSROOM
-INTEGRATED PROCEDURES
Science subjects are unique in that they include laboratory as
well as classroom activities. These activities should be kept sep-
arate in most respects. If planning and discussion are kept as
classroom procedures, there will be no encroachment on lab-
oratory time.
Various methods of instruction should be used in the class
period. Of high value are discussions started by pertinent ques-
tions. There are instances where the "little lecture" will be
effective to clear up a difficult principle, to answer a related
question that has arisen, or to clarify a principle presented by
illustrative material. Other activities could be reports, reviews,
testing, planning, and assignment.
Laboratory work should parallel classroom subject matter.
Failure to provide this parallel experience is to ignore the ways
in which young people learn best. An experiment may be used
to introduce a principle, strengthen its concepts, and review
by practical application. The discussion of the experiment
should be a classroom procedure.
Experiences in the laboratory not only teach fundamental
concepts but are valuable in developing interests, skills, habits,
abilities, resourcefulness, and responsibility. The less experi-
enced teacher is likely to become discouraged by the lack of a
fully equipped laboratory. Experience has shown, however,
that initiative can be used in accumulating commonplace mate-
rials. Even "complete" laboratories are not complete unless
they include this type of material.
Planning for the laboratory should be done so well in advance
that the student will not "mill around" and waste time. The
time element should be stressed in the laboratory, but only to
the point of having the students work steadily and with purpose.
'Lessons from Life, State Department of Education Bulletin 44, Chapter Three.








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


The science teacher should remember that he is legally respon-
sible for the safety of the students in the laboratory; therefore,
he should be present at all times to give counsel and advice. Stu-
dents cannot be urged too strongly to follow directions care-
fully.
Various expedients may be used by teachers who find them-
selves with large classes. One suggested way to handle these is
to divide them into groups with a leader for each group. The
leader may be responsible for his group and may take care of
much routine work. Select dependable laboratory assistants
for detailed services. Resort to demonstration-experiments
more frequently than normal.
Additional details on laboratory and classroom procedures
are given in the sections of this bulletin that concern the special
subjects.

SECTION 9. THE EQUIPMENT OF THE LABORATORY
This bulletin will not attempt to give plans for any definite
laboratory but will make general suggestions to aid the teacher
in developing a laboratory under a variety of conditions and
through a wise expenditure of available funds.








LABORATORY EQUIPMENT


When a science teacher enters a new teaching situation, his
first work should be to take inventory of available laboratory
space and equipment. Then there should be an inspection to
determine the items in good condition, those needing repair,
and those to be discarded. This will enable him to make plans
for the repair of the material on hand and for the securing of
other required equipment during the next few years.
There are three ways in which equipment for the laboratory
can be secured:
1. A surprisingly large part of the equipment needed can be
made by the students from very simple materials. The
construction of these devices develops resourcefulness,
teaches underlying principles, and emphasizes the connec-
tions between science and everyday life. The cooperation
of the industrial arts instructor will be very helpful.
2. There are certain items that the students and teachers
cannot make. Many of these may be found locally in
homes or in stores. Others may be borrowed from indus-
tries and brought to the laboratory for study. The class
should also visit the industry and see the equipment in
actual use. Often old car parts and other materials obtain-
able at little or no cost can be brought in and used to good
advantage for instructional purposes.
3. Of course the laboratory cannot be completed in the ways
already mentioned. Many pieces of equipment will have
to be purchased from scientific supply houses. Before
fitting out the laboratory, the instructor should know
which science courses are to be offered. By careful plan-
ning, unnecessary duplication of materials may be
avoided.
With the inventory in mind, the teacher will get the best re-
sults from the development of a long-time plan for completely
equipping the laboratory. The list for purchase should be made
to include a small number of each of the items needed for the
principal experiments to be performed. It is better to provide
for a greater variety of experiments than to provide liberally
for a few experiments. As money becomes available the addi-








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


tion of more expensive and complicated pieces of apparatus may
add to the interest of both the students and the teachers.
For an efficient laboratory, one of the first requirements is a
large amount of shelf space. Open shelves add greatly to more
frequent and effective use of the things stored upon them. Shelves
for chemicals and small specimens should be narrow so that
these can be arranged in single rows. This enables students to
locate and replace them easily. Wider shelves should be pro-
vided for larger equipment, and suitable shelves for books should
be conveniently placed. The distance between the shelves should
vary so as to be economical of space and adapted to the materials
to be stored. Some space should be provided in which certain
dangerous chemicals or valuable equipment could be locked.
Cabinets are needed for the storage of much of the physics
apparatus because of the likelihood of damage when not properly
handled. If displayed behind glass doors, the equipment will
awaken advance interest.
If room is limited, chemistry and physics classes may use the
same tables. They should be about thirty-six inches high to
allow students to work while standing. In biology and general
science classes the work can be done at tables of regular height
at which students may be comfortably seated. The size of the
tables should be governed by the amount of space available. A
long eighteen inch shelf placed along one side of the room under
the windows will provide a place for work requiring natural
light. This shelf may be hinged and lowered out of the way
when not in use, if it is desired. It is advisable that the shelves
and tables be treated to make them insect and chemical proof.
If the school is supplied with running water, there should be
outlets on the tables for experiments. If this is not possible at
the time, one outlet and a sink, conveniently placed, will serve.
Where running water is not available, an ingenious teacher may
install an elevated barrel with a pipe and faucet, and a drain
bucket for waste water. If an acid-proof sink is not possible,
an earthen jar will serve.
Some source of heat is necessary for many experiments. Gas,
either city or bottled, is the most suitable. If it is not available,
the alcohol lamp will furnish enough heat for nearly all of the








SCIENCE CLUBS 75

required experiments. Where intense heat is needed, the gasoline
blow torch may be used.
In arranging the fixtures in the laboratory, great care should
be used in placing them so that students will not have to crowd
past each other to obtain needed materials. Blackboards should
not be placed in crowded space.
A fume hood in a high school laboratory is a convenience, al-
though not a necessity. Its vents should be open, and its fan (if
any) in working order. It should be used primarily for pouring
ammonia and hydrochloric acid, and for generation of chlorine
and hydrogen sulfide gases. If the laboratory has no hoods, these
offensive fumes should be set free near open windows. No ex-
ceedingly dangerous gas (as cyanogen) should be generated in
any high school experiment.
Science teachers should be conscious of the danger of fire in
the laboratory. An extinguisher should be available, and its use
demonstrated to each new science class. A bucket of sand is
useful for certain types of fires, as from alcohol or oil. The
teacher should decide exactly what he would do if a student's
clothing is set ablaze-and should hope this never happens.
The First Aid cabinet, or shelf, should contain a few useful
and familiar antiseptics and bandages for cuts and burns, rather
than a complicated assortment of remedies. Responsible stu-
dents, as well as the teacher, should learn the art of neat first aid
dressings. A demonstration of these techniques by a nurse or
doctor should be made near the beginning of each laboratory
course.
The most common accident in the laboratory is the spilling of
strong acid or alkali on skin and clothing. "Water first!" is
the rule on such occasions. A length of rubber tubing that fits
over a faucet will permit a prompt dousing of the victim of
such misfortune. For after-treatment a quart of strong soda
solution should be available on the first aid shelf.

SECTION 10. SCIENCE CLUBS
Science clubs are designed to strengthen instruction, to pro-
vide an outlet for developing individual interests, to promote








76 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

better teacher-pupil understanding, to train students for lead-
ership and self-expression, and to give each student an oppor-
tunity to grow in social graces through association with a mutual
interest group.
The success of any club is directly dependent upon the per-
sonality and energies of the sponsor. This sponsor should be
selected in a conference of the principal and the students in-
volved. Hence there is responsibility both to the administration
and to the students for the club's success. The sponsor is the
"man behind the scene," but he must always be alert to any
situation which arises. Only in rare instances is it necessary for
the teacher to give directions from the floor. Usually sugges-
tions should be made to some officer or member of the club.
The club is organized for the students. They should preside
at the meetings, plan and execute programs, and participate
freely in activities. However, one of the main responsibilities of
the sponsor is to guide members so that there will be varied pro-
grams, planned well in advance.
"In school" time has been found more satisfactory for club
meetings. Complications may arise when meetings are held "out
of school" hours. It is recommended that a full class period be
allotted the club meeting and that the business meeting be kept
brief. In order to maintain interest the club should meet at
least twice a month.
There are distinct differences in science clubs and classroom
procedures. In the club there is a student choice of activity, in-
formal participation, personal satisfaction, and freedom of ex-
pression without the customary classroom restraint.
Science Clubs of America provides excellent information on
types of clubs, how to organize a club, how to plan activities.
This material may be obtained by writing to Science Clubs of
America, 1719 N Street, N. W., Washington 6, D. C.
The science clubs may be strengthened by affiliating with The
Science Clubs of America and The Florida Junior Academy of
Science.








EVALUATION AND TESTING


SECTION 11. EVALUATION AND TESTING
For several years the emphasis in testing has been changing
from measurement of achievement in subject matter to evalua-
tion of the student's growth. Science courses lend themselves to
the development of the student along the lines of individual in-
terests, reflective thinking, scientific attitudes, resourcefulness,
creativeness, and social sensitiveness. Of course the mastery of
subject matter still remains an important objective of the course,
but facts learned are often facts forgotten. The acquiring of
proper learning habits and attitudes is the permanent outcome
to be sought.
There is a variety of tests, and there should be a predetermined
purpose for the use of each. An efficient science evaluation pro-
gram could begin with a prognostic test given at the close of the
year preceding entrance irito the secondary school or early
enough after their admission to assist in guiding the students in
the selection of their courses. This test is for the purpose of
determining the foundation or background of the student on
which to base plans for further study. A teacher must know the
background of the student in order to introduce him intelligent-
ly to new subjects.
Progress and diagnostic tests (either standardized or teacher-
made) should be given frequently during the course to check
upon the mastery of subject matter. Even though these tests
may be short, they furnish an incentive for thorough and regular
preparation by each student. Another advantage of frequent
testing is that the teacher is kept informed of basic student
progress. This knowledge, if handled properly by the teacher,
will aid the student in self-examination, and will have a whole-
some motivating effect. The results of these tests have another
important value in that they indicate the efficiency of the teach-
ing methods used and the thoroughness of the teaching. If the
general results of the tests are not satisfactory, it shows that
reteaching should be done either by different methods or by em-
phasis on points that have not been mastered. Additional work
may be assigned to individual students who are shown by the
tests to need help. The superior students will be identified and









TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


the teacher can suggest additional work, readings, or reports to
keep them working nearer their capacity.
At the end of the semester, or of the course, a final examina-
tion should be given in order to assist the student in organizing
the learning derived from the course. The preparation for this
test will also aid in the association of the ideas from the units
that have made up this course. Examinations should contain
only the important items of the course. There should be no
catch questions.
This examination at the end of the course should not deter-
mine the final mark for the student. This mark should be a
composite of the grades in achievement in subject matter, skill
in laboratory techniques, and an evaluation of the improvement,
or growth, of the student. This estimate of growth should in-
clude the following factors: development of individual inter-
ests; resourcefulness in adapting to new or unusual situations;
ability to do analytical thinking, to suspend judgment, and to
draw conclusions; increased power of self expression; and
capacity for cooperation within the group.
Tests are important techniques in evaluation. Two types are dis-
cussed:
Objective tests:
Modified True-False Type. In each of the items of this type,
one or more words are italicized. If the statement as given is
not correct, it is corrected by changing one or more of the itali-
cized words.
Completion Type. Each of the items of this type is made
a complete and correct statement by supplying a word or phrase
in the blank indicated.
Multiple Choice Type. Each item of this type has three
or more answers, one of which is correct. The correct choice
is indicated.
Modified Multiple-Choice Type. Each item of this type has
three or more endings. In some items the correct endings are
among those given. In others they are not. The student must
decide in each case whether the correct ending is present and
must indicate it.








EVALUATION AND TESTING 79

Matching Type. In this type one and only one item in
List A describes, illustrates, or otherwise matches each item un-
der List B. The student writes, in the blank following each
item in B, the number designating the item under A which
matches it. List A may have more items than List B.
Problematic Situation Type. This test describes a situation
which is followed by a list of statements some of which are
relevant and others of which are irrelevant. Check those that
are relevant.
Objective type tests may have several uses as follows:
1. Prognostic-to determine the background and achieve-
ment.
2. Diagnostic--to discover student difficulties.
3. Achievement-to show mastery of subject matter.
4. Intelligence-to indicate mental maturity.
Objective type tests are well adapted to testing over a large
range of subject matter and are especially valuable in checking
for factual information and for accuracy. Another advantage
is that it is possible for a teacher with a heavy load to do more
frequent testing because of the ease of checking. By taking less
time from the class period, the teacher has more time for teach-
ing. The teacher should use care not to overemphasize factual
testing.
Essay tests:
Essay type tests have considerable value in the short written
quiz given at the beginning of the period to motivate daily
preparation, and in the longer type that calls for a discussion of
topics. These give training in ability to weigh data, to select
pertinent facts, to organize information, and to express ideas
in concise and correct sentences.
Another essay test is the "open book" type in which students
must select and organize the facts to be used in problem solving.
'When questions are grouped in an order with increasing diffi-
culty, with one or two of sufficient difficulty to challenge the
abilities of the superior students, such a test will have real value
for showing individual differences. The open book method is








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


good for testing understanding of subject matter, for recog-
nizing reading difficulties, and is also a device for discouraging
dishonesty during tests.
An effective testing schedule should include the different
kinds of objective and essay tests to encourage properly the
various types of learning required. Students should become ac-
customed to each plan of testing. When confronted at later
dates with placement tests for entrance into college and for
vocations, they will have a feeling of familiarity with them.
The best results of a testing program may be secured when
there has been a clear understanding between the teacher and
the students in regard to the uses of the results of the tests. The
students should be shown that the test is not primarily for grad-
ing but is to enable the students to see where they have failed to
achieve, and for the teacher to see where review should begin
and where difficulty calls for further teaching. If students feel
that tests alone determine grades, cheating may be expected.
But when the students see that the teacher is checking himself as
well as the students, there will be a greater tendency toward
honesty and real effort to do well.
Honesty is an attitude that is transferable from the teacher
to the student!
Notebooks. A science teacher should realize that a note-
book is of little value as a mere show book, that it is only as good
as the habits and attitudes that produce it. Too great emphasis
on perfection in the notebook can be an interest killer. A science
notebook should be written in a legible and neat manner; the
drawings clear, diagramatic, and correctly labeled; the sen-
tences complete and concise. Correct spelling should be re-
quired at all times. Proper methods of writing title pages, out-
lines, captions for pictures, and summaries should be required
to develop an understanding of conventional forms. Full co-
operation with the English teacher will be most helpful.
It is suggested that the notebook should become an activity
book which, in addition to the regular work, may include notes
on supplementary readings, demonstrations, individual experi-
ments, and on the relations found between the processes studied








THE BOOK OF GENESIS, AND SCIENCE


and the industrial world. It should be used as a device for
teaching and learning but not for testing. In fact, the notebook
should be primarily for the benefit of the student and should
show the interests of the individual and not be required to con-
form to a set pattern to such degree as to stifle originality.
In checking the notebook the teacher must be conscious of
the emotional reaction of the student to the corrections made
by the teacher. The checking should be done in a way that cor-
rects errors in judgment and leads to improvement. With proper
guidance by the teacher there should be a noticeable advance-
ment throughout the year. This may be encouraged by con-
structive comments and praise for work well done and may be
used in evaluating the student's progress.

SECTION 12. THE BOOK OF GENESIS, AND SCIENCE
(Many teachers asked the workshop group which prepared this
bulletin to include suggestions, if any could be found, for helping
the teacher advise with students and parents about the supposed
conflict between the teachings of science and the teachings of the
Bible. Many teachers have been misunderstood in their com-
munities because of their inability to solve this problem. It is a
real problem for many students and parents. The requests for
help were urgent.
This section of the bulletin is presented in the hope that it con-
tains helpful suggestions to teachers for approaching the prob-
lem. The material was compiled by a group of earnest science
teachers all of whom are sincerely religious in their outlooks on
life and on the work they are doing. It is hoped the suggestions
will prove to be of value to the many teachers who must meet
the situation. The workshop group made a special request of
the State Department of Education that this material be in-
cluded in the bulletin.)


At some time during each school year a science teacher will
probably be questioned as to a possible conflict between inter-
pretations of the text books of science and the Book of Genesis,









82 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

in the Old Testament of The Bible. These questions are likely
to be in earnest, and they deserve carefully considered answers.
Discussions between theologians and scientists have been con-
tinuous throughout the centuries. Among the most vigorously
contended differences of opinion were the efforts to prove
whether the earth or the sun were the center of our planetary
system, and whether the earth is a plane or a sphere. Each of
these, and many other controversies, were finally resolved by
adjusting the beliefs of both theologians and scientists to facts
as they were discovered. This was made easier because of a sin-
cere desire to know the truth on the part of most members of
each group. After all, many theologians are interested in the
marvels shown by science, and many scientists possess strong
religious faith. Only the stubborn minds of either group are
closed.
The most recent controversy has concerned the evolution of
plants and animals upon earth, as contrasted with an instan-
taneous creation. Countless facts bearing upon this matter are
known, and the science of biology presents-even in high school
-the most fundamental of them, in the lessons on comparative
anatomy, plant and animal breeding, the genes of heredity, and
many others.
If the science teacher discovers that his questioner is bent on
starting a bitter argument, he must realize that the emotional
feelings involved are stronger than the intellectual feelings.
These feelings are based on inadequate information on both the
teachings of Genesis and the science texts. Under such circum-
stances it is probably better to give the "soft answer," and avoid
the "vain disputation." It is doubtful whether information or
calm discussion would have any good effect.
To the sincere inquirer the teacher should offer a brief lesson
as introduction, with further study suggested. The lesson should
be adjusted to the inquirer's comprehension, of course, with
words and ideas no more complex than the elementary, inter-
mediate, or high school-adult level.
What is the issue between certain interpretations of Genesis
and the science texts? It chiefly concerns creation of the world,








THE BOOK OF GENESIS, AND SCIENCE 83

and the life upon it. To some people, creation is an instantan-
eous process, resulting in all the present forms of land and water,
of plants, of animals, of man. To others creation is a gradual
development, according to fixed laws that still continue in the
operation of the universe.
Each concept of creation may fully accept a Creator. In the
first concept He is assumed to have worked with suddenness; in
the second He established the laws by which all nature operates
-and will continue to operate to the end of time. By the first
concept creation is finished; by the second it continues.
The chief stumbling block to the person who lacks either
theological, or scientific, scholarship is the literal-or "to the
very letter"-interpretation of the English words into which
the original Hebrew text of Genesis is translated. Bible scholars,
for example, do not hold to the literal explanation of the
world "created in seven days" (one week), because they know
that the single Hebrew word for day, "yom," is translated by
"no less than fifty-four different English words" throughout
the Old Testament. To insist that the "seven days" contra-
dicts the facts of the planet's great age, or "the four corners
of the earth" disputes its form as a ball, is to put a word above
a thought, and a name above an idea. Such an attitude shows
no true spirit of interpretation and is not worthy of a scholar,
or a seeker after truth.
The literal interpretation about creation that brings out the
most earnest questions is of the 27th verse in Chapter I of
Genesis: "So God created man in his own image." The "con-
tradiction," then, comes in the statement (which, however,
can not be found in any text of science): "Evolution teaches
that man descended from a monkey." There is a climax in the
clash of ideas concerning man's creation. If this be settled in
the mind of an inquirer, the questions about plants and animals
will seem of little consequence.
The science teacher should immediately broaden the discus-
sion with an additional quotation from Genesis, verse 7, Chap-
ter II: "And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the
'Modern Science and the Genesis Record, Harry Rimmer, D.D.









84 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life; and
man became a living soul."
What is "the dust of the ground"? What is the breath of
life"? What is "a living soul"?
All living nature contains "the dust of the ground." Plants
and animals alike are composed of the same mineral elements.
It is a striking part of the Creator's plan that all life should thus
be related, and none claims special chemical elements.
Man's body is no exception to this relationship to "dust."
His ashes are essentially the same as those of the plants on which
he feeds. Man's body, too, has the common organs of all the
higher animals-the skeleton, muscles, heart, lungs, and others.
There is a striking similarity in the arrangement of these organs
in man and the higher apes. The composition of the blood is
similar, even to the "blood types" and reactions to chemicals
used for testing blood stains. Some monkeys' faces look un-
becomingly like "people we know."
There is no use arguing against the obvious resemblances of
the human body to the monkeys, other animals, and to plants in
countless respects. To the sincere interpreter this implies a com-
mon Creator of them all. There is no reason for man to be
ashamed of his kinship to the other objects of His handiwork.
The teachings of science, stated simply, are that a long devel-
opment or evolution brought about the present varieties of
plants and animals instead of an instantaneous creation. Let's
remember that we teach theories. This is consistent with the
evidence of the great age of rocks, and the ceaseless grinding of
the sea upon the land for eons of time. After plants and animals
were well established upon the earth, one of these creatures may
have been selected by its Creator as possessing a body that might
suitably house "a living soul." There was no need to create an
entirely new form-neither plant nor animal, without skin or
muscle, lacking heart and lungs-to carry this "soul." The deci-
sion was the Creator's! The highest body that wisdom had
formed was selected; this body is considered by science to have
been a common ancestor of both the apes and men.








THE BOOK OF GENESIS, AND SCIENCE 85

But a body is not a livingg soul." It took a "breath"-better
translated a "spirit"-to enter the body of a brute and cause a
man to walk forth. Practically all scientists recognize the tre-
mendous gap between the intelligence of the highest ape and that
of the lowest man. It is true that numerous parts of skeletons
of man-like apes or ape-like men have been found, which may
be so-called "missing links" in the course of human develop-
ment. These raise questions that no scientist feels wholly com-
petent to answer in full, and the study of these bones should be
left to experts for such light as may ultimately be shed as to the
nature of the creature whose skeleton included them. The
honest theologian, even as the honest scientist, admits the ex-
istence of many problems in his realms of study for which in-
fallible answers have not been revealed.
Now with the "breath of life" a body came to possess a "soul."
It is true that a certain group of scientists and some theologians
do not wish to consider a "soul" as too separate from the highly
developed "mind" that man possesses. The distinction is not
important to us in this discussion; man's mind is far above the
minds of even the most intelligent animals. And who indeed but
the Creator knows whether the "sparrow that falls" may not
have a soul of sorts by which it worships God in its own fashion?.
Such an idea, of course, is neither a fact of theology nor of
science.
With this "soul" man became a creature "in the image of
God." This "image" is wholly a spiritual one. To assume that
a resemblance in body (man and God) is implied is a literal in-
terpretation of the lowest degree. A God with skin and hair-
with bones and blood-even with lungs and heart and intes-
tines-the concept is degrading! He who argues such simply
has no appreciation of what is holy and high; his thinking is of
the flesh and not of the spirit. "God is a spirit, and they who
worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth." (John
4:24.)
There is nothing really inconsistent in the liberal (not literal)
interpretation of Genesis, and the proved facts of science, with
the idea that man is both a physical and a spiritual being. If his
body, like the bodies of other animals, has developed through








86 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

eons of time according to the workings of natural law, the fact
is of great biological interest, along with the development, or
evolution, of all other living forms. If one wishes to assume the
explanation-unproved, possibly unprovable, by science-that
natural law is the Creator's plan, then God made man's body
in His own way. After all, science insists that we study how
this thing was done, whereas Genesis insists that we remember
the Creator! The science teacher can follow both guides!
Man's true nobility is spiritual-his "likeness to God." Do not
forget that. Impress it upon your questioner. It is really absurd
for either a man, or a monkey, to worry about his body's an-
cestry. Man seems to have a bit more intellectual curiosity, and
therefore we have scientists. Science does not deny God, but it
attempts to explain His handiwork. If an individual scientist
denies God, or an individual theologian denies science, then
neither uses his gift of high understanding. True scholars in
both theology and science have no turmoil within their thinking.
Answer the earnest inquirer, then, with a discussion as to the
absolute need of nature for a Creator, and the mind with which
man seeks to understand the works of that Creator. Set at rest
any idea that God is displeased if men study His work. "Get
wisdom," said the inspired Solomon (Proverbs 4:7)," and with
all thy getting, get understanding." The wisdom comes by earn-
est study with a sincere purpose. The understanding is a gift of
God, a part of His understanding, a tiny bit of His nature which
he shares with men.

SECTION 13. SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE
Science can bring both good and evil to society. This has
been true during all the centuries through which our civiliza-
tion has been developing. Advances such as the release from
drudgery due to major and minor inventions for farm and fac-
tory and setbacks due to war and civil conflicts have see-sawed
in endless sequence. Science has contributed to both effects.
Today the implications of the splitting atom-for useful power
or for devastation-have mankind awed and afraid. Will civil-
ization be served, or sunk, by the chain reactions of uranium
and other elements?








SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE


Philosophies of conduct, of economics, of politics are also
modified by science when results serve the ends of the dominant
groups. If these groups are despotic, science may benefit the
few at the expense of the many. If these groups are democratic,
science may bring blessings to whole nations or continents. In
this atmosphere science could bless the entire world. To this
hope all thoughtful scientists subscribe.
The Atlantic Charter recognizes the importance of natural
resources throughout the world, with raw materials to be made
available on equal terms to all nations. The wise use of our own
nation's resources is an important goal of our education. Science
teaching may contribute noticeably to progress toward this goal.
One way in which science can be applied to the problems of
society is through its aid to conservation. Science in forestry has
pointed the way to conservation by development of fire-fighting
apparatus and chemicals, disease resistant species, and develop-
ment of insecticides. Conservation of the forests directly affects
wild animals and plant life by retaining intact the natural
habitats and by maintaining the state's water levels.
Maintenance of the water table is becoming increasingly im-
portant as Florida's population grows and as economic develop-
ment progresses. State planning for this purpose calls contin-
uously on science to solve the problems of water control, such as
drainage, irrigation, city water supply, and floods. Soil con-
servation calls upon science for development of fertilizers, data
for building levees and dams, and other ways of preventing
erosion and reclaiming land. In the conservation of our min-
erals, science has pointed to improved methods of extraction and
to ways of decreasing wastes. Food is conserved by scientific
methods of preservation and packaging.
In the Florida Programs of Study it is not recommended that
a special course in consumer education be given in high schools.
The information should be integrated with many subjects. The
science teacher should accept a large responsibility for consumer
education. Students trained in intelligent buying based on scien-
tific data will learn to recognize fallacies in advertising in news-
papers, magazines, over the radio, and from other sources.








88 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The Pure Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act requires proper
labeling as to ingredients. This furnishes very instructive in-
formation to those who are willing to read the labels carefully.
Consumer education should lay great stress on quality of textiles.
It is unfortunate that no "Truth in Fabrics Act" has been passed
by Congress up to the present time. The values of such an act
might be discussed.
The science teacher may contribute to society by teaching the
improvement of living conditions in a community. This may
be done through lessons in health and sanitation, attractiveness
of surroundings, and other evidences of community pride. The
applications of science to the home and school may be taught
with respect to plumbing, insulating, lighting, heating, ventila-
tion and convenient arrangement. There should be adequate
knowledge of safe food, water, and milk supplies. The student
should realize the implications of public health programs and
socialized medicine. He should know the fundamentals of com-
munity health and sanitation and be able to apply the principles
of healthful living in the home. He should understand heredity
and genetics and their social implications.
Science teachers have definite responsibility for the welfare
of the nation. They should acquire an understanding of the re-
lationships between the achievements in the field of science and
industrial and economic prosperity. Scientific progress should
be accompanied by parallel social progress. It is unfortunate
that there seems to be a lag in society's social advancement.

SECTION 14. PERSONALITY AND LEADERSHIP
OF SCIENCE TEACHERS
The most important "stock in trade" of any science teacher
is a personality which appeals to young people. Even more
important than an absolute mastery of subject matter is a sin-
cere interest in the things young people are interested in. Those
who like young people and are interested in them will be willing
to give extra time and effort in leading them to become useful
members of society.
A sincere liking for young people and a real interest in them
will compel a teacher to know his students, to recognize and re-








PERSONALITY AND LEADERSHIP 89

spect individual differences, to share with them in their present
interests, and to lead them to develop lasting worth while atti-
tudes. This liking for, and interest in, young people, can be
cultivated. Let each science teacher strive earnestly to cultivate
these traits.
The principles taught by the science teacher must be reflected
in the teacher's pattern of behavior if the desirable changes take
place in the students. The science teacher's insistence upon look-
ing at all sides of a question and expecting proof before conclu-
sions are reached would seem to demand that in speech and con-
versation careful attention be given to voicing only the truth.
Derogatory remarks about pupils, or other people; the use of
sarcasm; repetition of stories, the truth of which are unknown;
reaching impulsive conclusions-all of these belie the teacher's
supposed adherence to scientific principles. It would seem that
the students could expect the science teacher to demonstrate
always calm and considered judgment and action.
Authorities in human development assure us that personality
traits can be developed. It behooves the science teacher to study
his own personality scientifically and to set about developing
the traits and attitudes necessary for his task. Let us remember
that a student will absorb more of his teacher (good or bad) than
he will of the subject taught!
Among the many traits and abilities which should be found
in all teachers, such as patience, cooperativeness, tact, a sense
of humor, ability to control the classroom situation, and others,
there are a few in which the science teacher should be particular-
ly strong. Some of these are the following:
1. Skill in organizing thought.
2. Habits of keeping things in order.
3. Intellectual honesty (frank admission of mistakes or lack
of information).
4. Ability at clear and concise expression.
5. Skill in scientific observation.
6. A high degree of emotional control.
7. Intellectual curiosity (an active interest in anything
new).








TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS


8. Spirit of helpfulness (particularly needed in the labora-
tory).
Note: All of these traits and abilities can be developed and
strengthened if the teacher makes an earnest effort. All will
make definite contributions toward the developing personalities
of the students.

THE PUBLIC LOOKS AT THE SCIENCE TEACHER
Frequent expressions from the public indicate that in this
scientific age the science teacher is expected to be a superior
person. His knowledge and understanding of so many things
which puzzle people inspire confidence. The community in
which he works expects him to apply his knowledge in his own
daily living and thus teach his students by example as well as
by precept. The teacher's knowledge of the effect of drugs upon
the human body and mind can be a tool in moulding the think-
ing and attitudes of the students. He is expected to be an
authority on the composition and healthful use of cosmetics.
The public expects the teacher of science to be well informed
about current scientific developments and to be willing and
able to share his information with adults, as well as student
groups in clear, concise and accurate language.
The science teacher should present to the public the quiet
dignity of a successful professional person, of high ethical
standards, who is making a real contribution to civilization
and who is justly proud of it.

SECTION 15. THE PLACE OF THE SCIENCE TEACHER
IN THE GUIDANCE PROGRAM OF THE SCHOOL
There are many phases of pupil-guidance, and to all phases
the science teacher can and should make important contribu-
tions.
The wise use of leisure time for the youth of today has become
a major problem for concerned parents and social workers. It is
also of importance to the science teacher. Here is a challenge
to our teachers to make their work carry over into the daily








SCIENCE IN THE GUIDANCE PROGRAM 91

lives of high school graduates. The scientific respect for fact
and truth, the habits of orderliness and exactness learned in
the science room, and the hobbies developed in clubs and science
organizations can be of extreme importance to leisure time
activities.
For marriage and for the home, the lessons learned in science
find ready and important application. Knowledge of the human
body and its functions replaces ignorance and superstition, and
sex assumes its proper role in life. In the home where the par-
ents have a good background in science, child care and growth
receive the attention due them. Both the biological and physical
sciences give important help in problems ranging from meal
planning to home building.
In guidance for health and fitness, the science program pro-
vides basic rules and reasons for conservation and development
of body and mind. Unlike occupational adjustment, health is
not primarily a problem for youth, but it can be if the youth
lacks proper guidance. Here we find that guidance will furnish
the foundations for proper living which will last throughout
life. Some of the problems worthy of study in the science room
are those of nutrition, community health engineering, sanita-
tion, health education, ways of recreation, and habits of adapta-
tion to change.
In guidance for citizenship, science can be a dynamic influ-
ence as it develops within its students desire for facts, thirst
for truth, and ability to work together for a common purpose.
Science and its applications can solve many community prob-
lems. True science is altruistic in both its development and its
use for the betterment of mankind.
In the field of vocational guidance the science teacher occupies
a prominent place. The background of the student in the
science field can influence his chances for employment in this age
of scientific and technological advances. Science courses not
only prepare the student for handling jobs today, but they also
give him psychological preparation for the changes which are
continually occurring in industry, in the home, and in the com-
munity.








92 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

The effect of science on the every day life of man is con-
stantly expanding. In the past few years entire new industries
have developed as the result of scientific discoveries and appli-
cations. Aeronautics, metallurgy, mineralogy, chemistry of
synthesis, nuclear fission, and radio are but a few of the fields
that are furnishing opportunities for new vocations. Since fu-
ture developments will doubtless be even more rapid than in
the past, the need for scientists and technicians will be even
greater.
The science teacher can play a key role in the school's guid-
ance program. Because he can, he should!

SECTION 16. THE SCIENCE TEACHER IN His PROFESSION
The professional attitude of the science teacher is shown by his
activities and his respect for the profession. The science teacher
should realize that his responsibility to his profession extends
far beyond the classroom. A constant effort should be made
to build up the entire program of the school.
Each science teacher should become acquainted with the
complete science program from grades one through twelve. He
should realize the inter-relationship of science with other school
subjects. Ideas, equipment, and materials should be shared
with other teachers.
The science teacher can share ideas with a wide group by
writing articles for science magazines and teachers journals.
The local newspapers usually welcome information, or even
signed communications, from an up-to-date science teacher.
Professional growth should be continuous. The teacher may
achieve this growth by taking courses in science subjects and
science teaching, by systematic reading, and by travel. The pro-
fessional library at the school will provide material for sys-
tematic reading. The library can be improved continuously by
contributions and loans of teachers, by state funds, by funds
from library clubs, by textbooks, and by loans from the General
Extension Division of the University of Florida. The accessibil-
ity of the library adds to its usefulness.








THE TEACHER'S LOAD 93

The teacher may profit both individually and professionally
by affiliating with professional organizations. He should not be
satisfied merely to join and to pay his dues, but he should par-
ticipate actively in the plans and programs. National organiza-
tions include the National Science Teachers Association, a De-
partment of the National Education Association; the American
Association for the Advancement of Science; the American
Nature Study Society; and the National Association of Biology
Teachers. The Science Division of the Florida Education Asso-
ciation and the Florida Academy of Science offer fine opportu-
nities for mingling with other science teachers. There is often
an opportunity to render a science service in a local civic club,
or in a county teachers group.

SECTION 17. THE TEACHER'S LOAD: AN
ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEM
The science teacher is a teacher first and a scientist second.
* As a teacher he expects to pull his share of the overall school
load. Every teacher has time-consuming duties peculiar to his
field, and there are many time-consuming duties peculiar to
teaching science. A partial list of these would include:
1. Preparation for laboratory and demonstration experi-
ments. (Although students can and should help with this
work, the teacher must supervise and assume final re-
sponsibility for its success and safety.)
2. Maintenance and repair of valuable equipment which de-
volves upon the science teacher unless endowed with an
unusually liberal budget. This work is tedious, and
would be very expensive if done by outside experts.)
3. Field trips which require preliminary surveys to locate
desirable routes and areas which offer learning opportu-
nities. (The biology teacher must work assiduously for
several years to become widely acquainted with local
fauna and flora.)
4. Inventories and orders of supplies which are exceedingly
important duties.








94 TEACHING SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

5. Keeping informed about new applications of science
which appear with bewildering frequency. (New theories
require continuing study.)
6. Scientific meetings and activities, each of which requires
special planning.
Laboratory work will mean more to students if the instruc-
tor has a free period to prepare for it. In many schools an at-
tempt at load adjustment has been made to provide this period.
The principal may eliminate the home-room duties or the study-
hall assignment from the science teacher's schedule. This is not
for the teacher's convenience but in order that science students
may benefit from their work. It would be advisable for the
administrator to explain this adjustment in open faculty meet-
ing.
Science teachers have found the following practices to aid in
the efficient expenditure of energy and time:
1. Well considered lesson plans save energy in essential work
when demands are heavy. The plans can be made when"
other duties are lighter. They should be constantly re-
vised on the basis of experiences and differences in classes.
2. Either the pace or the topic should be varied every seven
to ten minutes when mental concentration is desired. At-
tention span is a psychological reality against which much
energy may be needlessly expended.
3. The teacher should systematize his habits-should or-
ganize his work. The Art of Thinking by Ernest Dimnet
discusses many time and energy savers. Energy saved in
daily affairs will be available for forceful teaching.
4. Train students for routine tasks such as erasing boards,
checking roll, passing out papers, mixing solutions, filing,
cleaning the laboratory, operating projectors and many
other duties that can be done by young people. Commit-
tees of students may plan details for field trips, auditorium
programs, radio broadcasts and newspaper articles. Supe-
rior students may learn by conducting reviews, drills,
and make-up work for others who will also profit from the
procedure. Competent students may monitor study halls.