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FIiOHlDfl GEOLOGMIi SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT
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FLORIDA STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY E. H. SELLARDS, Ph. D., State Geologist SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT B^TAfisCAL, Published For THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Tallahassee, 1914
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/?/y THE E. O. PAINTER PRINTING CO., DE LAND, FLA.
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. To His Excellency, Hon. Park Trammcll, Governor of Florida. Sir: — In accordance with the Survey law I submit herewith my Sixth Annual Report as State Geologist of Florida. This report contains the statement of expenditures by the Survey for the year ending June 30, 19 13, together with those investigations by the Survey that have progressed far enough to be available for publication. Permit m.e to express in this connection my appreciation of the interest you have shown in the work of the State Geological Survey. Very respectfully, E. H. SELLARDS, STATE GEOLOGIST.
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CONTENTS. Page Administrative Report 9 Mineral Industries and Resources of Florida. By E. H. Sellards. (Figures i to 26), one map — 21 Some Florida Lakes and Lake Basins. . By E. H. Sellards. (Figures 2.y to 39) 115 The Relation Between the Dunnellon Formation and the Alachua Clays of Florida. By E. H. Sellards -/ r6i Geography and Vegetation of Northern Florida. By R. M. Harper. (Figures 40 to 90) 163
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ILLUSTRATIONS. Page Key Map to Mineral Resources of Florida, facing page 23 Fig. I. Pit of the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company 24 Fig. 2. Brick kiln of the Florida Brick Company 25 Fig. 3. Northwest shore of Lake Milton 2^ Fig. 4. Pit in fullers earth mine, Quincy 30 *&• Fig. 5. Fullers earth plant at Quincy 35 Fig. 6. Fullers earth plant at Ellenton 35 Fig. 7. Florida sands 47 Fig. 8. Vicksburg limestone at Ocala 49 Fig. 9. Pit of the Keystone Brick Company, Whitney 51 Fig. 10. Pit of the Clay County Steam Brick Company 51 Fig. II. Plant of the McMillan Brick Company, Molino 51 Fig. 12. Vicksburg limestone, Marianna 53 Fig. 13. Miami oolitic limestone, Miami 53 Fig. 14. Limestone at Ft. Thompson 53 Fig. 15. Limestone in Lake Okeechobee 55 Fig. 16. Limestone in the Everglades 55 Fig. 17. Limestone at River Junction 55 Fig. 18. Limestone at Ft. Thompson 56 Fig. 19. The Caloosahatchee marl 58 Fig. 20. Peat prairie near Haines City 59 Fig. 21. Phosphatized limestone 85 Fig. 22. Removing overburden from phosphate rock 93 Fig. 23. Sand-clay road, Tallahassee loi Fig. 24. Ponce de Leon Springs 103 Fig. 25. Flowing artesian well at Palatka 105 Fig. 26. Well drilling machinery 109 Fig. 27. Sketch Map Showing location qf Lakes lamonia, Jackson, Lafayette, and Miccosukee 126 Fig. 28. Lake Jackson 128 Fig. 29. Lake Lafayette 130 Fig. 30. Lake Miccosukee 132 Fig. 31. Miccosukee Basin, Low Water Stage of 1909 137 Fig. 32. Lake Jackson 139 Fig. zzAlligator Lake 139 Fig. 34, The Sink pf Lake Lafayette 141 Fig. 35Payne's Prairie, looking out from the Sink 141 Fig. 36. View of Payne's Prairie from near the Smk 141 Fig. 2)7View of Spouting Well near Orlando 143 Fig38. Sketch Map of Hogtown Prairie and surroundings 146 Fig. 39. Sketch Showing Ground Water Level 156 Fig. 40. Map of Northern Florida, showing geographical divisions 190 Figs. 41, 42. Scenes in Marianna red lands (Jackson County) 347-349 Figs. 43-48. Scenes in West Florida hme-sink region 319-353 Figs. 49-5T. Scenes in Apalachicola River bluflf region 353-355 Fig. 52. Scene in Knox Hill country (Walton County) 357 Fig. 53. Scene in Holmes Valley (Washington County) 357 Fig. 54Scene in West Florida lake region (Washington County) 359 Figs. 55 57. Scenes in West Florida pme hills 3.59-361 Figs. 58-61. Scenes in West Florida coast strip 351-363
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Pace Figs. 62, 63. Scenes in Apalachicola flatwoods (Franklin County) 365 Figs. 64-68. Scenes in Middle Florida hammock belt 2^7-27'^^ Figs. 69-73. Scenes in Tallahassee red hills (Leon County) 373-375 Figs. 74, 75. Scenes in Bellair sand region (Leon County) 277 Figs. 76-78. Scenes in Wakulla hammock country (Wakulla County)— 379-38i Fig. 79. Scene in Panacea country (Wakulla County) 381 Figs. 80, 81. Scenes in Gulf hammock region 383 Figs. 82, 83. Scenes in Peninsular lime-sink region (Alachua County)-385 Fig. 84. Scene in Peninsular lake region (Clay County) 385 Figs. 85, 86. Scenes in East Florida flatwoods z'^7 Figs. 87-90. Scenes in East coast strip 3S9-391
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ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT. E. H. SELLARDS^ STATE GEOLOGIST. PUBLICATIONS ISSUED BY THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. The following is a list of the publications issued by the State Geological Survey since its organization : First Annual Report, 1908, 114 pp., 6 pis. This report contains: (i) a sketch of the geology of Florida; (2) a chapter on mineral industries, including phosphate, kaolin or ball clay, brick-making clays, fullers earth, peat, lime and cement and road-making materials; (3) a bibliography of publications on Florida geology, with a review of the more important papers published previous to the organization of the present Geological Survey. Second Annual Report, 1909, 299 pp., 19 pis., 5 text figures, and one map. This report contains: (i) a preHminary report on the geology of Florida, with special reference to stratigraphy, including a topographic and geologic map of Florida, prepared in co-operation with the United States Geological Survey; (2) mineral industries; (3) the fullers earth deposits of Gadsden County, with notes on similar deposits found elsewhere in the State. Third Annual Report, 19 10, 397 pp.. 28 pis., 30 text figures. This report contains: (i) a preliminary paper on the Florida phosphate deposits; (2) some Florida lakes and lake basins; (3) the artesian water supply of eastern Florida ; (4) a preliminary report on the Florida peat deposits. Fourth Annual Report, 19 12, 175 pp., 16 pis., 15 text figures, one map. This report contains: (i) the soils and other surface residual materials of Florida, their origin, character and the formations from which derived; (2) the water supply of west-central and west Florida ; (3) the production of phosphate rock in Florida during 1910 and 191 1. Fifth Annual Report, 19 13, 306 pp., 14 pis., 17 text figures, two maps. This report contains: d) Origin of the hard rock phosphates of Florida; (2) list of elevations in Florida; (3) artesian water supply of eastern and southern Florida; (4) production of phosphate in Florida during T912; (S) statistics on public roads in Florida.
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lO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. . Sixth Annual Report, 19 14. Bulletin No. i. The Underground Water Supply of Central Florida, 1908, 103 pp., 6 pis., 6 text figures. This report contains: (i) Underground water; general discussion; (2) the underground water of central Florida, deep and shallow wells, spring and artesian prospects; (3) effects of underground solution, cavities, sinkholes, disappearing streams and solution basins; (4) drainage of lakes, ponds and swamp lands and disposal of sewage by bored wells; (5) water analyses and tables giving general water, resources, public water supplies, spring and well records. Bulletin No. 2. Roads and Road Materials of Florida, 191 1, 31 pps., 4 pis. This bulletin contains: (i) An account of the road building materials of Florida; (2) a statistical table showing the amount of improved roads built by the counties of the State to the close of 1910. In addition to the regular reports of the Survey as listed above press Bulletins have been issued as follows : No. I. The Extinct Land Animals of Florida, February 6, 1913No. 2. Production of Phosphate Rock in Florida during 1912, March 12, 1913. No, 3. Summary of Papers Presented by the State Geologist at the Atlanta Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, December 31, 191 3. No. 4. The Utility of Well Records, January 15, 1914. No. 5. Production of Phosphate Rock in Florida during 19 13, May 20, 19 14. Of the Press Bulletins Nos. i and 3 are available for distribution in the original form as issued. No. 2, the supply of which if exhausted, was included without change of text in the Fifth Annual Report, pp. 291 to 294. Nos. 4 and 5 are included in the present volume in connection with the report on mineral industries. DISTRIBUTION OF REPORTS. The reports issued by the State Geological Survey are distributed upon request, and may be obtained without cost by addressing the State Geologist, Tallahassee. Florida.
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AUMlxMSTKATlVE REPORT. II THE PURPOSE AND DUTIES OF THE STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Among the specific objects for which the Survey exists, as stated in the enactment, is that of making known information regarding the minerals, water supply and other natural resources of the State, including the occurrence and location of minerals and other deposits of value, surface and subterranean water supply and power and mineral waters and the best and most economic methods of development, together with analysis of soils, minerals and mineral waters, with maps, charts, and drawings of the same. A distinctly educational function of the Survey is indicated by Section 4 of the law, which miakes it the duty of the State Geologist to make collections of specimens, illustrating the geological and mineral features of the State, duplicate sets of which shall be deposited with each of the State colleges. The publication of annual reports is provided for as a means of disseminating the information obtained in the progress of the Survey. The Survey is thus intended to serve on the one hand an economic, and on the other an educational purpose. In its economic relations a State Survey touches on very varied interests of the State's development. In its results it miay be expected to contribute to an intelligent development of the State's natural resources. Its educational value is of no less immediate concern to the State, both to the citizens within the State and to prospective citizens without. A knowledge of the soil and of the available water supply is very necessary to successful agriculture, and the Survey's investigations along these lines are of value to all land owners. A knowledge of the mineral deposits which may lie beneath the surface, is likewise necessary to a correct valuation of land. RELATION OF THE STATE SLTRVEY TO THE OWNERSHIP OF MINERAL LANDS. The relation of the State Geological Survey to the ownership of mineral lands is specifically defined. The Survey law provides that it shall be the duty of the State Geologist and his assistants, when they discover any mineral deposits or substances of value, to notify the owners of the land upon which such deposits occur before disclosing their location to any other person or persons Failure to do so is punishable by fine and imprisonment. It is not intended by the law, however, that the State Geologist's time
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12 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. shall be devoted to examinations and reports upon the value of private mineral lands. Reports of this character are properly the province of commercial geologists, who may be employed by the owners of land for that purpose. To accomplish the best results, the work of the Survey must be in accordance with definite plans by which the State's resources are investigated in an orderly manner. Only such examinations of private lands can be made as are incidental to the regularly planned investigations of the Survey. SAMPLES SENT TO THE SURVEY FOR EXAMINATION. Samples of rocks, minerals and fossils will be at all times gladly received, and reported upon. Attention to inquiries and general correspondence are a part of the duties of the office, and afford a means through which the Survey may in many ways be useful to the citizens of the State. THE COLLECTION OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION. For many purposes the collection and publication of statistical information is helpful, both to the industries concerned and to the general public. Such statistical information is desired from all the mineral industries of the State. Such information will be recognized as strictly confidential, in so far as it relates to the private business of any individual or company, and will be used only in making up State and county totals. The co-operation of the various industries of the State is invited in order that the best possible showing of the State's products may be made annually. EXHIBITION OF GEOLOGICAL MATERIAL. The space available for the exhibition of geological material is unfortunately as yet very limited. A part of one room is being used for this purpose. Three cases have been built, designed to serve the double purpose of storage and exhibition. The lower parts of the case contain drawers and are used for storage. In nxaking the collections a definite plan has been followed to secure a representation of the rocks, minerals and fossils of each formation in the State. The collection will be added to as rapidly as space is provided for taking care of the material.
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ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT. I3 THE SURVEY LIBRARY. A well equipped reference library is essential to the investigations of the Survey, and an effort has been and is being made to bring together those publications which are necessary to the immediate and future work of the department. The Survey library now contains more than 1,500 volumes. These include the reports of the several State Geological Surveys; the reports of the National Geological Survey; the reports of the Canadian and a few other foreign Geological Surveys ; and many miscellaneous volumes and papers on geology and related subjects. RECOMMENDATIONS. MORE OFFICE SPACE NECESSARY. The State Survey is at present housed in two small rooms. Of these one is used as store room, photo room and library, while the other serves as office and work room. These small rooms, including about 1,000 square feet of floor space are totally inadequate to the requirements of effective work. Fully 10,000 square feet of floor space is necessary to meet the immediate requirements of the Survey. The library shelves are full, and it is now and for some time has been quite impossible to care for the publications that are being received. Many of these new publications represent the results of investigations by the neighboring State Surveys or by the National Survey, and are very necessary, for comparative purposes to the Florida Survey. Other publications being received from various sources are for reference purposes and are necessary to the determination of fossils or mineral specimens, or, of geological formations, or other matters in connection with the Survey work. The cases used in exhibiting and storing mineral snecimens and fossils have been placed tempnrarilv in one of the room? formerly occupied by the Supreme Court librar}-. The Surv^ev at present is practically without a work room. There is no table or desk room available to store or to handle the maps, charts, and drawings that are constantly being used in the Survey work. It is impossible from lack of space to properly open up and study the collection of mineral and fossil specimens that have been obtained bv the Survev. The store room space is too small to accomimodate even the current issues of the Survev's
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14 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. own publications which must be cared for temporarily awaiting their distribution. In connection with the work of the Survey there is a constant accumulation of notes, records, photographs, manuscripts, plates and cuts, as well as the general correspondence of the office which must be cared for. The present limited office space affords no room for storing, filing or properly caring for these records. I urgently recommend, if it meets with your approval, that the Legislature be asked to provide adequate rooms for the future work of the State Geological Survey. A STATE MUSEUM. The desirability of an adequate museum in which to properly exhibit the resources of the State is apparent. The State Survey law makes it the duty of the State Geologist to collect, determine and label specimens illustrating the geological and mineral features of the State and large collections have been made since the Survey was organized. The small room used for exhibition purposes has long since been filled and a large amount of material suitable for exhibition remains unopened in boxes as collected. It is important that the State provide for the proper preservation and exhibition of the Survey collections in a State Museum. THE PREPARATION OF A DETAILED TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF FLORIDA. While a general topographic map of Florida with contour lines at 50 foot intervals of elevation has been issued, as already stated, there is a constant demand for detailed topographic maps on a scale of about one inch to the mile and with contour lines at 10 foot intervals of elevation. Topographic maps are usually made in atlas sheets covering unit areas bounded by parallels and meridians. The unit adopted by the United States Geological Survey in topographic mapping, designated as the quadrangle, includes when made on the scale of about one inch to the mile an area of 15 minutes of latitude by 15 minutes of longitude. A separate atlas sheet is issued for each unit area and when completed the maps so issued make up a complete map for the state as a whole. The maps thus made show the land area in relief by means of contour lines. In this way all hills, valleys, stream channels, sinks, depressions and all changes in elevation are indicated. Tlie actual
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ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT. I 5 elev^atiun above sea, based uii exact le\els, are also shown by means of tigures printed on tlie contour lines. Each contour passes through points which ha\e the same altitude. One who follows the contour on the ground will go neither up hill nor down hill but on a level. By the use of contours the maps of the plains, hills and valleys as well as their elevations are shown. The line of the sea coast itself is a contour line, the datum or zero of elevation being mean sea level. The contour line at, say, 20 feet above sea level is a line that would be the sea coast if the sea were to rise or the land to sink 20 feet. Such a line runs back up the valleys and forward around the points of hills and spurs, On a gentle slope this contour line is far from the present coast line, while on a steep slope it is near it. Thus a succession of these contour lines far apart on the map indicates a gentle slope; if close together a steep slope; and if the contours run together in one line, as if each were vertically under the one above it, they indicate a cliff. The heights of many definite points such as road corners, railroad crossings, railroad stations, summits, water surface, triangulation stations and bench marks are also given on the map. The figures in each case express the elevation to the nearest foot. In addition to indicating relief and actual elevation above sea, these maps show all the natural features, such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, canals, swamps, and all cultural features including public roads, railroads, towns, cities, county and state boundaries. The topographic maps thus prepared find many uses. They are above all essential to the proper planning of drainage operations throughout all the interior of the state. It is a well known fact that we have in Florida, particularly in the iiatwoods sections, large areas of land that, although not actually flooded, yet would be much improved by the more rapid removal of the heavy summer rains. The state contains also valuable muck lands in addition to those already being drained. The topographic maps such as are here contemplated are essential to a proper planning of drainage operations. The topographic maps are of verv great assistance in the preparation of detailed soil maps. They afford first of all an exact base map of the area to be surveyed, thereby reducing the cost of the average soil map in Florida about one-half; They
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l6 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. also facilitate the study of the soils which bear well known relations to drainage and moisture conditions. In detailed geologic mapi^ing and in the study of the mineral resources, topographic maps are practically necessary for the final reports. Topographic maps find many additional uses. They are oi very great assistance in laying out and developing a system of public roads, showing as they do the relief of the land including hills, depressions and valleys. In planning the location of railroads, canals, waterways, or other public improvements they are of great assistance. Finally they afford to the land owners, as well as to the citizens in general, the manifold conveniences of a well-made and accurate map. CO-OPERATIOX WITH THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN THE PREPARATION OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS. Many of the States co-operate with the National Geological Sui"vey through their respective State Survey organizations in the preparation of topographic maps. The usual basis of such cooperation is an equal contribution of funds on the part of the State and National Survey. The plan of mapping followed is that already developed and established by the National Surv^ey. The men employed in the mapping are the expert topographic mappers already in the employ of the National Survey. The following States are either now co-operating or have in the past co-operated with the National Geological Survey in this work: Alabama, California, Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine. Mar^dand. Massachusetts. Michigan. Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma. Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia and West Virginia. It is probable that such co-operation can be secured in the preparation of the topographic maps of Florida, thus practically doubling for the State any appropriation made by the Legislature for this purpose. The Director of the United States Geological Sur\'ey has repeatedly expressed his willingness to co-operate with the State Geological Survey in the preparation of topographic maps, meeting any appropriation made by the State with an equal amount so far as funds permit. An appropriation made for the preparation of topographic maps may ])e so framed as to admit
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ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT, 1 7 of co-operation with the United States Geological Survey ; or may be made if desired contingent upon such co-operation to be carried on in accordance with plans approved by the Governor. SOIL MAPS. Another very important line of investigation is the preparation of detailed soil maps. While a general report on the soils of the State has been issued by the Survey, there is a very great demand for specific information regarding local soils such as can be supplied only by detailed soil maps of the several counties. A limited amount of soil mapping has already been done by the United States Bureau of Soils. As in the case of topographic maps many of the States are co-operating with tlie Mational Bureaus in the preparation of soil maps, and it is probable that an appropriation made for this purpose would be doubled by the United States Bureau of Soils. I would urgently recommend an appropriation of $5,000 per annum for the preparation of topographic and soil maps. Such an appropriation may be made contingent upon co-operation with the national bureaus and would thus result in the expenditure of $10,000 per annum in the State for this purpose. EXPENDI'];URES OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30. I913. The total appropriation for the State Geological Survey is $7,500 per annum. Xo part of this fund is handled direct by the State Geologist, as all Survey accounts are paid upon warrants issued by the Comptroller of the State as per itemized statements approved by the Governor. The original of all bills and the itemized statements of all expense accounts are on file in the office of the Comptroller. Duplicate copies of the same are on file if; the office of the State Geologist. LIST OF WARRANTS ISSUED DURING THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, I9T3. July, 1912. T. J. Appleyard, State Printer $ 100.00 Southern Express Company U/l^ D. R. Cox Furniture Coinpan\-, supplies 4.1.3 -August, 1912. Alex. McDougall, postage 25.00 Southern Express Company 303
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iS FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. September, 1912. • E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, salary for quarter ending September 30, 1912 625.00 Herman Gunter, Assistant, salary for quarter ending September 30, 1912 300.00 Southern Express Company 1.60 October, 1912. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, October, 1912 62.80 Herman Gunter, Assistant, expenses, October, 1912 42.71 Arthur H. Thomas Company, supplies 19-55 November, 1912. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, November, 1912 66.47 Herman Gunter, Assistant, expenses, November, 1912 29.10 H. R. Kaufman, repairing typewriter 5.00 Alex. McDougall, postage 25.00 Southern Express Company 3.13 December, 1912. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, salary for quarter ending December 31, 1912 625.00 E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, December, 1912 72.85 Herman Gunter, Assistant, salary for quarter ending December 31, 1912 300.OC H. & W. B. Drew Company, supplies 1.79 W. & L. E. Gurley, supplies 3.70 Keuffel & Esser Company, supplies 39-90 Engineering and Mining Journal, subscription .* 5.00 Southern Express Company 8.02 January, 1913. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, January, 1913 42.60 Alex. McDougall, postage 22.16 Alex. Walton, janitor services 10.00 American Journal of Science, subscription 6.00 Southern Express Company 7.02 February, 19 13. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, February, 1913 47-35 Herman Gunter, Assistant, expenses, February, 1913 47.62 Alex. Walton, janitor services 10.00 T. J. Appleyard, State Printer 132.30 Economic Geology Publishing Co., subscription 3.00 Southern Express Company 4.16 H. & W. B. Drew Co., supplies 6.94 American Museum Natural History, publications 27.97 Ware Bros. Company, subscription 2.00 Wrigley Engraving & Electrotype Co., engraving 4.60 Alex. McDougall, postage 57-15 March, 1913. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, salary for quarter ending March 31, 1913 625.00 Herman Gunter, Assistant, salary for quarter ending March 31, 1913 300.00 Emil Gunter, services 20.00 Alex. Walton, janitor services 10.00 H. R. Kaufman, supplies? 4.25
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ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT, 19 American Peat Societ)-, subscription 3.00 E. O. Painter Printing Compan_v 5.75 April, 1913. Alex. McDougall, postage 20.00 Alex. Walton, janitor services 10.00 H. & W. B. Drew Company, supplies 6.37 Justus Perthes, Geographical directory 2. 11 Southern Express Company 4.25 May, 1913. Alex. McDougall, postage 70.00 Alex. Walton, janitor services 10.00 Wrigley Engraving Company, engravings 5.10 Laura Smith, stenographic services 12.00 Maurice Joyce Engraving Company, engravings 32.80 June, 1913. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, salary for quarter ending June, 30, 1913 625.00 E. H. Sellards, State Geologist, expenses, June, 1913 33-6o Herman Gunter, Assistant, salary for quarter ending June 30, 1913 300.00 Alex. McDougall, postage 440 H. R. Kaufman, supplies 5.00 Alex. Walton, janitor services 10.00 Emil Gunter, services 15.00 Dan Allen, freight and drayage 13.00 Underwood Typewriter Company, supplies 53-03 University of Chicago Press, subscription 3.60 David S. Woodrow, subscription 6.00 T. J. Appleyard, supplies 53-65 Southern Express Company 3.86 D. R. Cox Furniture Company 50.90 SA. L. Ry., freight 21.06 S. A. L. Ry., freight 38.01 Reqord Company, printing 1,004.25 Total $6,194.40 Appropriation for fiscal year ending June 30, 1913 $7,500.00 Available from the preceding year 1,112.87 $8,612.87 Total expenditures for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913 6,194.40 Balance available $2,418.47
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES OF FLORIDA. BY E. H. SELLARDS. STATISTICS ON PRODUCTION COLLECTED IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 21
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CONTENTS. * Page Clay and Clay Products 23 Ball Cla}or Plastic Kaolin 23 Brick and Tile 24 Diatomaceous Earth ' 26 Fullers Earth 28 Lime 36 Limestone 39 The Everglades of Florida, limestones of 41 geology of 41 Materials for Mortar and Concrete 46 Peat 59 Phosphate Rock 65 Road Materials loi Sand and Gravel 102 Sand-lime Brick 103 Water Supplies T04 22
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ERRATA. Page 36, third line from the bottom of the page, for "18,917," read 16,845: and for "$100,335," read $89,973. Page 114, second and third Hnes from top, same correction as for page 36; also twelfth line from the top of the page, for "73.415," read 13,371 ; and in last line on page, for "$10,646,628.00." read $10,636,266.00.
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i'(^) \h/\milton( 5 WAKULLA '^^^^^^^.^ "-7J^^.5ANTA ROSAi <5 FLORIDA Key Map to MIHERAL RESOURCES By E.H.Sellarda 1914 i Hard Rock Phosphate Land Pebhle Phosphate mmWWM Areas of +. Lime Plants ^. Briok Plants 0. Ball Clay Mines t. Fuller's Earth Mines ojJ^JB?^ M-a*
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES OE EEORIDA. E. H. SELLARDS. STATISTICS ON PRODUCTION COLLECTED IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. I CLAY AND CLAY PRODUCTS. BALL CLAY OR PLASTIC KAOLIN. The ball clays or plastic kaolins are among the most important clay products of the State. The Florida ball clays are white burning, highly refractionary and very plastic. These are used largely to mix with the less plastic clays to bring up the grade of plasticity. This clay as it occurs in Florida is intimately mixed with coarse sand. The presence of the sand in the clays necessitates washing, after which the clay is allowed to collect in the settling basins. It is then compressed into cakes by which excess of water is removed. The cakes are then broken up and either air-dried or artificially dried for shipment. The deposits at present known lie in the central peninsular section from Putnam to Polk Counties. The Putnam County deposits occur in and about Edgar and McMeekin. Deposits have been worked in Lake County along Palatlakaha Creek. Ball clays have also been reported from near Bartow Junction in Polk County, and probably extend into DeSoto County. At Edgar, 4 to lo feet of loose sand lies above the kaolinbearing sand. This top sand is coarse, containing siliceous pebbles up to one-third of an inch across. The large pebbles are flattened and all are rounded. The kaolin-bearing sands beneath are gray in color, although the weathered surface is sometimes slightly iron-stained. Thev are said to have a total thickness of 30 feet or more. These sands are distinctly cross-bedded, especially the upper five feet as seen in the pit at Edgar. They are underlain by a sticky blue clay. It is reported that beneath the blue clay a fullers earth occurs, and that this in turn passes at the depth of about 70 feet into a scarcely indurated shell stratum. 2.S
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24 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY^ SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. A well put down by the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company is reported to have passed through coarse superficial sand, lo feet; kaolinbearing sands, 30 or more feet ; sticky blue clay with fullers earth beneath, about 40 feet; scarcely indurated shell stratum, 20 feet. The well terminated on a hard limestone rock at the depth of go feet. Fig. I. — I'lt uf the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Co., Edgar, Putnam County. Mining ball clay. The kaolin in Lake County occurs under conditions similar to those found in Putnam County. The superficial sands here as at the Edgar mines are coarse and contain white siliceous pebbles. The kaolin-bearing sands are gray in color except where stained red with iron. At places a small amount of mica is found in the kaolin sands which is screened out in the process of washing. San.ds of similar (Character but with a larger proportion of iron occur in the vicinity of Leesburg and Hawthorne and are used for road materials. Two plants, under the management of the Edgar Plastic Kaolin Company, were engaged in mining ball clay during 1913. The value of the clay produced, although no't separately given, is included in the total mineral products of the State. BRICK AND TILE. The surface formations of north and central Florida contain many clay beds, some of which are suitable for brick-making. The clay deposits, however, are often of local extent and variable
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES CLAY AND CLAY FKQDUCTS. 25 in character. Such clay beds as occur in Florida suitable for brick making are confined to no particular geologic formation, and to no restricted section of the State, althougth the amount of brick clay is greater perhaps in the northern than in the southern part of the State. In extreme southern Florida in particular clay beds are but little developed. The total number of common brick manufactured in Florida during 19 13 was 42,450,000. valued at $240,126. The quantity of tile produced in the state is not separately given, but is included in making u\) the total mineral products of the state. Fig. 2. — Brick kiln of the Florida Brick Company, Brooksville, Hernando County. The following firms in Florida have reported production of brick or tile during 1913 : Barrineau Brothers, Quintette. Campville Brick Company, Campville. Clay County Steam Brick Company, Green Cove Springs. Florida Brick Company, Brooksville. Gamble and Stockton Company, 108 West Bay St., Jacksonville. Jacksonville Brick Company, 315 West Forsyth St.. Jacksonville. Keystone Brick Company, Whitney. McMillan Brick Company, MoHno. O. O. Mickler Brick Company, Callahan. Ocala Lumber and Supply Company, Ocala. Ocklocknee Brick Company, Ocklocknee. Piatt Brothers, South Jacksonville. Tallahassee Pressed Brick Company, Havana. \
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26 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. DIATOMACEOUS EARTH. The only abrasive material produced in Florida is that known as diatonmceous earth, the best known deposits of which lare located near Eustis in Lake County. In addition to the Lake County deposits, however, a number of samples of a similar material have been received by the Survey from Polk County, and it is evident that it is widespread in its occurrence. The earth is found chiefly in fresh-water lakes, where it is intimately mixed with peat or muck, the material as taken from the bog having the appearance of peat of a grayish color. The method of treatment is to burn out the carbonaceous matter, the siliceous material remaining as a very fine powder. The diatomaceous earth mined near Eustis appears to consist largely of the spicules of freshwater sponges, shells of diatoms and particles of amorphous silica. Diatomaceous earth is used largely as a polishing powder for which its hardness and fineness render it particularly suitable. It is also used in some scouring soaps, and to some extent in the manufacture of dynamite as an absorbent for nitroglycerine. It is a good non-conductor of heat and hence is valuable for packing steam pipes, and to some extent for fireproof materials in general. Diatomaceous earth was produced in Florida during 19 13 to a limited extent by the Standard Diatomite Company of Eustis. There being only the one producer the output is not separately listed, but is included with the total mineral production of the State. The following account of diatomaceous earth in the LTnited States is taken from the report on the Production of Abrasive Materials in 191 3, by Frank J. Katz* : Diatomaceous earth, called also infusorial earth and kieselguhr, is a light, earthy material, which from some sources is loose and powdery and from others is more or less firmly coherent. It . often resembles chalk or clay in its physical properties, but can be distinguished at once from chalk by the fact that it does not effervesce when treated with acids. It is generally white or gray in color, but may be brown or even black when mixed with much organic matter. Diatomaceous earth is made up of tests of minute aquatic plants composed of a variety of opal, which, chemically, is hydrous silica. Owing to its porosity it has great absorptive powers and high insulating *Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1913, Pt. 11, p 268.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES DIATOMACEOUS EARTH. 27 efficiency. The hardness, the minute size, and the shape of its grains make it an excellent metal-polishing agent. Heretofore diatomaceous or infusorial earth has been largely used as an abrasive in the form of polishing powders and scouring soaps, but of late its uses have been considerably extended. Because of its porous nature it has been used in the manufacture of dynamite as a holder of nitroglycerine, but so far as known not in the United States. Its porosity also renders it a non-conductor of heat, and this quality in connection with its lightness has extended its use as an insulating packing material for safes, steam pipes, and boilers, and as a fireproof building material. In this country a new use of the material is reported in the manufacture of records for talking machines. For this purpose it is boiled with shellac, and the resulting product has the necessary hardness to give good results. In Europe, especially in Germany, infusorial earth has lately found extended application. It has been used in preparing artificial fertilizers, especially in the absorption of liquid manures ; in the manufacture of water glass, or various cements, of glazing for tiles, of artificial stone, of ultramarine and various pigments, of aniline and alizarine colors, of paper, sealing wax, fireworks, gutta-percha objects, Swedish matches, soHdified bromine, scouring powders, papier-mache, and many other articles. There is a large and steadily growing demand for it. Fig. 3. — Northwest shore of Lake Milton, about 5 miles south of Tavares. Preliminary preparation of the crude material involves drying and roasting to destroy organic matter, if that is present. Production of diatomaceous earth in the United States in 1913, by States, in short tons. State. Quantity. Value. California and Nevada.' 5,785 $51,556 Connecticut, New York, and Washington 378 9,565 Maryland, Virginia, and Florida 423 8,119 Total 6.586 $69,240
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FULLERS EARTH.* CONTENTS. Introduction. Definition of Fullers Earth. Tests for Fullers Earth. Mining. Drying. Grinding and Bolting. Properties. Distribution in the United States. Production in the United States. Fullers earth is a clay which has the property of absorbing basic colors and removing these from' solution in animal, vegetable and mineral oils, as well as from water and certain other liquids. In commerce the earth finds its chief use in clarifying oils, although it 'has in addition a number of minor uses, among which are the removal of the excess of coloring from water in dyeing cloth ; as an ingredient in talcum powders ; as a detergent in fulling cloth ; and to some extent for medicinal purposes, having been used in poultices for swellings, ulcers and sores. Fullers earth has also been used recently in the preparation of a new reagent, known as Lloyd's reagent for alkaloids. This reagent, used for the removal of alkaloids from the aqueous solution of their salts, is reported to be more efficient for that purpose than charcoal or freshly precipitated aluminum, heretofore chiefly used for that purpose. The action of the reagent is supposed to be due to the presence of hydrous aluminum silicate. f Fullers earth, like other clays, is complex and consists not of a single mineral, but of a variety of minerals, the mineral particles being mixed in different earths in widely differing proportions, resulting in a varying chemical and mineralogical composition. The ultimate analysis does not differ materially from that of other clays, although fullers earth has as a rule a rather high percentage of combined water. The properties of the earth arise *The following paper on fullers earth is abridged from two papers prepared during the past year by the writer. The first of these, entitled Fullers Earth in the United States, was presented at the Atlanta Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; the second, entitled Fullers Earth Production, was prepared for Mineral Industry, 1913, Vol. xxii. tjournal of the Amer. Pharmaceutical Association. May, 1914, PP625-630.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES FULLERS EARTH. 29 apparently from the physical condition of the clay and can be detected only by a filtering test by which its practical utility in clarifying oils is determined. In testing an earth for clarifying a mineral oil the earth is dried, powdered and placed in a tube. The mineral oil is then passed througii the tube and will be more or less perfectly clarified, depending upon the quality of the earth. A different test is necessary for a vegetable oil. In testing vegetable oils according to Wesson* a weighed amount of the oil and the fullers earth are stirred together for a regular period at a temperature of lOO degrees C. The oil is then filtered and compared with other known fullers earth treated under exactly the same conditions. Various other properties are assigned to fullers earth, but all, aside from the actual bleaching tests, are so variable, or are common to such a variety of clays as to be of only secondary value as a means of identification. Non-plasticity is often given as a property of fullers earth, but it appears from the investigations of Porterf and others that some of the fullers earths are distinctly plastic when mixed with a large proportion of water. Some of the fullers earths will disintegrate in water, although others are little affected thereby. Most fullers earths on account of their porosity when dry will adhere firmly to the tongue, but some other clays will do the same. In color fullers earth is as variable as other clays, and while buff and blue clays predominate, others are brown, gray or almost white. As a rule fullers earths are light in weight owing to their porosity, although there are exceptions, and the specific gravity is much the same as that of other clays. These secondary properties, althoug^h of value in tracing any particular bed after this has been located, are not to be relied upon as a complete test. MINING FULLERS EARTH. All the sedimentary deposits of fullers earth are mined by the open pit method, the overburden being removed by steam shovel in the larger mines, and by team and scraper or by pick and shovel in the smaller mines. The depth of overburden that can profitably be removed is variable, depending as it does upon the *Bleaching of Oils with Fullers Earth, by David Wesson, Trans. Amer. Inst, of Chemical Engineers, Vol. iii, 1910, pp. 327-332. tProperties and Tests of Fullers Earth, by John T. Porter, U. S. Geol. Sur. Bull, 315, pp. 268-290, 1907.
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30 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. thickness and quality of the fuhers earth stratum beneath and upon the character of the overburden itself. In the Florida mines the maximum overburden removed is from 12 to 14 feet in thickness. This consists of sand,, clay and in some cases marl. The fullers earth in these mines includes two strata each from six to ten feet thick, and separated by a thin stratum of sandy or calcareous material. As a rule the first stratum only is worked. The fullers earth itself is dug with pick and shovel, and is then loaded onto cars to be drawn to the plant. Fig. 4. — Pit in fullers earth mine, Quincy, Florida. In Arkansas where the earth is found following basaltic dikes, underground mining is resorted to. Vertical shafts are sunk from w^hich laterals run to the vein of earth. The fullers earth is drawn to the surface in buckets and is hauled by wagon to the plant near by. DRYING FULLERS EARTH. At the plant the earth is broken up by passing through a crusher, thus facilitating both handling and drying. Although the earth is usually taken directly to the crusher, yet in some instances it is placed in storage bins and air dried before being crushed. Drying fullers earth is for the purpose of removing the excess of moisture.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES FULLERS EARTH. 3I The driers employed are for the most part rotary cyhnders. Those in use in the Florida mines are from 40 to 60 feet in length and about 6 feet in diameter. When in operation they rotate slowly, the earth being moved along by means of flanges attached to the inside of the cylinder. These cylinders are heated to a moderate heat by petroleum burners, the heat being applied either at the end where the wet earth enters, or at the opposite end from which the diy earth escapes. Overheating is not feared in these plants, as the earth is used for filtering mineral oils. When the earth is to be used for edible oils precautions are taken to avoid overheating, as driving off the combined water is supposed to be injurious. To guard against overheating especially constructed rotary cylinders are used, or the earth is run into brick form and is dried in tunnel driers through which hot air is forced. Although the English fullers earth is injured by driving off the combined water, it has been found that some at least of the American earths bleach fully as well after the combined water is removed, and it is probable that these precautions against overheating the earth for edible oils are in some cases at least unnecessary. GRINDING AND BOLTING. In grinding the fullers earth a variety of mills are in use. After grinding, the earth is bolted. That intended for refining petroleum is bolted to a definite size and is placed on the market graded as 15 to 30 mesh, 30 to 60 mesh, 60 to 80 mesh. The coarser sizes are in most demand, there being as a rule no market for material passing 90 mesh, which is not infrequently a total loss, being thrown into the dump. For the edible oils it is said that the earth should be ground to pass 100 mesh, but that there should not be an excess of exceedingly fine material which if present will clog the pores of the coarser material and prevent successful filtering. It is apparent that the different fullers earths differ in the degree of fineness to which they can be successfully ground. While the English earths are ground to a 120 mesh without having an excess of very fine particles, many of the American earths cannot be ground finer than 100 mesh for edible oils. It is true also that the mill employed must be adapted to the particular earth for which it is used.
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32 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. PROPERTIES OF FULLERS EARTH. The action of fullers earth in clarifying oils, and the varying behavior of different fullers earths form an interesting study on which much yet remains to be done. Porter in 1907 reviewed the different explanations of the carifying action that had been given and advanced a new theory to explain this property. Porter believes that the clarifying action is due chiefly to colloidal silica present in the clay, and records a series of very interesting tests and analyses which are believed to support this view.* Porter's theory briefly stated is as follows : ( i ) Fullers earth has for its base a series of hydrous aluminum silicates. (2) These silicates differ in chemical composition. (3) They are, however, similar in that they all possess an amorphous colloidal structure. (4) The colloidal structure is of a rather persistent form; and is not lost on drying at a temperature of 130 degrees Centigrade, or possibly higher. (5) These colloidal silicates possess the power of absorbing and, retaining organic coloring matter, thus bleaching oils and fats. Among other striking properties of fullers earth is the fact that some earths that serve particularly w^ell in refining mineral oils have not been used successfully for vegetable oils and conversely those best suited for vegetable oils are not suitable for mineral oils. A recent study bearing on these problems has been issued by the U. S. Bureau of Mines. f At the present time the English fullers earths are being used largely in vegetable oils, while the Amierican fullers earths are used almost entirely for mineral oils. It is stated in this report, however, that the Bureau of Mines believe that the United States has fullers earth far better suited for refining edible oils than any imported, and that to assure the almost universal use of this earth by American refiners there is required only a careful and intelligent control of the preparation of the output and its application to the bleaching of oils. Most fullers earth gives more or less of a taste to the edible oils, and formerly the American earth was rejected by refiners of edible oils on this account, but at the present time methods are known for removing taste and odor from the oil. This is accom*Properties and Tests of Fuller's Earth, by John T. Porter. Bull. 315, U. S. Geol. Surve^^ pp. 268-290, 1907. tFulIers Earth, by Charles L. Parsons, Pjureau of Mines, Bull. 71, 1913.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES FULLERS EARTH. 33 e plished by blowing dry steam through the refined oil which is heated to a temperature above the boiling point of water. A serious difficulty in the use of this clay is the rapid oxidizing action which some fullers earths have on edible oils. In milling practice air is blown through the filter press to force out the oil remaining in the earth after treatment. With some of the earths the oxidizing action is so rapid that the oil remaining in the earth takes fire, or is liable to take fire at this time. It is to be hoped that this difficulty will be overcome. DISTRIBUTION OF FULLERS EARTH IN THE UNITED STATES. Clays having the properties of fullers earth more or less well developed are widely distributed in the United States and are confined to no particular geological horizon, although the largest known deposits are of Cenozoic age. By far the greater part of fullers earth is in the form of a sedimentary deposit which is distinctly stratified, and from which an overburden must be removed in mining. In Arkansas, however, fullers earth is known that is exceptional in that it is residual, having been formed in situ from the disintegration of basaltic dykes.* In the United States fullers earth is known from the following states : Alabama. Arizona, California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Mississippi, New York, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas and Utah. Of these states, 'however, only six were actively producing fullers earth during 1913, as follows: Florida, Georgia, Arkansas, California, Colorado and Massachusetts. The fullers earth of southern Georgia, which is worked at Attapulgus near the Florida line, represents a northward extension of the Florida deposits. In central Georgia near Macon, however, is found a dififerent type of earth, which according to the Georgia Geological Survey is found in the Claiborne formation of Eocene age. This earth differs in some important respect"^ from that of Florida, being used chiefly for vegetable oils, while that from Florida finds its chief use at present in clarifying mineral oils. The fullers earth of Arkansas is used chiefly in clarifying vegetable oils. The fullers earth of Colorado is said to be used in bleach*Residual fullers earth is said to occur also in Saxony where it is found m situ derived from ^abbro.
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34 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ing cottonseed oil, while that of Massachusetts is reported as being used in fulling woolen goods. The fullers earth of California is used according to the State Mineralogist principally as a clarifying agent in the refining of crude oils, PRODUCTION OF FULLERS EARTH IN THE UNITED STATES. Florida is the chief producer of fullers earth in the United States. The deposits being worked are those of Gadsden County in northern Florida, and of Manatee County in southern Florida, the earth being found at both localities in the Alum Bluff formation of Upper Oligocene age. The following companies reported production of fullers earth in Florida during 191 3: The Atlantic Refining Company, Ellenton; the Floridin Company, Quincy; the Fullers Earth Company, Midway. In addition to these the Manatee Fullers Earth Company, Ellenton, is reported as expecting to operate during 1914. The total production of fullers earth in the United States during 19 13 was 38,594 short tons, valued at $369,750, being an increase both in quantity and value over that of the preceding year*. In addition to that produced, there was imported into the United States during the year ending June 30,1913,16,866.16 tons, of which 1,597 tons valued at $10,359 were unmanufactured or unground, while 15,269.16 tons valued at $135,229 were manufactured or ground. These importations were under the old rate of duty, which was $1.50 per ton for the unmanufactured earth, and $3.00 per ton for the manufactured product. During the last half of 1913, July i to December 31, under the new tariff rates, which are for unmanufactured earth 75 cents per ton, and for manufactured $1.50 per ton, there was imported 974 tons unmanufactured valued at $7,660 and 7,613 tons manufactured earth valued at $68,558. These valuations are based on the wholesale price of the product at the port of origin. The actual cost to the consumer includes freight and commission in addition. The exports of fullers earth from the United States cannot be determined owing to the fact that this product is not listed separate from other clays. *The Production of Fullers Earth in 1913, by Jefferson Middleton. Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year, 1913. Pt. II, p. iii, 1914.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES FULLERS EARTH. 35 The fullers earth used in clarifying mineral oils, which includes by far the greater part of that produced in America, is sold at the mine, ground, bolted and sacked for shipment at about $9.50 per ton. That used for refining vegetable oils brings a somewhat higher price, although more expense is incurred in handling, since the earth must be ground finer for vegetable than for mineral oil. Fig. 5. — Fullers earth plant at Quincy, Gadsden County. Fig. 6. — Fullers earth plant at Ellenton, Manatee County.
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36 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. LIME. Lime or "quick lime" is chemically an oxide of calcium or calcium and magnesium.' It is formed ordinarily by burning limestone, although shells and other calcium carbonates may be used for the same purpose. Limestone when burned gives up carbon dioxide. The residue after burning forming a lime, consists of a calcium oxide, when a pure calcium carbonate limestone is used; or of calcium and magnesium oxide when a dolomitic limestone is used. The reaction in the case of a pure limestone is as follows : CaC03 when heated breaks up into Ca0+CO2, In the case of dolomitic limestone a magnesium oxide as well as calcium oxide is formed. The character of the lime varies according to the amount of magnesium present in the limestone from which it is made. Peppel* offers the following classification of the ordinary or "white limes", including in that term limes containing not more than 5 per cent of sandy and clayey impurities : (i) High-calcium; or "hot" or "quick" limes. Made from limestones containing not less than 85 per cent, of carbonate of calcium. (2) Magnesium limes. Made from limestone containing between sixtyfive and eighty-five per cent, carbonate of calcium and between ten and thirty per cent, of carbonate of magnesium. (3) Dolomitic, or "cool" or "slow" limes. Made from limestones containing more than thirty per cent, of carbonate of magnesium. These limes differ slightly among themselves. The high calcium or "hot" or "quick" limes set more quickly, while the magnesium and dolomitic limes set more slowly. Limes thus serve different purposes, the high calcium limes being used when a quicksetting lime is desired, while the other limes are used when slowsetting limes are desired. After calcination, the lime may be placed on the market as quick lime, or it may be slaked and placed on the market as hydrated lime, Hydrated lime is said to be desirable for certain purposes since tlie lime if properly slaked breaks up into exceedingly fine powder. The total quantity of quick and hydrated lime made in Florida during 1913 amounted to 18,917 tons, valued at $100,335. The companies reporting production of lime in Florida during 191 3 were as follows : *Bulletin No. 4, 4th Series, Ohio Geol. Survey, p 254, 1906.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES LIME AND LIMESTONE. 37 Florida Lime Company, Ocala, Florida. Live Oak Limestone Company, Live Oak, Florida. Marion Lime Company, Ocala, Florida. Standard Lime Company, Kendrick, Florida. In addition to these, the Virginia-Florida Lime Company, and the Blowers Lime and Phosphate Company, organized during 19 13, were expected to begin operations during 19 14. The following account of the uses of lime, together with comments on hydrated lime, is taken from an article on Lime by Ernest F. Burchard in Mineral Lidustry for the Calendar year 1911, pt. 11, pp. 649-652, 1912. USES OF LIME. Few mineral products have so wide a variety of uses as lime. Nearly half the lime manufactured in the United States is used as a structural material, and the remainder, amounting to about 1,750,000 tons, valued at about $5,500,000, is consumed in chemical uses. The principal uses which lime has in building operations are in lime mortars and plasters, in gaging Portland cement mortars, concrete, and gypsum plasters, and as a whitewash. Both quick and hydrated lime are used in building operations. The chemical uses of lime are much more varied than the uses of lime in building. A number of the industries that are large users of lime are listed below, together with the special purposes served by lime in each industry and the kind of lime most suitable to such purposes. CHEMICAL USES OF LIME.* Agricultural industries : As a soil amendment, c. m. t As an insecticide, c, m. As a fungicide, c, m. Bleaching industry : Manufacture of bleaching powder, "Chloride of lime," c. Bleaching and renovating of rags, Jute^ ramine, and various paper stocks, c, m. Caustic alkali industry : Manufacture of soda, potash, and ammonia, c. Chemical industries : Manufacture of ammonia, c. Manufacture of calcium carbide, calcium cyanimid, and calcium nitrate,c. Manufacture of potassium dichromate and sodium dichromate, c. Manufacture of fertilizers, c, m. Manufacture of magnesia, m. Manufacture of acetate of lime, c. Manufacture of wood alcohol, c. Manufacture of bone ash, c, m. *Notes on the part played by lime in these industries are given in Circular No. 30 of the Bureau of Standards, 1911, pp. 13-21. t. High calcium lime is indicated by "c," magnesium and dolomitic lime by "m".
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38 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Manufacture of calcium carbides, c. Manufacture of calcium-light pencils, c. In refining mercury, c. In dehydrating alcohol, c. In distillation of wood, c. Gas manufacture: Purification of coal gas and water gas, c, ni. Glass manufacture : Most varieties of glass and glazes, c, ^ Milling industry : Clarifying grain, c, m. Miscellaneous manufactures : Rubber, c, m. Glue, c, m. Pottery and porcelain, c,m. Dyeing fabrics, c, m. Polishing material, c, m. Oil, fat, and soap manufacture : Manufacture of soap, c. Manufacture of glycerine, c. Manufacture of candles, c. Renovating fats, greases, tallow, butter, c, m. Removing the acidity of oils and pe;troleum, c, m. Lubricating greases, c, m. Paint and varnish manufacture : Cold-water paint, c, m. Refining linseed oil, c, m. Manufacture of linoleum, c, m. Manufacture of varnish, c, m. Paper industry : Soda method, c. Sulphite method, m. For strawboard, c, m. As a filler, c, m. Preserving industry: Preserving eggs, c. Sanitation : As a disinfectant and deodorizer, c. Purification of water for cities, c Purification of sewage, c. Smelting industry : Reduction of iron ores, c, m. Sugar manufacture: Beet root, c. Molasses, c. Tanning industry : Tanning cowhides, c. Tanning goat and kid hides, c, m. Water softening and purifying, c. HYDRATED LIME. Definition. — When quicklime is slaked, by whatever process, whether in the simple mortar box by adding water by the bucketful and stirring with a hoe, or whether the lime and water are automatically weighed out in definite parts and the mass is stirred by machinery, the chemical principle involved is the same, viz., quicklime plus water becomes slaked lime, or hydrated lime — Ca0-fH20=Ca(0H)2.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES LIME AND LIMESTONE. fq or, if the limestone used for making quicklime contains magnesia, the following equation is appropriate: Magnesian quicklime plus water becomes slaked or hydrated magnesian lime — Ca0.Mg0-fH20-Ca(0H)2.Mg0. Commercially the term "hydrated lime" is restricted to the dry powder prepared by treating quicklime with just enough water to combine with all the calcium oxide present. In the preparation of hydrated lime two materials only are used — fresh caustic lime and water. The general method of preparation is first to reduce the lumps of lime by crushing to about Vs-inch size. In some plants this reduction is carried further by grinding the lime to about the fineness of granulated sugar. The crushed or granulated Hme is then treated with sufficient water to combine chemically with the calcium oxide in the lime, care being taken that the quantity is neither too Httle to satisfy the chemical requirements nor so great as to leave the hydrated mass wet or even damp. In practice, an excess of water is used, but this excess is driven off by the heat generated in the slaking or hydrating of the Hme. The object of crushing the product is to produce a larger surface for the action of the water, and, moreover, large lumps would be rather unwieldy in the hydrater. The lime comes from the hydrater as a fine, dry powder, which must be screened to remove any coarse or overburned lime that would not slake. From the screens it goes to the storage bin, where, if the capacity is available, it is at some plants allowed to age for 30 days. Finally, the product is fed into bags for shipment. The equipment of the hydrating plant generally includes two elevators, one to take the Hme from the crusher to the bin over the hydrater and one to take the hydrated lime from the hydrater to the storage bin. Most mills include, also, a machine for grinding the oversize from the screens. This material consists of unburned stone, overburned lime, lime which is not fully hydrated, and even pieces of brick from the kilns, and coal ashes. When ground, the tailings may be sold for fertilizer. The methods of manufacture most extensively employed in thi? country are the batch process, the continuous process, and modifications of these two processes. LIMESTONE. In addition to that used in making lime, limestone is produced in Florida for other purposes as follows : Broken limestone used for railroad ballast, concrete and road material, and ground limestone for application to soils. A limited amount of limestone was probably also used in building, although not reported. The quantity of limestone produced for the various purposes mentioned are as follows: Railroad ballast, 93,750 tons, valued at $37,500; concrete, 123,506 tons, valued at $72,432; road material, rock valued at $156,589; ground for application to soils, 16,908 tons, the total production amounting to $156,589.00. The following is a list of firms reporting the production of limestone in Florida during 1913:
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40 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Blowers Lime and Phosphate Company, Ocala, Florida. ' Crystal River Rock Company, Crystal River, Florida. Florida Lime Company, Ocala, Florida. Marion Lime Company, Ocala, Florida. E. P. Maule, Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Palm Beach County, West Palm Beach, Florida. Standard Lime Company, Kendrick, Florida. BUILDING STONE. The building stone of the State consists chiefly of hmestones, of which several varieties occur. Coquina: — The coquina rock of Anastiasia Island near St. Augustine has been known as a building stone for more than three hundred years. This coquina was in fact the first stone used for building purposes in America, its use having begun with the settlement of St. Augustine about 1565. Coquina consists of a mass of shells of varying size or fragments of shells cemented together ordinarily by calcium carbonate. A small admixture of sand is in some instances included with the shells. When first exposed the mass of shells is imperfectly cemented and the rock is readily cut into blocks of the desired size. Upon exposure, however, the moisture contained in the interstices of the rock evaporates and in doing so deposits the calcium carbonate which it held in solution, thus firmly cementing the shell mass into a firm rock. Thus indurated the resisting qualities of the rock are good. The shells from this formation have been extensively used with concrete in the construction of modern buildings at St. Augustine. Aside from its occurrence on Anastasia Island coquina is found at many other points along both the east and the west side of the peninsula. Vicksburg Limestone : — The Vicksburg limestone has been used to some extent for building purposes. This is true especially of that phase of the Vicksburg known as the "chimney rock" described in the preceding reports as the Marianna and the Peninsular limestones. The chimney rock when first taken from the ground is very soft and can be easily sawed into blocks. Upon exposure to the air it hardens, due, as in the case of the coquina, to the evapn oration of moisture 'from the interstices of the rock. The chimney rock was early used both in Alabama and Florida for the construction of chimneys and to some extent for building purposes. Locally the Vicksburg and some of the other limestones in Flor-
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES LIME AND LIMESTONf. ^I ida become very close grained and compact. In this condition the hmestone is hard, approaching marble in appearance. Although little used this phase of the limestone formation is capable of producing a good building stone. Miami Oolite : — The Miami oolitic limestone has been used successfully as a building stone at Miami. This formation extends for some distance along the eastern border of the Everglades north and south from Miami. As in the case of the other limestones when first taken from the quarry it is relatively soft and easily worked, but hardens upon exposure. The court-house, Halcyon Hall hotel and some other buildings at Miami are constructed of this rock. The limestones of the Everglades of Florida constitute a resource that will become valuable as that section of the state is developed. In this connection may be included a brief paper on the geology of this interesting region, prepared originally for the State Drainage Commission, in which is included descriptions and analyses of the several limestones that are found underlying the Everglades. In making the examination of the exposures along the canals and in Lake Okeechobee, May 19 to 23, 1914, a small launch was used, placed at the writer's disposal through the courtesy of the Chief Engineer of the State Drainage Commission. THE GEOLOGY OF THE EVERGLADES OF FLORIDA. The developments that are now in progress, and particularly the extensive excavations that are being made in connection with drainage operations, are rapidly opening up new territory in southern Florida, affording the opportunity of making important additions to our knowledge of the geology of that part of the State. The canals from the Caloosahatchee River on the west, through Lake Okeechobee, and thence through the Everglades to New River and Miami on the east give almost complete exposures of the underlying formations across the Everglades, the geology of which was until recently practically unknown. In fact the geologic observations previously made were confined to the borders of the Everglades or to the banks of the streams leading out to the east, south and west. Among these early observations were those of Buckingham
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42 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Smith, who in 1847 examined the oolitic limestone in the vicinity of Miami and along the Miami River. The locality was subsequently visited by Agassiz, Tuomey and others of the early geologists, and the age of the rocks correctly determined as Pleistocene. The limestones bordering the Everglades west of Palm Beach and at the extreme southern end of the peninsula were examined in 1908 by Samuel Sanford, supplementing similar investigations made in 1887 by Joseph Wilcox, and together with the rocks found west of Palm Beach, were described in the Second Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey. The limestone west of Palm Beach v/as there designated as the Palm Beach Limestone, while that found bordering the Gulf coast at the southern end of the Everglades was named the Lostman's River Limestone. On the west side of the Everglades along the Caloosahatchee River there is found a shell marl formation of Pliocene age first described in 1887 by Angelo Heilprin and known as the Caloosahatchee marl. This marl, remarkable for the number, size and excellent preservation of the fossil shells which it contains, disappears from view beneath later formations at Fort Thompson near the head of the Caloosahatchee River. The formations lying above the Caloosahatchee marl at Fort Thompson consists of hard and soft limestones, shell and clay marls. The principal limestone seen at this locality is a hard almost flinty rock containing an abundance of the fresh-water snail, Planorbis. Both above and below this limestone stratum, are shell marls, some of which are of fresh-water and some of marine origin. The most persistent of these marls is a shell stratum resting directly upon the limestone and having a thickness of about two feet. The predominating fossil in this stratum, the small Chione cancellata, is a species which prefers shallow water, frequently living between low and high tide. Above this marine shell marl is a fresh-water clayey marl which contains an abundance of the remains of the pond snails. These deposits in which marine marls alternate with fresh-water marls and limestones indicate that at the time of their formation this part of Florida was being gradually elevated above sea. The elevation of the land area as is usual in such cases, progressed slowly with minor fluctuations, permitting the formation of fresh and brackish water lagoons, in which the fresh-water marls accumulated, then by a minor subsi-
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES LIME AND LIMEiTONE. 43 dence the ocean waters were allowed once more to come in, the marine shell marls being deposited during this time. The general upward movement, however, continued, the whole area being finally lifted to its present height of from lo to 20 feet above sea level. This exposure at Fort Thompson affords the key to the study of the formations extending to the east and underlying the Everglades, in which the limestones and marls of this type are widely distributed. In following up the canal from Fort Thompson these limestones and marls are seen in the canal banks for a mile or so where all except the upper freshwater marl drop below water level. That they are still present, however, is shown by the quantities of shells that have been thrown out by the dredge. At Coffee Mill Hammock, about 8 miles above Fort Thompson, a slight fold or anticline brings the rock to the surface, and for a few miles the limestone and marl are again seen in place in the banks of the canal. It is worthy of note also that at this locality the dredge cuts entirely through the overlying deposits and brings up the Oaloosahatchee marl from beneath., showing the eastward extent of that formation beyond the locality at which it disappears from view in the river bank. Beyond the Coffee Mill Hammock cut. limestone and marls are occasionally reached by the dredge. A considerable mass of shells has been taken from the canal just above Citrus Center Landing, while within three miles of Lake Hicpochee a rather heavy limestone comes to the surface. Within Lake Okeechobee there is a reef of rock extending in a general northwest-southeast direction between Observation and Rita islands. At a point about 5 miles southeast of Observation Island the rock of this reef now stands above water at intervals for a mile or so, the maximum exposure at the present low water stage being about two feet. At the surface this limestone is quite hard, or is streaked in a characteristic manner with alternate hard and soft layers. Beneath the surface, however, the rock is a rather soft oolitic marl or limestone of granular texture and light yellow color. The hard phase of this limestone is much like the limestone found in the canal three miles west of Lake Hicpochee, while a thin stratum of a similar limestone is found near the surface at Coffee Mill Hammock. A few pieces of the marl phaSe of this
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44 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. limestone seerrn -also to have been brought up from the lake at the entrance of the north New River canal. The following analysis of a composite sample of the hard and soft phases of this limestone, as well as the other analyses given in this paper, was made by the State Chemist from samples taken for the purpose by the writer. The rock in Lake Okeechobee, as is seen from this analysis, is slightly phosphatic, this being the only phosphatic limestone as yet reported from the Everglades. Analysis of Limestone from Lake Okeechobee. Per cent Calcium Oxide, 42.76%, equivalent to Calcium Carbonate 76-37 Magnesium Oxide, 0.35%, equivalent to Magnesium Carbonate 0.70 Phosphoric Acid, 0.85%, equivalent to Tricalcium Phosphate 1.85 Insoluble matter, silica, etc 21.14 From the canals leading out of Lake Okeechobee to the south and southeast for a distance of about 25 miles very little rock has as yet been removed. Such fragments as are seen along the canals, however, represent very hard compact fresh-water limestones. On the North New River canal dredging of the heavy limestone begins about 26 miles from Lake Okeechobee. The rock cut through on this part of the canal consists of a very hard, compact, closegrained limestone which breaks with a sharp fracture and will evidently make valuable concrete material. The same limestone is cut into on the South Canal at 24 miles from the lake. The very hard phase of this rock is a fresh-water liijiestone. As found on ' the banks of the canal, however, marine and fresh-water limestones and marls are intermixed, indicating that here as elsewhere the formation includes alternating fresh-water and marine deposits. While the shallow-water shell, Chione cancellata, occurs here as at Coffee Mill Hammock, the predominating fossil in the Everglades is the estuarine and shallow-water form, Rangia cuneata, together with corals and other forms that inhabit shallow marine water. Pieces of this hard limestone are found on the North New River canal as far as 42 miles from the Lake, although for the last three or four miles of this distance the heavy limestone stratum gives place largely to marls. The following is an analysis of a sample of this rock from the South New River canal, 25 miles south of Lake Okeechobee.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES LIiME AND LIMESTONE. 45 Analysis of limestone from 25 miles south of Lake Okeechobee. Per cent. Calcium oxide, 44.68%, equivalent to calcium carbonate 79.8o Magnesium oxide, 0.38%, equivalent to magnesium carbonate 0.76 Phosphoric acid trace Insoluble, silica, etc ; 1 7.90 Another limestone, seen on the North New River canal, is cut into by the dredge at a distance of about 42 to 52 miles from Lake Okeechobee. This limestone is granular and more or less distinctly oolitic in structure and is not so hard as that seen nearer the Lake. The surface of this rock becomes very rough on exposure, presenting a characteristic matted appearance. This rock is seen in the canal to within 9 miles of Fort Lauderdale (52 miles from Lake Okeechobee). The following is an analysis of a sample of this rock from the North New River canal, 13 miles from Fort Lauderdale. Analysis of limestone from the North New River Canal. Per cent. Calcium oxide, 39.88%, equivalent to calcium carbonate 71.23 Magnesium oxide. 0.20%, equivalent to magnesium carbonate 0.40 Phosphoric acid trace Insoluble, silica, etc — 26.56 Lying upon this limestone is a stratum of sand which was cut across in this canal for about 3 miles, or from 52 to 55 miles from Lake Okeechobee (9 to 6 miles from Fort Lauderdale), where it passes beneath the Miami oolitic limestone. This latter formation, the Miami oolite, coming inon this canal just above the dock extends east to the Atlantic Ocean. The following analysis was made from a sample of this rock from the North New River canai, 4 miles from Fort Lauderdale. Analysis of Miami Oolitic Limestone. Per cent. Calcium oxide, 42.40%', equivalent to magnesium carbonate 75-73 Magnesium oxide, 0.09%, equivalent to magnesium carbonate 0.18 Phosphoric acid trace Insoluble, silica, etc 23.00 A word as to the substructure of the Everglades is of importance in this connection since from the underlying formations must be obtained the water supply so necessary to the development of the country. As already indicated the Pliocene deposits seen 4
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46 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT, un the Caloosahatchee River probably extend beneath the Everglades to the east. The next older deposits, the Miocene, since they are found exposed along the eastern flank of northern Florida and are believed to have been recognized in deep well drillings on the Atlantic coast, are likewise to be expected underlying southern Florida. The Oligocene deposits, which are yet older than the Miocene, and are extensively exposed to the north and west, may confidently be expected underlying the Elverglades, although at a considerable depth. The older of the Oligocene formations, the Vicksburg limestone, has in fact been recognized in well drillings west, east and south of the Everglades. At Fort Meade, about 100 miles northwest of Lake Okeechobee, the Vicksburg limestone lies at a depth of 410 feet; at Palm Beach on the east, it is found at about 900 feet from the surface, while at Key West, about 100 miles southwest of the Everglades, this formation is buried to a depth of 700 feet. The Vicksburg limestone in particular is mentioned as it is the great water reservoir of the State, from which most of the large wells of peninsular Florida draw their supply. While its depth within the Everglades has not yet been determined, it is sure to be found there, and when drilled into it may confidently be expected to supply the abundant flow of water that is obtained from it elsewhere in the State. From the account that has been given it will be seen that the formations of the Everglades consist of limestones, marls and sand strata, which in general dip to the east. It will also be seen that tlie surface limestones present considerable variation among themselves and are well suited to the general uses of a rapidly developing country, while from the deeper formations will be obtained an abundant water supply for domestic and industrial purposes. MATERIALS FOR MORTAR AND CONCRETE. ^lORTAR. Sands, either siliceous or calcareous, suitable for mortar, occur in practically all parts of Florida. The size Of the sand grains has a bearing on its qualities as a mortar sand. Coarse sand has a smaller surface area in proportion to volume than has fine sand. In order to obtain the best results each grain of sand in a mortar should be thoroughly coated with cement, and it appears probable that the coarse sand owing to its smaller proportion of sur-
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES LIME AND LIMESTONE. 47 6 Fig. /.—Florida Sands. No. i, Alapaha River. Hamilton County; 2, Lake Weir, Marion County; 3, Glendale, Lake County; 4. Suwannee River, Suwannee County; 5, Cedar Keys, Levy County: 6. Crystal River, Citrus County. All figures 4 r-3 times natural size.
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48 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. face area becomes better coated than a fine sand. While a coarse sand is preferable to a fine sand, for certain purposes it may be desirable to have a mixture of coarse and fine grains. The cement used in the mortar must be sufficient to completely fill all voids existing in the sand. The relative proportion of voids may be reduced by the use of a mixture of coarse and fine sands. Such a mixture of sands permits, the use of a relatively smaller amount of cement, and is apparently without detriment to the resulting mortar. Sand is used along with lime in the manufacture of sand-lime brick ; and with cement in the preparation of artificial stone or building blocks. The sands most frequently used for mortar are siliceous. It appears, however, from various tests that calcareous sands are in no way inferior.* In addition to the natural sands ground rock may also be used. A small amount of clay, not exceeding eight per cent, is said not to weaken the cement. The presence of humus or peaty matter, or an excess of clay as well as mineral particles of any kind subject to decay, must be guarded against. The accompanying illustrations show the prevailing shape of the sand grains from a number of localities in Florida. The relative size of the sand grains is also indicated, all of the illustrations having been drawn to the same scale. CONCRETE. The materials in Florida suitable for concrete consist chiefly of shell deposits and some compact limestones and of flint rock which may be crushed for the purpose. Shell deposits, both recent and fossil, are numerous in the State. The use of shell from the coquina rock for building purposes has already been mentioned. Among notable buildings from these shells may be mentioned the Ponce de Leon hotel at St. Augustine. The calcareous shell mass as found at this locality may contain a small admixture of siliceous sand blown in by the winds. Recent shell deposits occur at many places along both the Atlantic and the Gulf coasts. Shell mounds piled up bv the Indians are likewise numerous on and near the coast. Some occur inland also, those of the St. Johns River from Jacksonville to Sanford being notable examples. *Sabin, Cement and Concrete, p. 170, 1907.
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Fig. 9. — -View in the pit of the Keystone Brick Company, Whitney, Lake County. Fig. 10. — View in the pit of the Clay County Steam Brick Company, Green Cove Springs. Fig. II. — Plant of the McMillan Brick Company, Molino, Escambia County. 50
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Fig. 12.— Vicksburg limestone, Marianna phase, Jackson County. Fig. 13. — Miami oolitic limestone, Miami, Dade County. FigM-— Limestone exposure showing a mild fold in the strata, at Ft. Thompson, Lee County. 52
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^ ••S^^,
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Fig. 15. — Limestone in Lake Okeechobee between Observation and Rita Islands. Exposed rt low \\ater. Concretionary phase. Fig. t6. — Limestone in the Everglades. On North New River Canal 30V-? miles from Lake Okeechobee. Fig. 17. — Exposnre of the Chattahoochee formation in cut of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad near River Junction. 54
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-• "^li^feWj
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES LIME AND LIMESTONE. 57 . Dcpusits of fossil shells arc likewise numerous, although as a rule less free from impurities than are the accumulations of recent shells. Compact and hard limestones are found at many localities in the state, which when crushed afford desirable material for concrete. As stated under "Building" Stone" local areas of compact and partly crystallized rock are found within the Vicksburg limestone formation which lies near the surface over much of central Florida. The Chattahoochee formation likewise has compact limestone strata, and the rock of this formation is being mined at Live Oak. The limestones of the Everglades which include strata that will serve excellently for concrete have already been described. Flint is chemically an oxide of silicon (Si02), with more or less accompanying" impurities. It is a variety of the mineral quartz, occurring massive and non-crystallized or more accurately ^ery imperfectly crystallized (cryptocrystalline). The term chert is often used interchangeably with flint. Properly chert is an impure flint or flint}^ rock. Flint and chert are lacking in cleavage. They break, as do the other varieties of quartz, with conchoidal fracture. A flint rock when crushed breaks into sharp-cornered pieces of \arving size. Properties: — The mineral quartz, of which flint is a variety, has a hardness of seven on a scale in which the hardest mineral, diamond, is ten. The varieties of quartz vary in hardness slightly according to the impurities that they contain. Silica is one of the relatively insoluble minerals and is very resistant to decay. Occurrence of Flint and Chert in Florida : — Flint and chert occur mostly as masses or "horsebacks" in the limestone formations. A good illustration of the manner of occurrence may be seen in phosphate pits or in some of the pits of the Florida Lime Co.. at Ocala. In some of the sinks on Thompson's farm two miles east of Sumterville can be seen flint masses exposed by the natural decay of the limestone. The flint masses appear to conform to no rule as to size and extent. They may fomi ridges running through the limestone ; or again they may occur as rounded or elongate masses. Occasionally the flint forms as a thin stratum lying horizontally. This flint-bearing limestone lies at no great distance from the surface throughout all of the central peninsular section of the State from Columbia Countv on the north to Sum-
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58 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ter County on the south and from the Suwanee River and the Gulf coast to eastern Alachua and Marion Counties. Aluch of the hard rock phosphate rests upon and in this tlint-bearing Umestone, and from the phosphate pits great quantities of the flint may be obtained. Occasional flint hills such as that near Evinston and Micanopy stand out as evidence of the resistance of flint to the weathering agencies, the surrounding limestone having disappeared through erosion. This flint lies chiefly within the Vicksburg limestones. It is not to be inferred, however, that no other Florida formations contain silica. On the contrary, many of the formations are highly siliceous. The Vicksburg limestones are, however, the chief flint-bearing formations of Florida. ^^^^LJ»^
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES 1' EAT. 59 PEAT. The investigations of the peat deposits of the State made during 1908, 1909 and 1910, b}^ the State Geological Survey in cu-operation with the United States Geological Survey, not only demonstrated that extensive peat deposits are widely distributed throughout the State, but also showed that the fuel value of the Florida peat is well up to the average of that of other countries. The original report on the peat deposits of the State was published in the Third Annual Report of the State Geological Survey,* from which is taken the following table of analyses of Florida peats together with the explanation of the samples and comments on the analyses. The onlv plant mining peat in Florida at present is that of the Ranson Humus Company, Pablo Beach. , Fig. 20. — Peat prairie covering several huirdred acres (locality No. l-i), about a mile northwest of Haines City, Polk County. ANALYSES OF FLORIDA PEAT SAMPLES. The subjoined table shows the percentage of water, mineral matter, volatile combustible matter, fixed carbon, sulphur, and (in a few cases) nitrogen, and the fuel value, of the samples of Florida peat collected by the writer in 1908-1910 and analyzed in the peat laboratory of the U. S. Geological Survey at Pittsburgh, Pa., mostly under the direction of Dr. F. M. Stanton. In the number assigned to each sample the figures before the decimal point indicate the consecutive number of the locality, the first figure after the decimal point the number of the hole from which the sample was taken, and the last figure the number of the sample from that hole. In most cases *A Preliminary Report on the Peat Deposits of Florida, by Roland M. Harper.
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6o FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY^ SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Na COUNTY LOCALITY a p a s 2.12 Leon Gum swamp 5 miles W.N.W. of Tallahassee 1 6 2.2ll " Gum swamp 5 miles W.X.W. of Tallahassee 1 6 4.11 Lake Peat prairie 3 miles east of Tavares 15 (35) 4.12 " Do. ("infusorial earth" bog) 1 6.11 Duval Confluence of Davis and Julington Creeks 12 (30) 8.21 " Do. Dry lump from bank of canal ? 7.11 Santa Ros; Blackwater River swamp near Milton 8 (20i 7.12 " Blackwater River swamp near Milton 4 8.11 Putnam River swamp 1 ih. S. of Palatka, near water 8 20 8.21 " Same, about half-way back to dry land 4 10? 11.11 Osceola Drained prairie bordering lake near Ashton 1 10 12.11 Polk Small lake near Florence Villa 1 2 13.11 " Bog or peat prairie bordering Lake Marianna_8 "20+ 13.12 " Bog or peat prairie bordering Lake Marianna_1 14.11 " Slash-pine bog 2 miles west of Auburndale 6 10 15.11 " Prairie bordering Lake Bony, E. of Laseland-6 20+ 16. Ill Hernando Withlacoochee River swamp near Istachatta — U/i 6 17.1l| Citrus I Margin of L. Tsala Apopka, near Inverness 1 5 18.11 Lake Saw-grass marsh on L. Harris, near Eldorado — 6 10 18.12 " (Saw-grass marsh on L. Harris, near Eldorado__ 1 19.11 " jSaw-grass marsh on L. Griffin, near Leesburg__ 10 12 19.12 " ISaw-grass marsh on L. Griffin, near Leesburg__ 1 19.21 " ' Do. Dry lump from bank of canal ? — _20.11 Hernando Shallow basin in Choocochattee Prairie 1 3? 21.11 DeSoto Xon-alluvial swamp near Nocatee 1 3 22.11 Lake Small grassi" lake near West Apopka 1 2+ 23.11 " Marshes at west end of Lake Dora_-_ 2 4 23.21 " Marshes at west end of Lake Dora 2 3 24.11 Dade Gator-hole in Everglades, near Paradise Ke\' — 1 3? 25.11 " Marly Everglades soil, near same place 1 26.11 " Everglades, near head of Miami River 2 5 27.11 " jMarshes of Miami R. about 2 m. from its mouth 2 4 28.11 " 'Everglades 9 or 10 m. N.W. of Ft. Laviderdale__ 1 (15) 29.11 Lake ISmall peat prairie near Clermont 6 10 29.12 " Small peat prairie near Clermont 1 30.11 Manatee Peaty prairie 2 miles S. of Manatee Sta 2 4 31.11 Sumter Lake marshes near Panasoffkee 10 20 31.12 " Lake marshes near Panasoffkee 4 32.11 " Bayou in cypress swamp near same place 6 12.' 34.11 Lake Marshes of Lake Apopka, near Montvcrde 8 10+ 34.12 " I Do. (cultivated in corn) 1 35.111 " I Along Helena Run, west of Lake Harris 1 3 36.11 Franklin 'Tvtv bav about 2 miles N.E. of Lanark 1 4 37.11 " Deep tyty bay about 1 m. N. of Carrabelle 4 10+ 38.11 " ' Large tyty bay about Vs m. N. of Carrabelle 4 12+ 39.11 Walton Dense tyty swamp just N.W. of DeFuniak Sprs. 1 10 41.1] Polk Large peat prairie 1 m. N.W. of Haines City 4 8 42.11 Madison iLarge marshy prairie 5 m. E. of Greenville IVs ^
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES PEAT. 6l No,
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62 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. only one sample from each swamp or bog was taken, on account of the limited time available. For the same reason nearly half the samples were dug out by hand from a depth of about a foot. The deeper ones were taken with a sampling instrument devised by Dr. Chas. A. Davis, consisting of a number of sections of half-inch iron pipe which could be screwed together, one of them with a short transverse handle at one end, and a brass cylinder nearly an inch in diameter and about nine inches long, which could be screwed to the pipes and pushed down to any desired depth, and then filled with peat from that depth by an ingenious mechanism. This cyhnder had to be filled a good many times to obtain a sufficient quantity of peat for analysis, and in practice each sample was made up from several taken from the same depth within a few feet of each other. The next column after the name of the locality gives the depth from which the sample was taken, and the last column on the first page the maximum depth of peat found in each deposit. In a few cases where this depth was given me by other persons the figures are put in parentheses. The moisture percentage is taken from air-dry samples, and the other determinations were made after the water was eliminated by heating slightly above the boiling point (not enough to decompose or volatilize the peat.). The ash was not analyzed, but it is probably chiefly silica in most cases, though in the samples from Panasoffkee, Helena Run, and the south end of the Everglades it must be mostly lime. The reason for determining the sulphur (which is done more generally for coal than for peat) is that an excess of it would have a corrosive effect on the iron parts of fire-boxes, and might also be olpjectionable if the peat was made into illuminating gas. The percentage of nitrogen gives some indication of the value of the peat for agricultural purposes. The ash, fixed carbon and volatile matter (other than water) together add up to ioo% in each case. The sulphur and nitrogen are part of the volatile matter determined separately. The percentages of ash and fixed carbon added together give the amount of coke which may be obtained from each sample, for in the process of coking enough heat is used to drive ofif all the other ingredients. The fuel value is given in "British thermal units" per pound. A British thermal unit is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, or, to be more precise, from 50° to 51° F. If the fuel value is given as 10,000 B. T. U., for instance, this means that a pound of the material if burned under the most favorable conditions could be made to raise the temperature of 5 tons of water 1°, or i ton 5°, etc.
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MINERAL INDUSTRIES PEAT. 63 •MISCELLANEOUS ANALYSES. A few analyses of Florida peat have been obtained from other sources, as follows : I. Small peat prairie about two miles northwest of Orlando, Orange County. The peat here seems to be at least 15 feet deep, and a few years ago a good deal of it was excavated to a depth of about 8 feet, put through a briquetting machine on the spot, and when dry taken to town and used for fuel in the light, water and ice plant. Analyses taken from U. S. Geol. Surv. Mineral Resources for 1905, p. 1321, and Bulletin 290, p. ]]. In these publicaJ:ions the tixed carbon and volatile matter were given only for air-dry peat, but I have re-computed these two factors on a water-free basis, so that they can be compared with the table above. 2 to 5. Marsh at confluence of Davis and Julington Creeks, Duval County, already described. Samples collected by Robert Ranson in May, 1908, from various depths (of which the records are n^t now available), analyzed by the U. S. Geological Survey, and results communicated to the writer by Dr. Chas. A. Davis. 6. Average of 26 samples from various points in the vicinity of the St. John's River, analyzed for Robert Ranson, and coramunicated by him. His figures were for air-dry peat, but I have re-computed them on a waterfree basis, except the fuel value. 7. Mangrove peat from along east side of Snake Creek, which is the channel between Windly's Island and Plantation Key (or Long Island), Monroe County, near 437 mile-post on Florida East Coast Ry. Taken from about 3 feet below the surface, in mangrove swamp, whose vegetation is mostly Rhizophora Mangle (red mangrove). Peat reddish brown, very coarse and fibrous. Collected in September, 1910, under direction of W. J. Krome. Constructing Engineer of the F. E. C. Ry. Extension, at our request. Analysis by E. Peck Greene, assistant state chemist.
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64 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. the peat itself. (AH the samples which show more than io% of water were collected in April, May or June, and analyzed a month or two later, when the air of the room in which the tests were made was presumably more humid than in winter, on account of artificial heat not being used.) Nevertheless, it is probably safe to say that the Florida peat dries out as well as that from any other part of the world, if not better. The purest peat is No. 29.11, which has only 1.5% of ash. Other samples with less than 5% are Nos. 13.11, 15. n, 29.12, 37.11, 41. 11, 42.11, all of which are from peat prairies or similar situations. (Locality No. 37 I have called a tyty bay, but it is treeless in the middle, and, therefore, has the character of a peat prairie.) The proportion of volatile matter to fixed carbon is nearly 3 to i in No. 19. IX, a coarse saw-grass peat. In nearly every case where it is over 2 to i the peat is coarse and imperfectly decomposed. It runs below 1V2 to i both in good black plastic peat and in some very impure samples, which might be better designated as muck. The sulphur runs highest in estuarine peat, especially in that from Julington Creek (No. 6.21 and miscellaneous Nos. 2-5), and is pretty high in calcareous peat and that from Madison County. There is probably not enough of it to be objectionable in any of our samples, however. It is lowest in the samples from small filled lakes, bays. etc. No. 36.11 contains the least sulphur in proportion to other volatile matter, and No. 39.11 is a close second in that respect. (Both of these happen to be from tyty bays.) The nitrogen determinations unfortunately are too few to warrant much generalization, but in other parts of the world the nitrogen content of peat is rarely less than 1% or more than 3%, and the same seems to hold true in Florida, as far as our information goes. In fuel value our peat compares very well with that in other parts of the world. According to Davis, 5,760 B. T. U. per pound is a good average for wood, 8,500 for pressed peat, and 14,000 for anthracite coal. The average of the 53 determinations given in the above tables is 8,341 ; but if Mr. Ranson's 26 samples combined (miscellaneous No. 6) had been counted separately the average would have been 8,833. Most of our samples (counting miscellaneous No. 6 as only one again) exceed 9,050 B. T. U., two-thirds of them exceed 8,500 (Davis's average), and three-fourths of them exceed 8,341 (our average). The highest fuel value is as a rule in the purest peat. No. 29.11 (the purest) is best in that respect, though No. 16.11. with 15.5% of ash, and no plasticity (and therefore not adapted to be made into briquettes), standi very high in the list. It should be borne in mind that the fuel value given in these tables is on a water-free basis, which is never realized in practice, for peat as used always contains some water, which reduces its fuel value. But the analyses are usually expressed in this way to eliminate differences due to variations in atmospheric humidity.
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 65 PHOSPHATE CONTENTS. Page Introduction 06 'J'he impurities that affect the market value of phosphate rock, their origin, character, and the methods of their elimination in mining.... 67 Minerals of phosphate rock 67 Associated minerals 68 Objectionable impurities 69 The origin of phosphate rock 71 Original source of phosphorus 71 . Solubility of phosphate minerals 72 Reaccumulation of phosphate in workable deposits TZ Round of circulation of calcium phosphate 7Z Compared with calcium carbonate ^ 74 Compared with silica 75 illustrations of method of accumulation of phosphate deposits . . 76 The phosphates of Florida 76 The phosphates of Tennessee 79 The phosphates of the western United States 80 Phosphate deposits from guano • 80 Mining phosphate rock 81 Underground mining 81 Open pit mining 81 Elimination of impurities and preparation for the market 82 Washing 82 Drying 84 Improvements in mining methods 84 'J"he phosphate deposits of the Southern States 86 Production from the Southern States 86 Description of deposits by States 86 ' South Carolina 86 Arkansas 87 Tennessee 88 Florida 89 Kentucky 91 Virginia 92 North Carolina .' 92 Alabama 92 Georgia 93
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66 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY — SIXTH ANNUL REPORT. World production of phosphate rock 94 Northern Africa 94 Tunis 94 Algeria 95 Egypt 95 Continental Europe 96 France 96 Belgium 96 Russia 96 Islands of the Pacific Ocean 97 Islands of the Indian Ocean 98 Islands of the 'Caribbean Sea 98 Production of phosphate rock in Florida during 1913 99 INTRODUCTION. The present paper on Phosphate is largely based on the following papers prepared during the year : ( i j The Impurities That Affect the Market Value of Phosphate Rock, Their Origin, Character, and the Methods of Their Elimination in Mining; (2) Conservation as Applied to Methods of Mining Phosphate ; ( 3 ) The Phosphate Deposits of the Southern States. Of these, the firstmentioned, prepared for the American Institute of Mining Engineers, was given in abstract at the Pittsburgh meeting, October, 1914, and published under the title, "The Origin, Mining, and Preparation of Phosphate Rock" in the September issue of the Bulletin of the Institute, pp. 2379-2395, 1914. The second paper was presented at a meeting of Geologists held at Knoxville, Tennessee, September 19, 191 3, in connection with the National Conservation Exposition. The third paper was prepared for the Atlanta meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.* Although based chiefly on these papers, the present report does not include the exact reproduction of any one of them except the one on the Impurities of Phosphate Rock, which is included here with only minor changes from the original manuscript. ^Abstract in Science n. s.. Vol. 39, p. 401. March 13, 1914.
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THE liMPURITIES THAT AEFECT THE MARKET VALUE OE PHOSPHATE ROCK, THEIR ORIGIN, CHARACTER AND THE METHODS OF THEIR ELIMINATION IN MINING. Phosphate rock, like most other mineral substances, is found in nature in varying degrees of purity. Of the impurities that are present some are constituents of the rock itself; others are inclusions of a foreign substance within the rock; while still others represent merely associated materials or minerals, either clinging to the rock or found in cavities and natural depressions, and hence largely removed in mining. Some of these impurities are distinctly deleterious to the processes of manufacture for which the phosphate is mined, while others, although neutral in action or nearly so, yet by their presence reduce the average grade of the rock and thus add useless bulk to the shipment. It is the object of refined processes of mining to bring the product, as delivered from the mine, to the highest possible grade consistent with the market requirements and demands. This, however, is not accomplished without actual loss in the form of discarded phosphate. It is evident, therefore, that the devising of methods for reducing this loss in mining, and yet maintaining the grade of the rock which the market requires is an improvement in mining methods greatly to be desired by the producers and toward which all are working. THE MINERALS OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. The minerals included under the term "phosphate rock" are the calcium phosphates. Of these, apatite is perhaps the most definite and constant in composition, although of this mineral two varieties are recognized, namely, fluorapatite, Ca5(P04)3F, and chlorapatite. Ca5(P04)3Cl. Moreover, the calcium of this mineral may be partly replaced by manganese, forming yet another "mineral, manganapatite ; or the mineral may become hydrated, forming hydroapatite, which is found as mammillary deposits often not unlike chalcedony in appearance. The term "phosphorite"
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68 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. has been applied to the massive amorphous deposits of phosphate which may be compact, earthy or concretionary. Among other varieties of apatite may be mentioned, staffehte, which contains a small percentage of both iron and aluminum. It is of interest to note also that this variety is believed to result from the action of carbonated waters on phosphorite, and hence is likely to occur incrusting ordinary phosphate rock acted upon by carbonated waters. Another variety, pseudoapatite, contains both sulphur and carbon dioxide.* Of the many other calcium phosphate minerals some closely approximate apatite while others grade into compounds so variable and indefinite in composition as scarcely to be classed as minerals. The deposits of phosphate found in nature evidently contain a number of calcium phosphate minerals, the constituent impurities of which affect the market value of the rock. The aluminum phosphate. wavelHte. should also be mentioned since it is mined to some extent as a source of phosphorus. ASSOCIATED MINERALS. Various other minerals are found associated in nature with the calcium phosphates. This association is sometimes due to actual relationship between the minerals. On the other hand the association of minerals may be purely accidental, or incidental to the manner of formation of the deposits. With regard to the related minerals, it is apparent that where the calcium^ phosphates are abundant, other phosphates are likely also to occur. In fact it is scarcely to be expected that extensive calcium phosphate deposits v^ill be found without the presence of at least a limited amount of other phosphate minerals. This is particularly true of iron nnri aluminum phosphates. These two bases are widely disseminated in niature and, moreover, they combine readily with phosphoric acid to form phosphates. Oi the iron phosphates the mineral vivianite, althoug^h occurring in relatively small quantities, is widely distributed in nature, and may occur in limited quantities in phosphate *Dr. Austin F. Rogers, who is investigating phosphate minerals, states that phosphorite, or phosphate rock, seems to be a mixture of two minerals, amorphous collophanite, largely a solid solution of calcium carbonate in calcium phosphate, and crystalline dahllite, a calcium carbonophosphate with the formula 3Ca3(P04)2. CaC03 analagous to fluorite. The amorphous collophanite gradually changes to the crystalline dahllite. (Personal letter of May 23, 191 4.)
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IMPURITIES OV PHOSPHATE ROCK. 69 deposits, usually as an incrustation, or as an alteration product of other minerals. The iron minerals frequently form in bogs, and it is an observed fact that the phosphate deposits in such localities not infrequently contain more iron than do the same deposits when found on the uplands. In such cases the iron is doubtless a comparatively recent infiltration, and may include phosphates of iron as well as oxides and other iron minerals. Of the aluminum phosphates a large number are known, one of which, wavellite, as already stated, is mined as a source of phosphate. This mineral and others of the aluminum phosphates are likely to occur in association with calcium phosphate. Some of the large phosphate deposits have been formed by the replacement of an original rock by calcium phosphate. In this process parts of the original rock not infrequently remain unchanged or incompletely phosphatized. Since the phosphatizing processes proceed from the surface, the imperfectly phosphatized remnant is likely to lie within the rock, thus giving rise to included impurities that are difficult to eliminate. Moreover, small amounts of clay and silica are usually found in the limestone and as these substances do not readily phosphatize, if not worked out^ they remain as impurities in the rock. Aside from these related minerals, the materials associated with the phosphate rock are varied in character. They include clay, fragments of limestone, flints, gravel, silica in the form of sand, and other resistant materials, the character of which is determined by the manner of formation of the deposits. The associated materials of this nature make up the matrix in which the phosphate rock is imbedded. It is scarcely possible in mining to remove entirely all associated minerals, and the purity of the rock as delivered to the market, is affected, without doubt, by the presence of more or less of these minerals, as well as by the constituent impurities of the rock. OBJECTIONABLE IMPURITIES. Of the impurities contained in or associated with phosphate rock, the most objectionable in the processes of manufacture of acid phosphate for fertilizers, for which purpose the phosphate rock is almost wholly used, are iron and aluminum. For this reason practically all phosphate mined is sold under a guarantee that the 5
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70 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. combined iron and aluminum expressed as oxides, dO' not exceed a given small percentage of the whole, from 2 to 4 per cent being allowable. Iron when present in excess of about 2 per cent brings about reactions which result in the formation of a gelatinous substance injurious to the mechanical condition of the mixture, occasioning also a loss of soluble phosphoric acid. A first step in the reaction with the iron is probably as follows : 2FeP04+3H2S04= 2H3P04+Fe2( 504)3. Of the sulphate of iron thus formed, a part according to Fritsch*, reacts on acid phosphate of lime, thus forming the objectionable gelatinous precipitate. Owing to the demand of calcium sulphate for water, hydrated iron phosphate, which is a product of these reactions, may subsequently become dehydrated and insoluble, thus causing the loss of available phosphoric acid. Aluminum, existing as a silicate in phosphate rock, is likely to be injurious, since, according to Fritsch, if not decomposed by the acid, it may cause a part of the phosphoric acid to retrograde. However, when existing in the rock in small amounts as a phosphate, the aluminum is not supposed to occasion a loss of phosphoric acid, both the hydrated and non-hydrated phosphate being soluble in the precipitated condition in phosphoric acid. Carbonates of calcium, when existing in small quantities in phosphate rock, are beneficial rather than injurious. When the ground rock is treated with acid the carbonate is the first of the ingredients to be attacked, and the heat thus engendered promotes subsequent reaction among the other constituents. Moreover, the carbon dioxide gas, given off from the carbonate, lightens the mixture and facilitates drying. Phosphate rock low in, or lacking, carbonate develops little heat in mixing, and reacts slowly. In such cases this constituent must be added. It is true that the presence of the carbonate necessitates the use of an increased amount of acid, which in turn results in the formation of an increased amount of calcium sulphate or gypsum. The amount of carbonate that is desirable is sometimes given as 5 per cent, but the limits are not strict, and manufacturers do not as a rule find it necessary to specify directly the amount of the carbonate that the rock must or must not contain. Indirectly, however, an excess of the carbonate is guarded against by other *T. Fritsch, The Manufacture of Chemical Manures, p. 79, IQH-
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. /I requirements as to the grade of rock. If it is true, as elsewhere stated in this paper, that the principal mineral of the massive phosphate deposits is a calcium carbono-phosphate, this fact will afford an explanation of the presence of the desired amount of carbonate in all phosphate deposits of this class. The fluorine found in phosphate rock, upon being attacked by the acid, forms hydrofluoric acid gas which passes into the atmosphere, it being estimated that as much as from 50 to 66 2-3 per cent of the fluorine present is eliminated in this way. Although a small amount of acid is used up in this reaction and a proportionate amount of calcium sulphate formed, yet it is seldom, if ever, necessary to specify against the fluorine content of the rock, the amount present being negligible. Among the numerous other impurities that may be present in phosphate rock, silica and clay are perhaps the most common. Here also should be mentioned moisture, which when present not only adds bulk to the shipment but also interferes with the processes of manufacture. The excess of moisture must, therefore, be removed by drying, not more than 3 or 4 per cent being allowable in the rock as shipped. THE ORIGIN OF PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS. The origin of phosphate deposits is such that the presence of associated minerals as well as constituent impurities is almost invariable. The original source of phosphorus, the constituent for which phosphate rock is mined, is in the igneous and crystalline rocks, v^rhere it exists in combination with other elements fomiing phosphate minerals. These minerals, as indeed is true of all minerals, are soluble in water, the degree of solubility, however, varying with the different minerals, and with the diverse conditions to which they are subjected. Indeed, some very interesting and suggestive observations have been made on the relative solubility of phosphates under varying conditions. Thus it has been shown that the solubility of the phosphate minerals is increased by the presence of decaying organic matter in water. They have also been found to be appreciably soluble in carbonated waters. In this connection Reese* has made the very important observation *Chas. L. Reese, Amer. Jour. Sci., 3rd Ser., Vol. 43, p. 402, 1892.
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72 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT, that while the phosphate dissolves freely in waters containing decaying organic matter and in carbonated waters, yet when allowed to stand over calcium carbonate, the phosphate is redeposited. In summing up his observations Reese says : "This experiment shows that phosphates may be transported in hard waters, but on standing on calcareous beds would tend to be given up." In speaking of hard waters the author evidently has in mind waters containing, among other things, carbon dioxide in solution, and his conclusion is that such waters will or may drop the calcium phosphate from solution when they stand over limestone. These observations, if true, have two important corollaries, one of which has been noted by Clarke, (U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 330, p. 443, 1908) namely, that in the presence of the carbonate, the phosphate would probably not be dissolved, while the carbonate could pass into solution, thus leaving the enriched residue of phosphate. The second corollary is that calcium phosphate taken into solution by the soil waters at and near the surface may be thrown out of solution in case the water stands for a time at a lower level in the earth on or over limestones. That this process may have been and probably was a factor in the formation of large phosphate deposits resting upon limestone will be shown in the subsequent pages of this paper. The rain water, in passing through the soil and surface materials, receives organic acids from the decay of vegetable and animal matter. It also receives carbonic acid which is held in solution, the water thus becoming carbonated, and hence more efficient as a solvent. The original rocks and the soils derived from them contain particles of the phosphate minerals, which when acted upon by the ground waters pass slowly into solution. It is through the solution of the mineral, its removal and subsequent redeposition that workable phosphate deposits are formed. When it is remembered that the phosphorus in the igneous rocks amounts to merely a fractional part of one per cent of the whole,* and was without doubt originally widely disseminated, the importance of the processes of concentration of the mineral by ground water and the extent to which they have operated becomes evident. The removal of the mineral from the original rocks and its concentration in later rocks is by no means a simple process. There According to Clarke, Bulletin 330, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 32, 1908, the phosphorus in the lithosphere amounts to only .11 per cent.
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 73 are as a rule many intermediate stages, the load being taken up, dropped again for a time, only to be once more started on its journey. Among the primary results of concentration and enrichment may be mentioned the phosphate deposits of the crystalline rocks, where the mineral is found in veins, being more or less perfectly crystallized as the mineral apatite. Of deposits of this class some, including those of Canada, are of economic importance, and would be more extensively worked were it not that other and more cheaply mined phosphate deposits are available. Of the phosphate taken into solution by the ground water a part is taken up from the soils through the roots of plants, and thus becomes a constituent of the plant life of the earth. From the plants the phosphorus passes to herbivorous animals, and through them to carnivorous animals. Phosphorus thus becomes a constituent of the organic life of the earth. The bones of the vertebrate animals in particular contain an appreciable amount of calcium phosphate. It seems well established also that certain of the important phosphate deposits,' as well as the guano deposits are derived from excrement and remairfs of gregarious animals, particularly birds. It is also true that a part of the phosphate taken into solution by the ground waters is again thrown out owing to changed chemical conditions, and in this way important phosphate deposits are formed. In any case, however, the phosphate may be regarded as only temporarily delayed in its round of circulation. . Ultimately phosphate is carried in solution in the ground waters through springs and rivers to the ocean. While the amount in solution at any one time is relatively small, yet, through the continued operation of this agency over long periods of time, a large amount has been carried into the ocean. The phosphate carried into the ocean is again removed from solution through the agency of organic life, or owing to changed chemical conditions, is precipitated. Of the animals that utilize phosphorus taken from the sea water in the construction of a shell covering or skeleton, the best known perhaps is the brachiopod, Lingula, the shell of a recent species ofwhich has been found to contain 85.79 P^^' cent of calcium phosphate. The test? of the Crustacea, although less distincMy phosphatic than the sheP of Lingula, contain an appreciable amount of phosphate. Thus the shell of a recent lobster was found to contain 3.26 per cent of
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74 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY— SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. calcium phosphate, while the lobster as a whole contained .76 per cent.* The aquatic plants also utilize some of the phosphorus m solution in the water and through them the phosphorus passes to the skeleton of vegetable feeding aquatic animals, and through them in turn to the carniverous animals. The phosphorus taken from solution by chemical action is evidently considerable, since nodules of chemical origin, high in phosphates are found somewhat abundantly in the bed of the ocean. Some of these nodules, reported by Clarke,t contain 19.96 to 23.54 p'er cent of phosphoric acid. The amount of phosphate that finds its way into the sedimentary formations through organic and chemical agencies is thus undoubtedly considerable resulting in the enrichment of certain deposits which, if not themselves workable, at least serve as an important source of phosphate from which by further concentration workable phosphate deposits are formed. In this respect the deposition of calcium phosphate is analogous to that of the related mineral calcium carbonate, although of the carbonate much more extensive deposits accumulate than of the phosphate. The carbonate, as is well known, is not only a much more abundant constituent of the superficial formations of the earth than is the phosphate, but, under the conditions that normally exist on and near the surface of the earth, is also a much more soluble mineral. Moreover it would seem from some of the experiments that have been recorded that when the twominerals occur together the carbonate is taken up by preference, leaving the phosphate, thus giving in effect a degree of selective solubility favoring the carbonate. The carbonate, therefore, is carried in solution by the surface and ground waters in much larger quantities than is the phosphate, and is also apparently readily available as a skeleton-building material. Accordingly the aquatic life of the earth has utilized the carbonate largely in building protective skeletons. This is true not only of the corals and of the mollusks of marine and fresh waters, but also of many other organisms, important among which by reason of their abundance are the unicellular foraminifera. Indeed in such abundance have the organisms with calcareous skeletons flourished, under the favorable con*BulI. 330, U. S. Geol. Siirv., p. 448, 1908. tBiill. 330, U. S. Geol. Sun'., p. 105, 1908.
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 75 ditions that are found in marine waters, that their remains have often accumulated to form extensive and nearly pure limestones. Fresh-water limestones of organic origin are also not uncommon, although of lesser extent and thickness than are the marine formations. Moreover, not only is the carbonate taken from the water through the action of organic life, but owing to changed conditions in both fresh and marine waters it may be thrown out of solution, forming limestone by chemical action. Thus by organic and chemical processes extensive marine and fresh water limestones are formed. Silica (Si02) in its round of circulation in the earth presents some interesting analogies and yet strong contrasts to both calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate. In point of abundance silica exceeds both the carbonate and the phosphate, being by far the most abundant constituent of the earth's crust, making up, according to the estimate of Clarke, 59.79 per cent of the lithosphere.* In point of solubility, on the other hand, silica is much less soluble than calcium phosphate, and under the conditions that ordinarily prevail on and near the surface of the earth, many times less soluble than calcium carbonate. However, by reason of its abundance and the fact that in the form of sand it is ever present in the soil and surface residual materials, it is found in solution in all ground waters, and is present in the waters of the ocean in small although recognizable amounts. Silica is also used to some extent by plants and animals as skeleton-building material, the largest users of silica for this purpose being, among plants, the diatoms, and among animals, the unicellular radiolarians and certain of the sponges. From the skeletons of these organisms a limited amount of silica of organic origin has been included in sedimentary rocks. Silica, however, as a skeleton-building material has not been so extensively used as to result in the formation of large deposits, and aside from diatomaceous earth, usually of local extent, large deposits of silica of organic origin are unusual. The massive accumulations of flint, not infrequently found in sedimentary rocks, are formed by the replacement of the original rock by silica in solution in the ground waters, presenting in this respect an analogy to a similar process which has operated in the formation of certain calcium phosphate deposits. *U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 330, p. 31, 1908.
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76 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. While the round of circulation of phosphate minerals is thus capable of demonstration as a normal process comparable to that of other common minerals, yet the actual processes of the accumulation of large workable deposits of phosphate rock are in many ways complicated. THE FLORIDA PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS. The complexity of origin of the phosphate rock, and the manner m which impurities are included in the formation, is well illustrated by the Florida phosphate deposits. Of these there are two distinct types known respectively as the hard rock and the land pebble phosphates. These differ materially in their location, origin and manner of occurrence. The hard rock phosphates lie in a belt along the Gulf side of the peninsula, extending in a general north and south direction roughly paralleling the Gulf coast for a distance of about 100 miles. The land pebble phosphate deposits are found farther south, lying chiefly in Polk and Hillsboro counties. The hard rock phosphate deposits rest upon a thick and very pure, light-colored, porous and cavernous limestone known as the Vicksburg formation, which is of Lower Oligocene age. At the present time, in that section of the State in which the hard rock phosphate occurs, no formation other than the phosphate itself lies on top of this limestone. It has, however, been demonstrated by the combined observations of several geologists that certain formations, of which only a residue remains, formerly extended across the area that now holds the hard rock phosphate deposits. The formations referred to are the Chattahoochee Limestone and Alum Bluff sands, both of which are* of Upper Oligocene age. These formations are now found bordering the hard rock phosphate area. The proof of their former extent has been given elsewhere and need not be repeated at this time.* The hard rock phosphate deposits are made up largely of the residue of these formations which have disintegrated in situ and accordingly consist of a mixture of materials of the most diverse character including sands, clays, limestone fragments, pebbles and water worn flints, vertebrate, invertebrate and plant fossils; in fact a heterogeneous mixture of *Origin of the Hard Rock Phosphate Deposits of Florida, by E. H. Sellards. Fifth Annual Report, Florida State Geological Survey, pp. 23-80, 1913.
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. yj the relatively insoluble and resistant elements of the earlier formations. The phosphate itself is derived from the Alum Bluff sands, the later and thicker of the two formations that have disintegrated. This formation, the Alum Bluff, in some places reaches a thickness of several hundred feet, and has a large areal extent reaching from west Florida, through northern and central Florida, into southern Florida. Throughout its entire thickness, and throughout its whole areal extent this formation is distinctly phosphatic, although in no instance is the phosphate in this formation sufficiently concentrated to form workable deposits. While these formations, the Chattahoochee and the Alum Bluff, were disintegrating in the area that is now the hard rock phosphate region, the calcium phosphate from the Alum Bluff formation was gradually being taken into solution by ground water and was being redeposited at a lower level in the earth, thus forming the workable hard rock phosphate deposits. In this process the replacement of the original limestone by calcium phosphate was an important factor, and these deposits afford excellent illustration of the formation of phosphate rock by the replacement process, the shells of the original limestone in many instances retaining their form, although changed chemically to calcium phosphate. In addition to replacement, other processes are observed, prominent among whi^h is the formation of the phosphate by precipitation from solution in a manner similar to the formation of calcium carbonate deposits in caves. This process is evidently secondary, and, being now operative, is to be observed in the phosphate boulders themselves, in which all existing cavities are being gradually tilled by the accumulation of calcium phosphate. By this process pinnacles are formed hanging from the roof of the cavities, while succes5i\'e layers of phosphate are spread out over the floor of the cavities. This method of formation of phosphate deposits has given rise to very high grade phosphate rock, the Florida hard rock grading, under present methods of mining, 77 to 80 per cent ti'icalcium phosphate, while individual specimens contain 84 to 85 per cent. While the origin of the hard rock phosphate in its present form is thus clearly evident, there yet remains a large field of investigation to determine the chemical processes by which the phosphate is first taken into solution, and is subsequently redeposited. Some
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78 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. V of these processes, however, are well understood. That normal phosphate is to some extent soluble in soil waters is well established and fully recognized. In the hard rock phosphate section of Florida there is practically no surface drainage, the rain water passing directly into the earth. At a lower level the circulation of the water is interfered with and the water may become stationary or nearly so. The check in circulation is due in some instances to masses and beds of clay which are residual from the disintegrating formations. In any case the movement of the water is checked upon reaching the water line. The relation of the phosphate deposits to the ground water level, and also the evident and probable changes of the water level during geologic time have been discussed in the writer's paper on these deposits previously referreti to. It is thus apparent that there are important changes in the chemical conditions in the earth. Among these may be mentioned the check to the free movement of the water, and the evident mingling of different waters. In this connection the observations of Reese, previously referred to, in which it is shown thit calc'um phosphate in solution in carbonated waters is precipitated when the water stands over limestone, are particularly suggestive. As shown in my earlier papers the hard rock phosphates of Florida are invariably formed directly upon limestone, and need not be sought for elsewhere. Moreover they are thrown out of solution from carbonated waters which pass over and through these limestones, the manner of their formation apparently being entirely in accord with Reese's experiments. The land pebble phosphate deposits of Florida are probably derived, like the hard rock deposits, from the Alum Bluff formation. The processes by which they have accumulated in their present form are, however, strikingly different. While the hard rock phosphates, as has been stated, represent chemical precipitates or replacement deposits, the phosphate having been transported to its present location in solution, the land pebble deposits appear to represent materials which are residual from erosion of the parent formation. The hard rock phosphates occur in sections where the parent formation has entirely disintegrated over limestones; the land pebble deposits, on the contrary, are found as a blanket deposit resting upon, and representing a concentration from the parent formation. It thus follows that the matrix of the land pebble de-
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 79 posits is not necessarily strikingly different from that of the hard rock deposits, except as chemical action has modified the residue, particularly by the formation in many instances of siliceous boulders in the hard rock deposits. The grade of rock produced from the land pebble deposits under the present methods of mining varies from 66 to 74 per ceni tricalcium phosphate^ while individual samples contain from jy to 78 per cent. THE TENNESSEE PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS. As further evidence of the complexity of the origin of workable beds of phosphate, and of the diversity of ways in which the deposits may accumulate, may be mentioned the phosphates of Tennessee. The broAvn phosphates of Tennessee are very evidently formed in situ from phosphatic limestone. Hayes and Ulrich* find that at least four limestone horizons have given rise to brown phosphates in Tennessee. The calcium carbonate from the limestone is more or less completely leached out, and is replaced in part at least by calcium phosphate. f The rock is thus enriched and becomes a workable phosphate. The leaching of the rock usually begins along jointing planes and for this reason unchanged masses of the original limestone in this type of deposit frequently remain as "horses." Two types of deposits are recognized, which are known as "blanket" and "collar" deposits. The blanket deposits are those which extend over a considerable area ; the collar deposits are formed where the phosphatic limestone comes to the surface around the slope of a hill. The collar deposits are necessarily limited in extent, while the blanket deposits may cover considerable areas. The brown phosphates, from their manner of origin, have necessarily accumulated in comparatively recent times. The blue phosphates, on the other hand, are much older than the brown, having accumulated in their present form during Devonian time. It is believed by Hiayes and Ulrich that the blue phosphates were originally formed as residual material from, and *Columbia Folio, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 5, 1903. tSome of the brown phosphate of Tennessee is formed, according to Dr. A. F. Rogers, by replacement of crinoidal limestone by calcium phosphate (Personal letter. April i, 1914.)
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8o FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SUR\EY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. resting upon the Ordovician phosphatic limestones, much as the brown phosphates of the present time are formed. After this residual material accumulated the area was depressed, allowing the sea to cover the limestone. By the action of the waves in shallow water the residual mass was thoroughly washed, the soil and clay material being sifted out and carried away, while the phosphatic material was left to form the phosphate rock as found at present. The sea subsequently deepened, so that shales and other formations were* deposited upon the phosphate. The richest of the blue rock deposits is believed to have been formed from the Ordovician limestone, known as the Leipers formation. This formation is full of the same minute spiral and other shells that occur abundantly in the immediately overlying phosphate rock. Phosphates were formed from Ordovician limestone other than the Leipers formation, but they are of a lower grade and at present not workable. It would thus seem that the blue rock of Tennessee was formed during the interval between the Ordovician and the Devonian, v.'ashed during the Devonian, and in this condition was preserved for modern mining operations. PHOSPHATES OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES. • The extensive phosphate deposits of the western United States are interbedded w'ith sedimentary formations, and to this extent resemble the blue rock phosphates of Tennessee. The rock in these deposits is described as prevailingly oolitic, although an exceptional occurrence is recorded by Richards and Mansfield* in which high grade rock was found to consist of shell fragments regarded by Girty as broken shells of pelecypods. The source of the phosphoric acid and the history of its accumulation in the form in which it is now found in these deposits, if at present obscure, will perhaps upon further investigation become apparent. PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS FROM GUANO. The phosphate deposits of Navassa, a small island in the West Indies, may be mentioned as an illustration of those which are believed to have been formed from guano. In the case of phosphate *BuIl. 470, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 376, 191 1.
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 8l deposits formed from guano, the phosphate is taken in solution by rain water^ and after being carried to a lower level is redeposited, replacing the carbonate of the limestone. The rapidity with which this process may be carried on is illustrated by an instance cited by Dr. Albert R. Ledoux* in which limestone on one of the South Pacific islands was observed to have been changed to phosphate to a depth of several feet within a period of twenty years, the phosphoric acid in this instance being leached by rain water from recently deposited guano. MINING. Phosphate rock is mined either by open pit or by underground mining. Those deposits having a removable overburden are mined by the open pit method, underground mining being resorted to only for deposits interstratified with other formations, so that the overburden cannot be removed. UNDERGROUND MINING. The deposits worked in America by underground mining include the blue rock of Tennessee, the Arkansas deposits, and for the most part the extensive deposits of the western United States, which are as yet but little developed. In underground mining, ordinarily, operations begin at the surface outcrop of the phosphate straturn, the first rock being uncovered by stripping off the overburden. When the overburden can no longer be removed economically, drifts are run into the bank and the phosphate rock removed, support being given to the roof, when necessary, after the phosphate is taken out. This method of mining is similar to that used in mining coal seams. In the Arkansas and Tennessee m.ines the phosphate rock is first drilled and blasted. It is then broken up by pick and loaded into tram-cars to be drawn from the mine. • OPEN PIT MINING. By far the greater part of the phosphate rock produced in America is obtained at present by open pit mining, in which the overburden is first removed from the rock. The purity of the rock, *Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. 9, p. 85, 1890.
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82 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. however, is not materially affected by the methods employed in removing the overburden, and hence it is not necessary to describe these methods in detail. It may be noted, however, that diverse methods prevail, depending upon the thickness and character of the overburden, the magnitude of the operations and the facilities available. Examples may still be found of removal of overburden by pick and shovel, team and scraper, or team and dump cart. It is, however, only a shallow overburden that can be so removed profitably. In the larger mining operations the overburden is removed by steam shovel, by means of which the material is loaded into cars, which are then drawn to the overburden dump; or the overburden is removed b> the hydraulic method, the material being pumped through pipe lines to the overburden dump. Whatever method is employed n limited amount of overburden remains with the phosphate rock and must be separated in subsequent treatment. Removal of Phosphate from the Pit. — It is not necessary in this connection to describe in detail the methods of removing phosphate rock from' the pit, since the purity of the rock is but incidentally affected thereby. It may be said, however, that the phosphate rock is either loaded by pick and shovel on wagons or tram cars to be drawn from the pit, or it is taken up by dredge or by hydraulicking. If taken by the hydraulic method the rock is forced through pipe lines to the washer plant. The character of the deposit determines the methods of removal that may be employed. Where the phosphate is loaded by pick and shovel, such objectionable impurities as siliceous boulders, limestone rock and clay balls are rejected at the pit, and in some mines only the coarse rock is taken, leaving the finer phosphate, clay and sand. As a rule, however, there is no attempt to separate the phosphate from the matrix before removal from the pit. PREPARATION OF THE PHOSPHATE FOR THE MARKET. The phosphate rock mined by the open pit method must be washed and dried. The methods of treatment described in this paper are those followed in America and particularly in the Florida mines. WASHING. The hard rock phosphate of Florida when brought from the pit is dumped onto a grating of iron bars with 2 or 2^^ inch open-
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 83 ings. The fine materials of the matrix pass through while the coarse materials, including phosphate, flint, limestone boulders, and clay balls, are lodged on the grating. The phosphate boulders are then thrown by hand into a rock crusher near by, while the flint and limestone boulders and clay balls are discarded. That part of the matrix which passes the grating together with the rock from the crusher is dropped into a log washer beneath. The practice in the land pebble mines is somewhat different from that followed in the hard rock section, the matrix, as pumped from the pit, being thrown as a rule onto a large revolving tube, known as a separator, punched "hit and miss" with holes one or two inches in diameter. As the separator revolves, the phosphate pebbles, as well as the finer materials of the matrix, fall through the openings and lodge on a screen beneath, while the coarser materials, including sand, rock and clay balls, remain in the separator from which they are carried to the waste dump. From the screen beneath the separator the phosphate rock passes into the log washer. While this is the usual arrangement in the land pebble phosphate mines, yet in some of the newer plants it has been found practicable to omit the separator altogether, the rock from the dump being allowed to enter the log washer after passing over a screen of about 1-16 inch mesh. When the separator is omitted, practically all the matrix from the pit passes through the log washers, and it has usually been found necessary in these plants to install a crusher, which is then placed between the two logs. The larger pieces of bone and phosphate rock, as well as the clay balls, if not disintegrated by the washer, are broken up in the crusher, and the phosphate which they contain is saved. The log washer, through which the phosphate rock is passed, consists of two cylinders or logs placed side by side in a box or trough. A series of blades arranged in a spiral is fastened to each cylinder. The trough is inclined, the phosphate being run in at the lower end, and as the logs are made to revolve in opposite directions, the phosphate rock is pushed forward by the blades, meeting as it goes a constant stream of water. By this means the rock is fairly well washed, the water, carrying all the finer materials of the matrix, escaping at the lower end or in the newer washers through an opening at the side of the trough. Frequently the phosphate rock is passed through a second log of the same type as the first, and in all cases receives a final rinsing while passing over screens.
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84 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. In the hard rock phosphate mines of Florida the coarse phosphate after leaving the rinser is made to pass over a picker belt, which is usually made in the form of a large revolving table. The phosphate rock remains on the picker belt during one complete revolution of the table, being carefully inspected by men and boys stationed around the table. The inferior rock, clay balls, flint and limestone fragments, so far as recognized, are picked out and discarded at this time, thus bringing up the grade of the shipment. In the land pebble mines the phosphate rock from the last washer falls on jig screens, the finer of which are 3-64 or 1-32 inch mesh. From these screens the rock is elevated by endless cup chains to the loading bin. DRYING. After being taken from the pit the phosphate rock must be dried before being marketed. Two methods of drying are in use. The first of these, which is adapted to drying coarse rock, consists in piling the phosphate rock on. ricks of wood. The wood is then burned, thus drying the rock. This method assists somewhat in cleaning, since clay and sand, adhering to the rock, tend after drying to loosen and fall away in subsequent handling. The second method of drying, which is now largely employed, is by the use of heated rotary cylinders through which the rock is passed. The rock is introduced usually at thecool end of the cylinder, and by means of various devices is made to pass through, escaping at the furnace or heated end. Although well adapted to drying small pebble rock, the coarser rock when dried by this method must first be crushed. IMPROVEMENTS IN MINING METHODS. An important factor in the cost of producing phosphate rock is the necessity of discarding the low grade rock, as well as that which cannot be properly cleaned or separated from the minerals with which it is associated. It is encouraging, however, to find that through improved methods of mining the amount of phosphate thus discarded is being gradually reduced, while the grade of rock produced is maintained or advanced. In the modem phosphate mining plants of Florida, practically no phosphate rock reaches the dump except that which will paSs a 1-16, 3-64 or 1-32 inch mesh screen, or is carried out with the overflow from the side opening
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IMPITRITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 85 in the log washer. In Tennessee, where a very considerable part of the brown rock phosphate is in the form of minnte pebbles, settling tanks for saving the small pebble have been introduced in late years, b^rom thq log washer the fine material passes throiigli these tanks^ and much phosphate that was originally thrown into the dump is thus cleaned and saved, and in fact some of the abandoned dumps in Tennessee are now being rewashed by this method. However, notwithstanding these improvements in mining methods a very considerable amount of phosphoric acid in the form of very fine pebble and so'ft phosphate still finds its way into the waste dump.' It is true that a large part of the phosphate that is thus lost is too high in iron and aluminum to be used in the manufacture of fertilizers under existing processes. It is, however, none the less desirable that the phosphoric acid be saved. To this end it is to be hoped that devices for recovering the very fine pebble phosphate may be further perfected, and that new process of manufacture may be developed in which the grade of rock that can be used is not so strictly limited. Fig. 21. — Sample of phosphate illustrating the formation of phosphate by the replacement process. The rock was clearly originally limestone of the Vicksburg formation, the form of the shells being well preserved. The carbonate has been replaced by phosphate, and the rock as shown by analysis is now a high grade phosphate. Natural size. Specimen contributed by H. R. Keyster, of the Dunnellon Phosphate Company, Rockwell, Florida. 6
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86 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. THE PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. The Southern States at the present time are pre-eminently the source of phosphate rock in the United States, the total rock mined elsewhere in America being not more than 10,000 or 11,000 tons per annum. In fact this section contributes fully one-half of the phosphate rock of the world. The production from the United States in 1913 was 3,111,221 long tons, all of which, with the exception of 5,053 tons, was from the southern states.* DESCRIPTION OF DEPOSITS BY STATES. The phosphate deposits of the Southern States are widely distributed. Those states that are actively producing rock are : Arkansas, Tennessee, South Carolina and Florida. At least five other states, namely, Kentucky, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama are known to have phosphates or phosphatic marls of value to agriculture. The Kentucky deposits are being worked to a limited extent, and in former years a limited amount of rock was mined in North Carolina and in Alabama. The phosphates of Georgia have been partially prospected, while those of Virginia are of recent discovery. In preparing an account of these different deposits, the writer has necessarily drawn upon the many excellent papers relating to the phosphate deposits of the Southern States by various writers, to whom he acknowledges his indebtedness. SOUTH CAROLINA. The phosphates of South Carolina Occur as a nodular and pebbly stratum lying upon a phosphatic marl. The phosphate stratum has a thickness of from 6 to 14 inches. The phosphate rock, as seen after being washed, includes light colored irregular pieces, dark bluish black irregular pieces, small flattened black phosphatic pebbles, and phosphatic casts of shells. The overburden at the mine examined by the writer showed a depth of from 6 to 18 feet consisting of residual materials, largely sand and clay. The South Carolina deposits are of much interest as having been the first phosphates mined in America. In fact, the begin*The Production of Phosphate Rock in 1913, By W. C. Phalen. Mineral Resources of the United States, Pt. II, p. 273, 1914.
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IMPURITIES OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 87 ning of mining in these deposits dates almost to the beginning of the use of mineral fertilizers. The first mineral phosphate to be used by the modern methods of treating with sulphuric acid were made in England in 1841, while plans for using the South Carolina phosphates were made as early as i860, and actual mining began in 1S67. The grade of rock produced in the South Carolina fields, for rock properly washed and dried, permits a guarantee of about 60 per cent tricalcium phosphate. The age of the South Carolina phosphates^ as is often the case with this class of deposits, is hard to determine, owing to the mixed character of the beds, for, while the phosphates rest upon the Eocene marl, they are themselves of later date. ARKANSAS. The Arkansas phosphates that are being worked are found as bedded deposits within shales lying between limestones. The overlying formation, the St. Clair limestone, according to Purdue,* is of Silurian age, while the underlying formation, the Polk Bayou Limestone, is of Ordovician age. The shales, within which the phosphate occurs, are believed to be the top member of the Ordovician. The phosphate beds are variable in character, ranging frorn those that are brown and sandy and of low grade to those that on the fresh surface are blue gray, apparently without sand, and of uniform texture and color. Two beds are usually present. The upper bed, the only one being worked, is described by Purdue as a compact, homogeneous, light gray rock. The color is said to be due to small white particles resembling fragments of bone that are thoroughly mixed with a grayish dark material. The gray material is made up of particles of varying size, some so small that they can be seen only with the lens, while others are as large as one-fourth inch in diameter. These particles are more or less angular, some of them distinctly so, making the stone conglomeratic in character. Near the surface exposure of the rock, the lime has been leached out by surface waters and the rock appears black in color. This rock is richer in phosphate than unweathered material. The lower bed of phosphate, which is not being worked, is similar in character to the upper, though darker in color, more com*U. S. Geol. Survey, Bull. 215, pp. 463-483, 1907.
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88 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. pact, and, so far as ol^served, not conglomeratic. The dark color is believed to be due to the smaller amount of white material and possibly to a larger amount of iron and manganese. The two beds are separated by a thin layer of manganese iron ore. In addition to the developed locality more or less phosphatic material occurs as nodules and pebbles in the Devonian shales and sandstones.-'' The phosphate rock that has been produced in Arkansas is said to average about 65 per cent tricalcium phosphate. No phosphate rock was produced in Arkansas during the year 1913.! TENNESSEE. In Tennessee several more or less distinct types of phosphate occur, only two of which, however, blue rock and brown rock, are being mined at present. The blue phosphate occurs as a bedded deposit within, but forming the lowest member of the Chattanooga formation of Devonian age, and resting directly upon Ordovician limestone. The blue phosphates are said to vaiy in grade from about 30 to 85 per cent tricalcium phosphate. Iron and aluminum in the better grade of rock aggregate less than three per cent. The beds vary in thickness from zero to 50 inches, although the bed furnishing high grade rock rarely exceeds 20 inches in thickness. The brown rock of Tennessee is at the present time of greater commercial importance than the blue rock. This rock occurs in irregular deposits lying near the surface and resting on limestone. The overburden consists usually of residual material including clay, some phosphate and a limited amount of sand. Its thickness is extremely variable, although averaging 8 or 10 feet. The phosphate consists of a shelly rock, breaking up into pieces of \'arying size, and of small variegated pebbles which in mass have a dark brown color. Locally the small pebble rock predominates, forming a scarcely coherent mass having a brownish color. A phase of the material, known locally as "muck" dqDosit. consists of a mass of small pebbles, often not exceeding a pin head in size. The underlying limestone has an irregular top surface, and not infrequently projects into the phosphate stratum. The limestone is dense and *The Phosphate Deposits of Arkansas, by John C. Branner, Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans, xxvi, pp. 580-598, 1896. tMineral Resources of the United States, Calendar vear 1913, — part 2, p. 285, 1914.
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PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 8^ has a bluish cast^ and is more or less phosphalic. The age of this underlying limestone is Ordovician. FLORIDA. The phosphate produced in Florida includes, as previously Stated, two kinds, namely, hard rock and land pebble phosphates. The matrix in which the hard rock phosphate is imbedded is extremely variable. The formation includes a mixture of materials from various sources and of the most diverse character, further complicated by pronounced chemical activity within the formation itself. The prevailing phase of the formation is feebly coherent, more or less phosphatic, lig'ht gray sand. Aside from these sands the principal materials of the formatioii are clays, phosphate rock, flint boulders, limestone inclusions, pebble conglomerate, erratic and occasional w^aterworn flint pebbles, vertebrate and invertebrate fossils, and occasional pieces of silicified tree trunks. The gray sands may be observed in every pit that has been excavated in this section. Moreover, from drill and prospect holes •t is known that these sands occur very generally over the inter\-ening or barren area. The sands are of medium coarse texture, the grains being roughly angular. The amount of phosphate associated with these sands is variable. When affected by slow decay and by water, carrying more or less iron in solution^ they become reddish or ochre yellow in color. Lithologically these sands rescm])le closely the gray phosphatic sands of the Alum Bluff formation as seen at the type locality at Alum Bluff, on the Apalachicola River. The clays in this formation occur locally as clay lenses imbedded in the sand, or separating the sand from the phosphate rock, or overlying the phosphate rock. The clays are often of a light buff or blue color. When lying near the surface, however, they often oxidize to varying shades of red. The relative amount of clay in the phosphate-bearing formation increases in a general way in passing to the south. The exposures in the southern part of the area show as a rule more clay than do similar exposures in the northern part of the area. The phosphate boulders seem to have a tendency to group around and to be associated with local clay lenses. Frequently the productive pit gives place laterally to barren gray sands.
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90 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Flint boulders occur locally in this formation in some abundance, and occasionally phosphate pits that are otherwise workable are abandoned on' account of the number of flint boulders encountered. The flint boulders are usually oval or somewhat flattened in shape and are of varying size, some weighing several tons. Some of the boulders are hollow and occasionally the cavity is filled with water ; other boulders are solid, compact and of a bluish color throughout. Limestone inclusions are frequent in this formation. Phosphate rock, although the constituent of special economic interest, nevertheless makes up a relatively small part of the formation. The phosphate in these deposits occurs as fragmentary rock, boulder rock, plate rock or pebble. The boulders are often of large size, in some instances weighing several tons, and must be broken up by blasting before being removed from the pit. It is also necessary to operate a rock crusher in connection with all hard rock phosphate mines to reduce the larger pieces of rock to a size suitable for shipping. The relative amount of material that it is necessary to handle to obtain a definite amount of phosphate is always variable with each pit and with the different parts of any one pit. The workable deposits of phosphate lying within this formation occur very irregularly. While at one locality the phosphate may lie at the surface, elsewhere it may be so deeply buried as not to be economically worked ; while a deposit once located may cover more or less continuously a tract of land some acres in extent, elsewhere a deposit, appearing equally promising on the surface, may in reality be found to be of very limited extent. As to location, depth from surface, extent into the ground, lateral extent, quantity and quality, the hard rock phosphate deposits conform to no rule. The desired information is to be obtained only by extensive and expensive prospecting and sampling. The materials above the phosphate deposits include pale yellow incoherent sand and in some localities clayey sand. The incoherent sands are variable, an average thickness being from 5 to 15 feet, although as much as 30 feet have been observed. In practically all published literature the hard rock phosphates of Florida are referred to as of Vicksburg, Lower Oligocene age, Although resting upon the Vicksburg limestone, the formation is apparently of Pliocene age, for, although fossils older than the Pliocene are present, yet these are derived from the formations that have disintegrated.
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PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. QI The land pebble phosphate deposits of southern Florida are much more uniform in their manner of occurrence than are the hard rock deposits. The phosphate is in the form of pebble rock imbedded in a matrix of clay, sand and soft phosphate. Although variable from place to place the phosphate bed has an average thickness of from 8 to lo feet, its maximum thickness being from 1 8 to 20 feet. The overburden, which consists largely of sand and sandy clays, with local indurated or calcareous ledges, has an average thickness of from lo to 14 feet. The best grade of land pebble rock when properly washed, dried and selected permits a guarantee of 75 or 76 per cent tricalcium phosphate. Other grades on the market range from 62 to 75 per cent. The hard rock phosphates average from 79 to 83 per cent, although selected samples run as high as 84 or 85 per cent tricalcium phosphate. Practically all of the hard rock phosphate mined in Florida is exported, that used in America amounting to not more than 15 or 18 thousand tons per annum. Of the land pebble phosphate produced a little more than one-third is now being exported. KENTUCKY. The phosphate deposits in Kentucky resemble in a general way the brown rock of Tennessee. According to Gardner* the phosphate is in the form of loose rock, consisting of thin plates and finely comminuted material mixed with some clay, the whole being of a dark brown color. The hard rock plates vary from light gray to dark brown and are usually rather dense. These plates vary in size from the granular form up to pieces that weigh several pounds. The deposits as a whole occur in blanket form on limestone and are covered by clay and soil. As in the case of the brown rock phosphate of Tennessee the deposits are extremely irregular both as to thickness and extent. Gardner states that the deposits originate from secondary concentration from the process of weathering of phosphatic limestone. The surface of the underlying rock is irregular and naturally the bottom of the phosphate conforms with it; at some places it suddenly deepens and at others rock horses rise in the phosphate beds. The cover of clay and soil varies from about 2 to more than 10 feet, being thicker on the tops than on the sides of hills and ridges. *Rock Phosphate in Kentucky: Mines and Minerals, Nov., 1912, pp. 207-209.
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92 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. VIRGINIA. The recently discovered phosphate deposits of southwestern Virginia, if not of sufficient grade and quantity to be of economic value, are nevertheless of much scientific interest. The beds, which contain the phosphate nodules and grains, lie near the base of the Devonian, and are a little less than a foot thick. The highest grade rock at this locality was found to contain 54.97 per cent tricalcium pliosphate, although the average of the rock is of somewhat lower grade. While the phosphate was found. at only two localities, the strata with whicli it is associated were traced for a distance of . twenty miles, and it is probable that additional phosphate localities will be discovered.* NORTH CAROLINA. The phosphate deposits of North Carolina lie in a belt extending from the South Carolina line northwestward to the Neuse River. The area is from 15 to 20 miles wide and lies from 20 to 25 miles from the coast. The layer of phosphate rock is said Lo be from 6 to 20 inches thick. The rock occurs in lumps, shading from a light gray to dark green, and varying in size from rocks weighing half -a pound to half a ton or more. Analysis of a considerable number of samples indicated that deposits could be selected that would run from 28 to 57 per cent tricalcium phosphate. Another type of deposits found in North Carolina is that known as conglomerate rock, which was worked to a limited extent from about 1885 to 1899, the rock being ground and applied as raw phosphate to the soil.f This deposit, consisting of coprolites and fish bones has a thickness of from 3 to 5 feet, and in places underlies a limestone or marl. A sample of the conglomerate as a whole was found to contain only 11. 16 per cent tricalcium phosphate, the balance being chiefly calcium carbonate, silica, iron and aluminum, A number of the coprolites from, the conglomerate ground up and mixed, analyzed about 30 per cent tricalcium phosphate. ALABAMA. A small amount of phosphate was mined in Alabama in 1887, although operations • were afterwards discontinued. The phos*Phosphate Deposits in Southwestern Virginia, by George W. Stose, U. S. Geol. Siir. Bull. 540-L, 1913. tU. S. Geol. Survey, Mineral Resources, 1883 and 1884, pp. 788-793.
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PHOSPHATE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 93 phates of this state are found in both the Cretaceous and the Tertiary formations. The Cretaceous strata, extencHng into Mississippi, contain more or less phosphatic material.* 9 GEORGIA. The phosphates of Georgia are found in the Coastal Plain deposits and, although of low grade, are widely distributed.! Fig. 22. — Removing overburden fi-om phosphate rock in Florida by hydranlicking. The overburden as seen in this view, presents the usual condition, consisting of three or four feet of loose light colored sand beneath which is found several feet of clayey and sandy material. The bank is knocked to pieces by the stream of water and after being washed into the sump hole, is pumped to the waste dump. The phosphate stratum which lies beneath is subsequently removed in the same way, being pumped through pipe lines to the washer plant. The phosphate washer and also the waste dump are seen in the background. From this view may be seen also type of country in which the land pebble phosphates of Florida are found. The land is level, or but slightly rolling. The native timber growth, chiefly long-leaf pine, is now largely removed. *The Phosphates and Marls of Alabama, by Eugene A. Smith, Geological Survey of Alabama. Report on the Coastal Plain of Alabama, pp. 449-525, 1895; and Amer. Inst. Min. Engrs. Trans, xxv, pp. 811-822, 1896. tA Preliminary Report on a Part of the Phosphates and Marls of Georgia, by S. W. McCallie, Geol. Surv. of Georgia, Bulletin No. 5-A. 1896.
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94 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. WORLD PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. In the production of phosphate, the United States is easily the leading country of the world, contributing from the well known fields of Florida, Tennessee, South Carolina, Arkansas and the new fields in the western United States approximately 3,000,000 tons of a total world production of between 6,000,000 and 7,000,000 tons. Florida alone, at the present time, contributes over 2,500,000 tons per annum. The statistics for 1911, the latest date of which approximately complete returns are available, show the world production of phosphate to be approximately 6,145,413 metric tons, of which the United States produced 3,102,131 metric tons, or slightly more than one-half.* Aside from the United States, the principal phosphate countries of the world are Northern Africa, including Tunis, Algeria and Egypt; Continental Europe, including France, Belgium and Russia, the latter at present producing but little rock; the South Sea Islands, including Ocean, Naura, Anguar, Makatea and other islands of lesser importance in the Pacific Ocean, and Christmas Island in the Indian Ocean; the Dutch West Indies, including Aruba, Curacao and Lesser Curacao Islands in the Caribbean Sea. In addition a small amount of phosphate rock is produced in Canada, Australia and South Africa, while from a number of other localities, both on the continents and on the Islands of the Sea, discoveries of phosphate rock are reported, some of which, without doubt, will be found to be of commercial importance. ^ NORTHERN AFRICA. TUNIS. Tunis, a small province in northern Africa bordering the Mediterranean Sea, owned by France, leads among foreign countries in the production of phosphate rock. The companies operating in these fields during 1912 were as follows: Compagnie des Phosphates et du Cheminde Fer d Gafsa; Societe des Phosphates Tunisiens ; Compagnie des Phosphates du Dyr ; Societe anonyme des Manufactures des Glaces et Produits chimiques de St. Gobain ; Societe Franc, d' Etudes et d' Exploitation des Phosphates en Tu*The Production of Phosphate Rock in 1913, by W. C. Phalen, Mineral Resources of the United States. Calendar year 1913 — Part 11, p. 279, 1914.
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WORLD PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 95 nisie; Societe de Phosphates de Maknassy; Societe Franc, des Phosphates de Gouraya; La Ploridienne, J. Buttgenbach & Co. Of these companies, the first named, Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa, is by far the largest, having produced during 1912, 1,312,378 tons. This company at the present time is without doubt, in point of production, the largest phosphate company in the world. The other seven companies named produced 578,359 tons, making a total of 1,890,737 tons exported from Tunis during 19 12, almost all of which is shipped to the European countries. ALGERIA. Algeria is also a French province in northern Africa bordering the Mediterranean Sea immediately west of Tunis. The phosphates of Algeria are found in the vicinity of Setif and Tebessa. The deposits of Kouif at Tebessa near the Tunis border include five beds from 60 centimeters to 3 meters thick ( approximately 2 to 10 feet), separated by lime strata. Of these beds three are worked, the mining being done in part by open pit and in part by drift mining. The phosphate rock from these beds grades 63 to 70 per cent tricalcium phosphate, iron and aluminum i per cent. Among the companies operating in Algeria during 191 3 are the following: Compagnie des Phosphates de Constantine; Compagnie des Phosphates du M'Zaita; Compagnie Centrale des Phosphates; Compagnie Algerienne des Phosphate de Tocqueville. The total shipments of phosphate from Algeria during 19 13 amounted to 461,030 tons^ all of which, aside from a small amount sent to Japan, were consigned to European countries. EGYPT. Phosphate is known in a number of localities in Eg)^t, although actual mining is being carried on at present in only two districts, namely, the Safaga and the Sibaia Deserts. The phosphates are found in sedimentary strata belonging to the uppermost part of the Cretaceous system. The total shipments from Egypt during 19 13 amounted to 96,958 tons, all of which was exported, going chiefly to China and Japan.* The exports for 19 13 were 64,160 tons. *A brief note on The Phosphate Deposits of Egypt, by John Ball, D. Sc. F. G. S. Survey Department Paper No. 30, Government Press, Cairo, Egypt, 1913.
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96 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. The grade of rock produced in the Safaga mines by the Egyptian Phosphate Company admits a guarantee of from 65 to ^2 per cent of tricalcium phosphate; calcium carbonate 8 to 12 per cent; iron and ahiminum 2 per cent. CONTINENTAL EUROPE. FRANCE. France has long Ijeen a phosphate producing country and, although the production has never been large as compared with some other countries, yet deposits are known and worked at many and widely separated localities. One of the principal centers of production is that of Pas de Calais, where the phosphate occurs as mamillary masses and nodules in the Cretaceous strata, varying in grade, but averaging about 50 per cent tribasic phosphate of lime. The phosphates at Beauval in the Somme are exceptional in their manner of occurrence, being found as sand pockets in the surface of the rock. Originally this sand, analyzing upon drying 75 to 80 per cent tricalcium phosphate, was used in mortar, its phosphatic nature not then being known. The production of phosphate and phosphatic chalk in France during 1911, the latest date for which statistics are available, amounted to about 380,000 tons. BELGIUM. Belgium has extensive deposits of phosphate rocks, which, however, are of rather low grade. The rock found around Liege and Mons, near the French border, contains about 50 per cent tricalcium phosphate. In the vicinity of Vaudour somewhat richer phosphates are found grading about 60 per cent tricalcium phosphate. The production from Belgium in 191 1 was 196,780 tons. RUSSIA. Phosphates are known to exist over a wide extent of territory in Russia, deposits of commercial value being found in southern central and northern European Russia. The deposits of southern Russia are found near the Austrian frontier in Bessarabia and Podolia. These phosphates lie in schists and are mined chiefly by underground mining. The Podolia phosphate grades about 75.3 per cent tricalcium phosphate. Extensive phosphate deposits, as yet but little developed, are found in central Russia. Mining has
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WORLD PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 97 been carried on only to a very limited extent in the northern and central regions, and that by the open pit method. The total production of phosphate in Russia during 191 1 was 10,200 tons, of which Podolia produced 9,899 tons, Bessarabia 154 tons, and Kurtz in the central region 147 tons. ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN. Phosphate rock is obtained from a number of islands of the Paci-fic Ocean, the largest producers at present being Ocean, Naura, Anguar and Makatea islands. The shipments from these islands go chiefly to Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and China, although, owing to the high grade of the rock, a considerable demand is found in European countries. Ocean Island — Ocean Island, an English possession in the Gilbert group in the Pacific Ocean (Lat. o degrees, 52 minutes south; Long. 169 degrees, 35 minutes east), although less than 1,500 acres in extent, contains important phosphate deposits. The phosphate on this island, a surface deposit, is mined by open pit mining^ and is dried in cylinder dryers. The water around the island being shallow, the rock is necessarily transported by small boats to the steamers. Naura — Naura, a German possession belonging to the ]^Iarshall Islands, lies 160 miles northwest of Ocean Island. The phosphate of this island is found resting upon and filling up irregularities in the top surface of a dolomitic limestone, and grades 86 to 87 per cent tricalcium phosphate. In mining, the rock is shoveled into buckets, which, when filled, are lifted and carried by cable to the railroad track. The deposits of these two islands are worked by the Pacific Phosphate Company, Ltd. The output, amounting to about 250,000 tons a year, is shipped to Japan^ Australia, and New Zealand, as well as to the European countries. Anguar — Anguar, one of the Pelew Islands of the Carolina Group in the Pacific Ocean east of Japan, produced in 191 1, 41,000 tons of phosphate which grades about 80 per cent. The deposits of this island are worked by a German company. The Deutsche Sudsee Phosphat-Gesellschaft. This company is said to have exported 90,000 tons of phosphate, chiefly from this island, during 1913Makatea — From Makatea, one of the Paumotu Islands of the
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g8 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Society Group and a French possession, there were shipped during 19 1 2, 17,207 tons. This rock is mined by a French Company, Compagnie Francaise des Phosphates de L'Oceanie, and grades as high as 81 per cent tricalcium phosphate, iron and aluminum onehalf per cent. ISLANDS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. Christmas Island — Christmas Island, which lies south of Java, in the Indian Ocean, has in recent years become an important phosphate producer. The rock is of high grade with low content of iron. The deposits are worked by an English company, the Christmas Island Phosphate Company. The amount shipped during 191 3 was 150,005 tons. ^'i'l ISLANDS OF THE CARIBBEAN SEA. The islands of Curacao and Aruba and Little Curacao, belonging to the Netherlands, lying in the Caribbean Sea, off the coast of Venezuela, contain phosphate deposits. The amount of rock shipped by the Aruba Phosphate Company during 19 12 was 20,262 tons. This rock grades 70 to 75 per cent tricalcium phosphate; iron and aluminum 3/^ to 4^ per cent. The phosphate on this island is obtained mostly from subterranean caves. The phosphates of Santa Barbara in the southern part of Curacao, the mining of which has been recently renewed^ grade 80 to 86 per cent tricalcium phosphate. The grant to exploit the deposits on Little Curacao is held by an American Company. During 191 1 about 2,000 tons, grading 50 per cent tricalcium phosphate, was shipped from this island. Exact figures as to the production of phosphate rock for many of the foreign countries are not yet available. However, from the data that have been given, it is evident that the world production of phosphate during 19 13 approximates six and one-half million tons.
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WORLD PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK. 99 PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK IN FLORIDA DURING 1913.* STATISTICS ON PRODUCTION COLLECTED IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. The production of land pebble phosphate in Florida, which has steadily increased during the past several years, showed a further gain during 191 3, the output having for the first time exceeded two million tons. The production of hard rock phosphate, on the contrary, showed a slight decrease, having fallen slightly below onehalf million tons. However, notwithstanding the decline in hard rock mining, the total production for the State during 19 13 was greater than that for any preceding year, having exceeded two and one-half million tons, with a valuation in excess of nine and onehalf million dollars. The total shipments of phosphate rock during 19 13 as reported by the producers was 2,545,276 long tons, of which 2,055,482 tons were land pebble, including a small consignment of river pebble, and 489,794 tons were hard rock phosphate. The river pebble included with these shipments represents rock on hand from previous years, as no river pebble is being produced at present. The exports of phosphate rock from Florida to foreign countries during 19 13 as shown by returns from the various shipping points, amounted to 1,364,296 tons, from which it appears that slightly less than onehalf of the phosphate mined in Florida during 1913 was consigned for use within the Unit.ed States. The rock consigned for domestic use is almost wholly land pebble phosphate, practically all of the hard rock being exported. The record of the export shipment is from the American Fertilizer of January 24, 1914. Pebble phosphate from Florida sold at the mines during 191 3 at $2.75 to $4.00 per ton according to grade, while the hard rock phosphate sold at $4.00 to $5.00 per ton. The actual value of the phosphate shipped from Florida during 1913 approximates $9,563,084. *Press Bulletin No. 5, Florida State Geol. Survey. Production of Phosphate Rock in Florida During 1913, hy E. H. Sellards, Issued May 20, 1914.
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lOO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Thirty companies in all were engaged in mining phosphate in Florida during 19 13. Of these sixteen companies were mining pebble phosphate, while fourteen were mining hard rock phosphate. The accompanying list is complete for all phosphate companies that operated in Florida during 1913: PHOSPHATE COMPANIES OPERATING IN FLORIDA DURING I9I3. Amalgamated Phosphate Co 25 S. Calvert St., J^^ltimore, Md., and Chicora, Fla. Armour FertiHzer Works Bartow, Fla. P. Bassett (Successor to Central Phosphate Co. ) Newberry, Fla. Peter B. and Robert S. Bradley 92 State St., Boston, 'Mass., and Floral City, Fla. J. Buttgenbach & Co Holder, Fla. Camp Phosphate Co Ocala and Dunnellon, Fla. Charleston, S. C, Mining and Manufac• • turing Co Charleston, S. C, and Ft. Meade, Fla. Compagnie Generale des Phosphates de la Floride Paris, France, and Pembroke, Fla. Coronet Phosphate Co Lakeland, Fla., and 99 John St., New York. Cummer Lumber Co Jacksonville and Newberry, Fla. The Dominion Phosphate Co Bartow, Fla. The Dunnellon Phosphate Co Rockwell, Fla. Dutton Phosphate Co Gainesville, Fla. Florida Mining Co 165 Broadway, New York, and Mulberry, Fla. Florida Phosphate Mining Corporation Norfolk, Va., and Bartow, Fla. Franklin Phosphate Co Newberry, Fla. Holder Phosphate Co Ocala and Inverness, Fla. International Phosphate Co 27 State St., Boston, Mass., and Ft. Meade, Fla. Interstate Chemical Corporation Charleston, S. C, and Bowling Green, Fla. Istachatta Phosphate Co Istachatta, Fla. Mutual Mining Co Savannah, Ga., and Newberry, Fla. Palmetto Phosphate Co Baltimore, Md., and Tiger Bay, Fla. The Phosphate Mining Co 55 Johns St., New York, and Nichols, ' Fla. Pierce Phosphate Co 2 Rector St., New York, and Pierce, Fla. Prairie Pebble Phosphate Co 165 Broadway, New York, and Mulberry, Fla. Schilmann & Bene Ocala, Fla. Societe Franco-Americaine des Phosphates de Medulla (Successor to Standard Phosphate Co.) Christina, Fla. I
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PRODUCTION OF PHOSPHATE ROCK IN FLORIDA. lOI The Southern Phosphate Development Co Ocala and Inverness, Fla. State Phosphate Co Bartow, Fla. T. A. Thompson Xeals, Fla. In addition, The Export Phosphate Co., Mulberry, Fla.^ The Lakeland Phosphate Co., Lakeland, Fla., and The Acme Phosphate Co., Morriston, Fla., have organized and are expecting to mine during 1914. Fig. 23. — Sand-clay road, Tallahassee, Bellair road leading into Tallahassee from the south. ROAD MATERIALS. The road materials of the State include chiefly the limestone, marl, and shell deposits, the flint, chert and gravel, and the sandy or road-making clays. The production of road materials can scarcely be estimated. The sandy clays in particular are used locally, no record being kept of the amount handled. The calcareous and siliceous materials find more general usage, the production and value being frequently reported. The value of this class of roadmaking material is recorded, so far as obtained under the headings "Limestone" and "Gravel." At the close of 191 2 the total mileage of improved roads in Florida was approximately 2,848 miles. Of this number 857.8 miles are surfaced with marl or crushed stone; 1,408.75 are surfaced with sand-clay; 218 miles are surfaced with shell; 5.2 miles 7
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I02 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. with cement; 26.5 miles with gravel; .4 mile with asphalt, and 8.5 miles with brick. These statistics are for the year 1912, the reports for the succeeding years not being sufficiently complete to justify publication. It is known, however, that the total mileage of improved roads in Florida was materially increased during 1912 and 1913. This applies particularly to the brick roads, several counties, among which are Duval, Hillsboro, Orange, St, Johns and Seminole counties, being now actively engaged in building paved brick roads along the important highways of travel. In addition to the funds available from regular and special taxes, the following counties have issued bonds for road improvement : Alachua, $40,000; Columbia, $40,000; Dade, $250,000; DeSoto, Punta Gorda, special district, $200,000; Duval, $1,000,000; Hernando, $300,000; HillsborO', $400,000; Jackson, $300,000; Manatee, $250,000; Nassau, $60,000 and $180,000; Palm Beach, $200,000; Palm Beach special district No. i, $85,000, special district No. 2, v$6o,ooo; Pasco, special district No. i, $150,000, special district No. 2, $65,000, special district No. 3, $30,000; Pinellas, $370,000; Putnam, $155,000; St. Johns, $30,000 and $650,000; Seminole, special district No. i, $200,000; St. Lucie, $200,000; Suwannee, coupon warrants, $20,000; Walton, $70,000. In addition to the regular and special annual road taxes, Florida has thus issued during the past few years road bonds to the value of over five million dollars. SAND AND GRAVEL. The sand produced in Florida is used chiefly for building purposes, although a limited amount is used as moulding sand. The gravel produced finds its chief use for road-making and road ballast. The total production of sand and gravel for 19 13 was 87,061 tons, valued at $21,194.00. Of this amount 66,835 short tons, valued at $11,104.00, was gravel, the balance being sand of the grades mentioned. The companies reporting the production of sand and gravel in Florida during 1913 are the following:
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SAND-LIME BRICK. IO3 Atlantic Coast Line Railroad Company. Interlachen Gravel Company, Interlachen, Fla. Lake Wier Sand Company, Lake Wier, Fla. Logan Coal and Supply Company, 866 East Bay St., Jacksonville, Fla. W. E. Long, Orlando, Fla. Walter L Wescott, Orlando, Fla. Woodman and Company, Ocala, Fla. SAND-LIME BRICK. The materials used in the manufacture of sand-Hme brick are sand and lime. The bonding power of the brick is due to the chemical reaction between these ingredients. The chemical changes Fig. 24. — Ponce de Leon Springs, Holmes County. occur in the presence of heat, pressure and moisture, and result in the formation of hydro-silicates of calcium and magnesium. The sand used in the manufacture of sand-lime brick should be comparatively pure and perferably with some variation in the size of the grains. The mixture of lime, sand, and water, is cut in the form of bricks and conveyed to a hardening cylinder. Necessary heat and pressure are obtained in the hardening cylinder adapted for the purpose. The sand-lime bricks are placed in this cylinder and subjected to a pressure and temperature which vary according to the method of treatment. Four companies were actively engaged in the manufacture of
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I04 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. sand-lime brick in Florida, during 191 3, as follows: The Bond Sandstone Brick Company, Lake Helen, Fla. ; The Composite Brick Company, 3027 Hubbard St., Jacksonville, Fla. ; Roux Composite Brick Company, Plant City, Fla. ; and the Seminole Press Brick Company, Turners Road, Jacksonville, Fla. The total production of sand-lime brick in Florida during 1913 was valued at $79,679.00. WATER. The springs of Florida are famous for their large volume of flow as well as for the clearness and beauty of their waters. Many of these springs are used as health resorts, while from others the water is sold for medicinal or table use. The total sales of spring 'waters in Florida during 1913 as shown by the returns from the owners of springs and wells amount to 343,123 gallons, valued at $37,474. The average price thus approximates eleven cents per gallon. The total sales are divided as follows : Medicinal waters, $20,290; table waters, $17,184. The following is a list of those who report having sold spring or well water during 19 13, together with the name of the spring or well from which taken. Chumuckla Mineral Springs Compan}-, Chumuckla Spring, McDavid, Florida. Kissengen Wells Company, Stomawa Well, Tampa, Florida. Lackawanna Water Company, Cedar and Lackawanna Springs, Jacksonville, Florida. L. H. McKee, Quisisana Spring, Green Cove Springs, Florida. Magnolia Springs Hotel Company, Magnolia Spring, Magnolia Springs, Fla. Panacea Springs Company, Panacea Springs, Panacea, Florida. Xathaniel Brewer, Jr., Newport Spring, Newport, Florida. Orange City Water Works Company, Orange City Mineral Springs, Orange City, Florida. E. J. Osborne. Wekiwa Springs, Apopka, Florida. Ponce de Leon Springs Corp., Ponce de Leon Spring, Glenwood, Florida. Purity Springs, Tampa, Florida. James F. Tucker, Espiritu Santo Spring, Espiritu Santo Springs, Florida. Welaka Mineral Water Company, Welaka Mineral Spring, Jacksonville, Florida. The production of mineral w-aters as shown by these statistics is, however, insignificant, when compared to the vastly more extensive use of the spring and well waters for municipal, agricultural, industrial, domestic and other purposes for which statistics can scarcely
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WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. lO: be collected. As bearingon the general value of unflergTonnd water may be included here the following press bullclin by t!ie writer, issued by the Survey during the year. THE UTILITY OF WELL RECORDS.' The water supply stored in the earth is a resource the value of which can not be expressed in figures, since upon the water supply Fig. 25. — Flowing artesian well at Palatka. is dependent both plant and animal life as well as human existence and comfort. VVithout water, soil fertility would fail, all vegetation would quickly die, all activities of man would cease and the earth would become a barren waste, ^^^ater is the one *Press Bulletin No. 4, issued by the Florida State Geological Survey. January 15, 1914.
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I06 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. resource common to all and in which all are directly interested regardless of occupation or position in life. Water is a mineral and in fact differs from other minerals chiefly in that at the average moderate temperature it is in liquid form, while most other minerals, mercury excepted, at the same temperature are in solid form. At o degrees Centigrade, however, (32 degrees F.), water solidifies, and in doing so assumes as in the case of most other minerals a definite crystal form. Like other minerals also water must be sought for in the earth, and it is in fact more extensively prospected for, produced and utilized the world over, and affects the life and welfare of more people than any other mineral. The money expended annually in securing, distributing and utilizing water is almost incredible. It is probable that in this State alone as much as one hundred thousand dollars is spent annually in well drilling. This expenditure is to be classed under the head of prospecting, although the drill hole once made becomes the opening through which the water, if the well is successful, is brought to the surface. To the cost of prospecting it would be necessary to add in order to estimate the approximate expenditure on water supplies, the additional annual cost of pumping, piping, and distributing the water, as well as the general upkeep of the plant which involves a large annual expenditure. The water supply is, therefore, both an important and an extensive industry. Like other minerals water obeys definite laws in its manner of occurrence in the earth and yet for no other mineral has the prospecting been carried on in so haphazard a manner. This is doubtless due to the fact that the water supply does not admit of concentration in development, nor beyond a limited extent of private ownership. The phosphate deposits of this state which are almost wholly under private ownership have been studied by expert geologists, and have been developed in accordance with carefully laid plans drawn by skilled engineers. Both in prospecting and in mining the phosphate, the most exact records have been kept and the data thus secured utilized in subsequent developments. The same is true of the fullers earth industry, and in fact of successful mining operations the world over. As regards the water supply, however, while the general geological studies have been or are being made, the acutal prospecting is being carried on by very unscientific methods. Notwithstanding the large amount of deep well drilling
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WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. IO7 that is being done in Florida annually, the work is not in any way co-ordinated, and records are seldom preserved with sufficient care to meet scientific requirements. The failure to keep an adequate record of a well when drilled is clearly due to the lack on the part of the owner of the well, of an appreciation of the value and utility of such a record, both to those who are having the well drilled and to others who subsequently may wish to drill wells in or near the same locality. It is to indicate some of the ways in which well records are of value and to urge more complete preservation of records, and more definite correlation of results of prospecting that this bulletin is issued. Accurate data from wells can be obtained only by the personal attention on the part of the well driller or of some one who directly interests himself in the well, and involves more or less loss of time and delay in the drilling operations. As a rule no provision is made by the well-owner for preserving the record of the well, and it is left to the driller to preserve the record if preserved at all. While it is not reasonable to expect the driller to assume this extra expense, as a matter of fact nearly all the records that are now available have been secured in this way and it speaks well for the drillers that they are willing to thus make public the data that they have obtained at their own expense. To secure full and complete records the owner of the well should assume the expense of collecting the data since it is to himself and the community in which he lives that the record has the largest value. The owner of the well, frequently expecting to drill no well other than the one already undertaken, assumes that there is no further need so far as he is personally concerned for exact data. This, however, is a mistake. The instances are numerous in which valuable mineral deposits have been drilled through without being detected merely because the samples of drillings from the well were not preserved and examined by some one competent to judge of their character. In any case to drill a deep well involves considerable expense, and it is a waste of money not to make the most of the prospect hole while it is being made. Aside from the individual interest, there is the welfare of the community which is inseparably linked with that of each individual, and the success or failure of one well, or the difficulties encountered in drilling it, or the materials penetrated, may point the way to success or reduction of expense on the part of another.
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I08 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT, The drilling of practically all deep wells is let by contract to the lowest responsible bidder, and it is obvious that if the party letting the contract has no idea of the underground conditions he is not in a position either to draw proper specifications or to judge of the reasonableness of the bid when made. In many cases the contract for wells fails to specify requirements that should be made for that particular locality, and on tlie other hand includes conditions that involve additional expense and yet for that particular well are useless. It is very much to the advantage of the owner of the prospective well to have full information as to the conditions of the underlying strata through which the well is tO' be drilled, thp probable depth that it will be necessary to go and the depth to which the casing should be carried, as well as some idea of the ease with which the well can be drilled or the difificulties that must be expected, and to place this data as fully as possible before the prospective bidder, without, however, assuming responsibility as to the nature of the strata which are always variable within limits. If the driller must make his bid totally in the dark as to what to expect in the drill hole, naturally he must allow liberally for unexpected difificulties and for unknown conditions. On the other hand if the data available to Inm is approximately complete he can afford to submit a close bid. The more completely the element of uncertainty is eliminated the smaller the margin of unexpected expenses necessary to allow for in making a bid. Not only do well records have an immediate practical utility for the community in which the well is located, but they have in addition a broader application. Owing to the prevailingly level surface of Florida there is not as good an opportunity to examine the substructure from surface exposures as in some other states, and a correspondingly greater reliance must be made on records from drill holes, A knowledge of the substructure of the country has in turn both educational and economic value. It is well known that oil and gas within the earth are more or less dehnitel}' associated with the structure of the rock, being found on or near the tops of the anticlines or folds or in dome structures. Reliable advice as to where best to drill prospect holes for oil and gas must necessarily be based on a knowledge of the structure of the underlying formations and to this knowledge the well records if properly kept will largely contribute. Moreover, a knowledge of the
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WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. 109 substructure is an important element in formulating the geologic history of the land area and hence has the same broad and general application as other geologic studies, having both an economic and educational value. As an instance of a well from which an approximately complete record has been obtained may be mentioned the City well at Jacksonville in Duval County drilled in 19 10, the record in this case being supplied through the courtesy of the drillers, the Hughes Specialty Well Drilling Company. This well reached a total depth of 980 feet, and samples of the drillings were kept at occasional intervals, a total of 46 samples having been preserved Fig. 26. — Well drilling machinery used in Florida. and submitted to the State Survey. The detailed log of the well based on an examination of the samples supplemented by the notes made by the driller has been published in the Fifth Annual Report of the Survey, and need not be repeated here. The principal water supply in this well is obtained from the Vicksburg limestone, a formation well known to the drillers as it is the chief water bearing formation of the peninsular section of the State. The first flow of water amounting to only about 5 gallons per minute was obtained in this well at a depth of 270 feet. At the depth of 493 feet the flow was increased to 112 gallons per minute,
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no FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. the water having as it flowed from the pipe a temperature of 71 degrees F. Upon entering the Vicksburg limestone which was reached in this well at 510 feet the flow was increased to 200 gallons per minute. The inner casing was rested upon this limestone, the drill hole being continued into this formation 470 feet or to a total depth of 980 feet. As the deeper strata of the Vicksburg limestone were penetrated the amount of flow, the pressure and the temperature increased. At 625 feet the flow amounted to 500 gallons per minute, having a temperature of 74 degrees F. At 6S0 feet the artesian pressure at the surface was 12 pounds per square inch, indicating a head above the surface of 27.7 feet. At 780 feet the flow from the well was about 900 gallons per minute, and the pressure 15 pounds per square inch indicating a head above the surface of 34.6 feet. The flow in the completed well at a depth of 980 feet was between 1500 and 2000 gallons per minute. Through the records kept by the Superintendent of the City Water Works, something is known also of the flow of several wells at Jacksonville through a period of twenty years. These records were also included in the Fifth Annual Report of the Survey. Wells, the flow of which was measured, show a reduction in flow in a period of ten years to about one-fourth of their original efficiency. Another well of which a very satisfactory record has been obtained is one drilled recently by F. S. Gilbert at Tiger Bay in Polk County, the samples and records being supplied through the courtesy of the owners of the well, the Palmetto Phosphate Company. This well has a depth of 838 feet, and samples were taken with some exceptions at ten foot intervals, a total of 6j samples having been preserved. These were forwarded to the State Geological Survey, and the detailed log made from the samples, supplemented by the notes of the driller, will be published in the subsequent reports of the Survey. After passing through the surface materials at this locality the drill penetrated sandy phosphatic marls to the depth of 360 feet. The material throughout this whole thickness, while by no means uniform apparently represents a single geologic formation which is locally variable. The phosphatic pebbles which occur throughout the whole thickness are black, brown or white in color and are rounded smooth and shiny, the larger pebbles being often pitted. The pebbles are imbedded in marl, the prevailing color of which is light buff or grayish. The marl is
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WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. Ill throughout more or less sandy, so much so that in some of the samples it becomes almost a calcareous sandstone. Within the formation are found two strata of calcareous and phosphatic clays, the tirst of which is found at a depth of 195 feet, and has a thickness of 9 ft. 6 inches while the second is found at a depth of 260 feet and has a thickness of 10 feet. Locally the materials of the formation have become compact and close grained, probably in the form of rounded boulders which are broken up in drilling. Such boulders frequently form within the earth owing to the action of underground water and may be either calcareous or flinty. This record is of special interest as showing the great thickness of phosphatic materials underlying the land pebble phosphate beds, these marls being with little doubt the parent formation from which the land pebble phosphate deposits have been formed. Local hard ledges sufficient to rest the outer casing are found within this formation, the first, or 18 inch casing having been rested at the depth of 65 feet, while the second or 14 inch casing was rested at the depth of 139 feet and 11 inches. The formation next underlying this marl is a light colored limestone made up of a mass of broken fragments and having a thickness of 50 feet, extending from 360 to 410 feet. This limestone is slightly if at all phosphatic, the few phosphate pebbles seen in the samples having probably fallen in from the strata above. Next beneath this limestone is the light colored limestone of the Vicksburg formation which is first encountered in this well at a depth of 410 feet and continues with some variation to the bottom of the well 838 feet. This formation here as elsewhere while fairly uniform shows more or less variation in character. The prevailing phase is a light colored or nearly white limestone consisting of a mass of shells and broken shells or of soft granular limestone with few fossils. Occasional strata are found, especially deep within the formation, which are hard and compact, these being usually of a brownish color and finely powdered by the drill. Locally also flint masses occur. These flints represent silicified limestone and may or may not be encountered in any particular well. Locally the limestone is found to be partially crystallized, this phase being due to the solution and redeposition of calcium carbonate by underground water. This well terminated in a seven-foot cavity from which an ample water supply was obtained. These cavities.
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112 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. which are not infrequent in this limestone, act as feeders to a well and afford as a rule an inexhaustible supply of water. The inner, 12-inch, casing in this well was rested at 414 feet or just within the Vicksburg limestone. A limited amount of water was found in the well at the depth of 150 feet having a head of 33 feet, 3 inches below the surface. This head was reduced upon striking a second small supply of water at 155 feet, to 38 feet below the surface. This shallow water was shut off by the casing, and no large supply such as would serve the purpose for which the well was being drilled was obtained until the large cavity was reached at the bottom of the well. The water in the well after striking the cavity stood 37 feet from the surface and was not appreciably lowered upon pumping 500 gallons per minute, and machinery will be installed to pump the supply desired amounting to about 2500 gallons per minute. While the samples obtained from this well were sufficient to show the lithologic character of the formations, the fossils were not sufficiently abundant to determine satisfactorily the age of those formations lying above the Vicksburg limestone, and in order to obtain better representation of the fossils, the company is now undertaking to preserve largely samples from a second well that is to be drilled at this locality. In obtaining these larger samples screens will be used through which the drillings from the well will be passed and from which the samples will be collected. Two wells drilled by the Florida East Coast Railway on Key Vaca, one reaching a depth of 435 feet, the other 700 feet, carefully recorded by Mr. Samuel Sanford, who was in charge of the drilling operations, have contributed largely to our knowledge of the sub-structure of the Florida Keys. The data obtained from these two wells has been supplemented by wells drilled at Key West, the first of which reached a depth of 2000 feet, the second, a depth of loio feet. At Palm Beach and at St. Augustine are deep wells, records from which have been of much value in the study of the geology and water supply of the State, the records of which are included in the published reports of the Survey which are available to those interested. The well records which have been given will serve to indicate on the one hand the utility and value of exact data from deep wells, and on the other hand will serve to emphasize the fact that
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WATER SUPPLIES AND WELL RECORDS. II3 equally or more complete records are to be desired from the many other localities in the State from which at present only partial records are available. Moreover, a single record from a locality does not supply all the information desired, since the degree of variability within the formation is of much practical value in well-drilling, and on this point information approaches completeness only as successive well holes are drilled through the same formation. The investigation of the water supply as a mineral resource as well as the general study of the geology of the state is made by law a part of the duties of the State Geological Survey, and in accordance with this requirement the services of the State Survey are at the disposal of individuals and communities in the study of water supply problems except, however, those concerning sanitar}conditions, which are more properly the work of the State Board of Health. In accordance with this requirement the State Geologist will assist in preserving well records, will examine and report upon samples from drillings, and after correlating the data from numerous wells will make the information available through the published reports of the Survey to all those who may be interested. It would seem that municipalities in particular should be interested in thus preserving data of this character, and it is recommended that each municipality, as well as individual owners, include in their specification for wells a provision for the preservation of careful records and samples of the drillings to be forwarded to the State Geological Survey. By so doing the preservation of the record will be provided for. In many instances, particularly as data in each locality accumulates, the State Geologist will be able to supply information, based upon an examination of samples from wells previously drilled, that will be of service in drawing up specifications for wells, as well as to advise as to the depth that it is advisable to drill and the character of water that may be expected, this data being given as in the case of all other services rendered by the Survey' as a part of its usual duties which involves neither obligation nor expense to those to whom the service is rendered.
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114 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. SUMMARY STATEMENT OF MINERAL PRODUCTION IN FLORIDA DURING 1913. COLLECTED IN CO-OPERATION WITH THE UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Common or building brick, 42,450 M., valued at $ 240,126.00 Lime, including quick and hydrated lime, 18,917 short tons, valued at 100,335.00 Limestone, including ground limestone for agricultural use and crushed rock for railroad ballast, concrete and road material 156,589.00 Mineral waters, 343,123 gallons, valued at 37,474.00 Phosphate rock, 2,545,276 long tons, valued at 9,563,084.00 Sand and gravel, including building and moulding sand and gravel, 87,061 short tons, valued at __ 21,194.00 Sand-lime brick, including common and front brick, 73,415 thousand, valued at 79,679.00 Mineral products not separately listed, including ball clay, drain tile, diatomaceous earth, fullers earth and other miscellaneous materials, valued at — 448,147.00 Total mineral products in Florida during 191 3, valued at $10,646,628.00
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS BY E. H. SELLARDS SECOND EDITION. 115
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CONTENTS. Page Introduction 1 19 Location of the Lakes 120 Characteristics 120 Origin and History of Development 121 Relation of the Basins to the Level of Permanent Underground Water. .. . 124 Descriptions of Typical Lakes 125 Lake lamonia, Leon County 125 Lake Jackson, Leon County 128 Lake Lafayette, Leon County 129 Lake Miccosukee, Jefferson County 130 Alligator Lake, Columbia County 133 Alachua Lake, Alachua County I34 Ocheesee Lake, Jackson County i47 Methods of Drainage — By Surface Ditching 148 By Wells 148 Relation of the Ground Water Level to the Formation of Sinks .... 155 Variation in the Ground Water Level IS7 Summary 158 117
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Fig. 27. Fig.
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASLMS. BY E. H. SELLARDS INTRODUCTION. Florida is justly celebrated for the number and beauty of its lakes. These lakes vary in size from the small ponds which scarcely exceed a few rods in circumference to the great Okeechobee, the surface area of which exceeds 700 square miles. Okeechobee is in fact noteworthy as being, with the exception of Lake Michigan, the largest fresh water lake lying wholly within the United States. In depth the Florida lakes are likewise variable, and in fact the depth is frequently in inverse ratio to the size. Many of the large lakes are comparatively shallow, while some of the small lakes are deep. This is particularly true of the small sink-hole lakes, some of which, while not exceeding a few rods in circumference have a depth of one to two hundred or more feet. In origin and history of development the Florida lakes are as variable as in other characteristics. The lakes described in this paper include only a few of the many Florida lakes and represent a type peculiar in character and in manner of development. They are fresh water lakes, often of considerable size, although usually relatively shallow as compared to their areal extent. Moreover they are variable in character. Under normal conditions they are clear water lakes abounding in fish and the favorite haunt of the wild duck. They have as a rule no srrface outlet, yet from many of them the water has at times disappeared in a manner seemingly inexplicable. In most instances the lakes thus disappearing have refilled slowly. Some of them, however, have remained dry a number of years. A correct understanding of these lakes together with the origin and development of the basins which they occupy is necessarily based on a study o£ the geologic formations which underlie them. The fall of 1909 offered an exceptionally favorable time for investigating lakes of this character. The prolonged dry weather of the past few years had reduced these lakes to a low stage offering an opportunity of examining the soil and vegetation as well as the geologic structure of their basins. At the Tallahassee station in Leon County, near which several of these lakes are located, the rainfall at the close of 1909 had been below normal as shown b}the weather bureau records for two years in succession. At the Gainesville station in Alachua County, the rainfall had been be*Second Edition. The first edition of this paper, the supply of v/hith is now exhausted, was published in the Third .'\nnual Report, pp. 43-76, 1910. 119
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I20 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. low normal during the preceding four years and at the Lake City station the rainfall had been below normdl for at least three years in succession and apparently, from some imperfect records, had not reached normal during the preceding seven years. Under these circumstances it was deemed advisable to make use of the favorable opportunity during the fall of 1909 for investigating the geology of these lake basins. Attempts have been made to drain some oi these lakes as the land is more or less valuable for agricultural purposes. In some instances drainage operations have been delayed owing to legal difficulties arising from the variable character of the lakes. The lake basins claimed by the State under the title of swamp and overflowed lands were likewise claimed by abutting property owners under the privilege of riparian rights. A decision of the State Supreme Court, rendered in 1909, vests the title of the lands in question with the State, not, however, as swamp and overflowed land, but. as navigable water. LOCATION OF LAKES. The lakes described in this paper occur in the upland section of the interior of Florida. In general they may be said to occur in a belt extending with interruptions from the Ocklocknee River east and south paralleling the Gulf of Mexico to Hernando and Pasco Counties. The largest and best known examples are found in Leon, Jefferson, Columbia and Alachua Counties. Smaller but no less typical lakes of this type occur in Madison, Suwannee, Marion, Levy, Orange, Hernando and probably some other counties adjacent to those mentioned. West of the Apalachicola River small lakes of similar character occur in Jackson County and possibly also in Holmes County. The lakes selected for description as illustrating this type include Lakes lamonia, Jackson, and La: fayette, in Leon County; Lake Miccosukee in Jefferson County; Alligator Lake in Columbia County; Alachua Lake in Alachua County; and Ocheesee Lake in Jackson County. The belt of country through which these lakes occur, although now broken up through natural processes of erosion into several more or less well defined sub-divisions, was probably at one time continuous. CHARACTERISTICS. The leading characteristics of these lakes have been mentioned. They do not occur along the coast nor in the level low lying parts I
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 121 of the state. On the contrary they are on the uplands, and occur in sections having a hilly or rolling topography. Sinks or openings occur through which the water escapes into the underlying formations. These sinks are located ordinarily at the foot of a sttep bluff bordering the lake. Around the main sink one finds ordinarily other sinks of more recent formation indicating the manner and direction of enlargement of the basin. The sinks through which the water escapes are variable in depth but reach in all cases to underlying limestones. A channel as a rule leads back from this sink across the lake bottom representing the main channel of flow of water to the sink. Aside from this channel the bottom of the lake is relatively flat and level, although slight local depressions occur involving in some instances differences of level, of ten to fifteen feet. The soil in the lake basins varies considerably. In some of the lakes — those which seldom go dry — there is an accumulation of muck or peat formed largely from pond lilies and other aquatic vegetation. Local depressions in the lake often have an accumuktion of this material amounting to several feet. Some of the other lakes which frequently go dry have little or no muck except in depressions which hold water even in dry seasons. Beneath the muck is usually found light colored sand washed and blown from the neighboring highlands. This sand may be several feet deep in places, elsewhere it is largely absent. Ordinarily a sandy clay occurs beneath the sand. When these lakes dry up the water is commonly reported as nmning out very suddenly. This, however, is usually not the case. As long as the lake has sufficient water to cover the entire basin the lowering of the water surface proceeds very slowly. Subsequently when the total surface area of the lake becomes much restricted the lowering of the water surface proceeds much more rapidly. This leads to the statement that the water of the lake disappeared suddenly while as a matter of fact in many cases the water escapes through the sink no faster and indeed hardly so fast during the dry season as it had been escapmg when the lake was full during the season of normal rainfall. It is true, however, that new sinks occasionaly form in the bottom of the lake. In the case of the formation of new sinks the rate of escape of the water is increased. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DEVELOPMENT. The origin of these lake basins is a part of the history of development of the general topography of the region. In this development both mechanical erosion and erosion by solution have
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122 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. bad a part. The land surface when first elevated above sea was evidently much more nearly level than at present. Upon being lifted above sea level irregularities in topography rapidly develop. A first step in the process of erosion is the development of stream channels and valle}^s, largely through mechanical erosion. In addition to mechanical erosion, erosion by solution due to underground water is likewise in process especially in sections underlaid by limestones. As illustrating the efficiency of underground water as an eroding agent, the writer in a previous report computed the rate of erosion by solution in the sections of the state underlaid by limestones.* The estimate of the rate of solution given below is taken from that report. Solution is the most apparent, and geologically the most important result of underground water circulation. Rain water, while passing through the air, takes into solution a small amount of CO2 gas. To this is added organic and mineral acids taken up while passing through the soil. Increased pressure, as the water descends into the earth, enables the water to hold in solution greater quantities of gases, acids and salts, all of which greatly increase the dissolving power of the water. That underground water is efficient as a solvent is evident from the analyses of well and "spring waters. Rain water entering the earth with almost no solids in solution, returns to the surface through springs and wells with a load of mineral solids in solution determined by the length of time it has been in the ground, the distance traveled, and the character of the rocks and minerals with vvhich it comes in contact. The mineral matter thus taken into solution is carried along with water, and, while some of it is re-deposited, a large amount is removed annually. An estimate of the total mineral solids thus removed is difficult. A conception of the largeness of the amount removed is obtained from a consideration of some of the individual springs. The water of Silver Springs contains, as shown by analysis, 274 parts solids per million parts water. Otherwise expressed, each nn'llion pounds of water is carrying with it 274 pounds of solids in solution. Silver Spring is estimated to flow a little more than three million pounds of water per minute (368,913 gallons). The interior of Florida is thus being carried into the ocean through Silver Springs at the rate of more than 890 pounds per minute, or about six hundred tons per day. *Fla. Geol. Survey Bulletin Noi, pp. 46, 47, 48, 1908.
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 123 The total solids removed in solution through six other springs of central Florida, expressed in tabular form, gives the following results : Name of Spring. County. Blue Marion Blue Levy Ichetucknee Columbia Newland Suwannee Weekiwachee Hernando White Sulphur Hamilton Suwannee Suwannee Total solids
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124 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. limestone, an average specific gravity of 2.5, a layer one foot thick over one square mile should weigh about two and one-sixth million tons. The calculated rate of removal of this rock is about four hundred tons per square mile per year. From these estimates it would appear that the surface level of the central peninsular section of Florida is being lowered by solution at the rate of a foot in five or six thousand years. With due allowance for a wide margin of error in the above estimates it is still evident that a very great amount of mineral solids is being removed annually in solution. The first effect of solution in limestone is to develop cavities through the rock along the line of ready flow of underground water. These cavities gradually enlarge until the overlying material, no longer able to support its own weight, caves in, forming a sink. The formation of a sink is a first step in the development of the many basins large and small occupied by these temporary lakes. A sink usually retains connection with the underlying limestone for some time after its formation and water entering the sink escapes into the limestone. Under these circumstances more or less of the material lying immediately around the sink is carried by surface wash through the sink. Moreover the large amount of water entering through the sink results in rapid solution in the limestone of that immediate vicinity. The result is frequently the formation of other sinks in close proximity to the first. As old sinks become clogged or partly filled, new sinks form by this process continually enlarging the basin. Not infrequently a sink forms in or near the bed of a stream. When this occurs the lower course of the stream, or a part of it, may be reversed. Where many sinks form in succession or through a long period of time the valley of the stream is thereby enlarged and is frequently carried to a level lower than the original outlet. Lakes lamonia and Lafayette in Leon County and Alachua Lake in Alachua County are illustrations of basins of this type. RELATION OF THE LAKE BASINS TO THE LEVEL OF PERMANENT UNDERGROUND WATER. It is important to note the relation of these lake basins to the permanent underground water level of the formation into which they drain. It is a well established fact that solution by underground water goes on more rapidly above the level of permanent
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 1 25 iuriderground water than below this level. The term "belt of weathering" is commonly applied to that part of the earth's crust lying above the underground water level; while the term "belt of cementation" is applied to that part lying immediately below this level. According to Van Hise "the most characteristic reaction of the belt of weathering is solution. In contrast with this the most characteristic reaction in the belt of cementation is deposited in the openings of the rocks."* The rapid solution in the belt of weathering is due to a number of causes. First of all the water in this part of the earth's crust moves freely, while in the belt of cementation the water often moves very slowly. Moreover water is capable under given conditions of carrying a definite amount of mineral solids in solution and as the water from the surface enters the earth with little or no load, until it becomes saturated it takes materials into solution readily. In accordance with this principle it is found that the largest of these basins are, as a rule, reduced practically to the level of underground water. Many of the smaller basins, it is true, have not reached the permanent water level, and stand at varying heights above that level. The relation of the basins to the underground water has a practical bearing and will be referred to again in connection with methods of drainage of the lakes. DESCRIPTIONS OF TYPICAL LAKES. LAKE lAMONIA. Lake lamonia lies near the north line of Leon County. The lake basin is irregular in outline, but has an average width of from one to one and one-half miles. The total length ,of the lake is from twelve to thirteen miles. At its west end the lake basin connects with the swamp of the Ocklocknee River. During flood seasons the river overflows into the lake. Similarly a high stage in the lake results in an overflow into the river. Small tributary streams enter the lake from both the north and the south side as well as from the east end. The tributaries are small flat-bottomed streams which are dry, except during the rainy season. The lake fluctuates much according to the rainfall. The lake basin when full covers an area of about 6,500 acres. Except at the west end, where it joins the Ocklocknee River, the lake is largely surrounded by the Treatise on Metamorphism Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, XLVII, p. 165, 1904.
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126 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. red clay hills characteristic of this part of the State. These hills rise to an elevation of from 50 to 75 feet above the level of the lake. 2"]. — Sketch map showing the location of lakes lamonia, Jackson, Lafayette and Miccosukee in Leon and Jefferson Counties. The sink through which the water escapes from this lake is found on the north border. When visited May 7, 19 10, the sink was practically dry, having only a small amount of water in the bottom. Limestone rock, probably of Upper Oligocene age, is exposed near the bottom of the sink, the water escaping through or under these rocks. Above the limestone partly decayed sandy clays occur. 1 hese contain few fossils, although oyster shells were found in al.^undance at one locality. The total depth of the sink below the general level of the lake is not less than 50 feet. The sink occurs, as is usual in this type of lake, facing an abrupt bluff 30 feet or more in height. A considerable number of sinks occur around the border of the lake especially in the vicinity of the one large sink Vv'hich receives the drainage of the lake. The formation of these sinks is doubtless due, as previously stated, to the fact that the water entering the drainage sink spreads laterally in the underlying limestone and dissolves the rock rapidly. The result is the formation by subsidence of numerous sinks adjacent to the drainage sink. The presjence of these sinks also indicates the manner of enlargement of the lake basin, and indicates in each case the direction of most rapid enlargement at the present time. At other times the enlargen^ent by solution and subsidence mav have been most active in some other locality or direction or part of the lake basin.
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. I27 This lake only occasionally goes entirely dry and as a result a covering of muck or peat occurs over the greater part of the bottom of the lake. This deposit of muck reaches a considerable thickness in such natural depressions as occur over the lake bottom. Beneath the muck is usually found a deposit of light colored sand and beneath this is the red sandy clay. The fact that the Ocklocknee River at flood stage flows into this lake makes any attempt at drainage doubtful of success. An effort which proved unsuccessful was made at one time to prevent the river water from entering the lake by means of a dam. It seemed to be the views of the party constructing the dam that if the water of the Ocklocknee River could be kept out the sink would carry ofif the water from the lake. This, however, is not probable, since in the several other lakes to be described the sinks have not proved sufficient to carry ofif the water except in times of greatly reduced rainfall. Lake lamonia basin represents apparently a stream valley lowered by solution and enlarged laterally by Subsidence through the formation of sinks. Originally a small stream tributary to the Ocklocknee River flowed through this section. In this part of the country soluble limestones occur at no great distance from the surface, and in the course of the natural processes of erosion the stream approached sufficiently near this limestone to permit of the formation of sinks and the escape of the water of the stream through the sinks. The enlargement of the valley to its present size has proceeded through the formation and partial filling of successive sinks. As each sink forms, it carries down to or below the lake level, a certain small area of land. Moreover the water passing through the bottom of the sink carries with it more or less detrital material so that the surrounding area is somewhat lowered by wash through the sink. In the course of time other sinks form, while the older sinks become clogged and usually partly fill up. The direction of active enlargement of each lake can be determined from the location of the recent sinks. As previously remarked this rapid enlargement is usually around the sink which is at present actively receiving the drainage.
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128 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. LAKE JACKSON, Lake Jackson lies near the western border of Leon County within one and a half oi"^ two miles of the Ocklocknee River. This lake is irregular in shape, and has a total area of about 4,500 acres. The boundaries of the basin are sharply marked by the surrounding highlands which rise 75 to 100 feet above the level of the lake. Several sinks occur in the southern half, of the lake. The -largest of these, known locally as the "lime sink," is located well out in the basin and in the angle between the north and east arms. (See map). An opening in the bottom of this sink Fig. 28.-Lake Jackson. -^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ permitted the water to run out, leaving the sink dry, and also draining the lake or such part of it as was connected with the sinks. An indefinitely defined broad depression or slough extends to the southeast from the lime sink. Several water holes representing old sinks occur along the line of this depression. A new sink occurred along the bottom of the depression about one mile southeast of the lime sink in June, 1907. A compact limestone showed in the bottom of this sink at a depth of about 25 feet from the surface. At the time this sink formed the lake was low, a part of the water having been carried off through the opening which had formed in the lime sink a month earlier. All the water that could reach the new sink was carried off in the course of two or three days, leaving the lake dry except for occasional water holes. When examined in September, 1909, a small open sink was found in the slough which carried away all of the water that reached it from the surrounding parts of the lake.
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 1 29 The surface soil in the basin is quite generally a gray sand darkened by admixture of organic matter. In the lower parts of the lake, quite generally covered by water, more or less muck or peat occurs formed from the accumulation of aquatic vegetation. Sand lighter in color and lacking the organic matter occurs at a depth of I 1-2 or 2 feet to 3 or 4 feet. Beneath this sand is the usual red sandy clay. This lake as already mentioned became dry, or nearly so, in the early spring of 1907. It was partly filled by the summer rains of the same year, but became dry or nearly so again during the summer of 1909. The accompanying photograph of this lake was taken July 5, 1909 and shows an unusually low water stage of the lake for that season of the year. (Fig. 32). LAKE LAFAYETTE. Lafayette Basin or Lake Lafayette lies in the eastern part of Leon County between Tallahassee and Chaires. The basin begins three and one-half miles east of Tallahassee, and extends to within one mile of Chaires, having a total length of about five and one-half miles, and a width of one-half to one mile. An arm of the lake extends north from near the east end of the lake. The bottom of the basin is nearly level with the exception of occasional slight depressions. The tributaries to the lake are flat-bottomed streams Vv'ith relatively broad valleys and no well defined channel. The soil in these stream valleys is a sandy loam, and the streams are ordinarily dry, carrying water only during the rainy season. A drainage sink in this basin occurs near the west end of the kike along the northern border (See Fig. 29). The sink when measured in September, 1909, was found to have a total depth of 75 feet. The sink is found, as is usual in this type of lake basin, near a prominent bluff. A second sink is formed beyond the lake border, thus indicating the enlargement of the lake basin in that direction by subsidence, due to underground solution. This new sink is one hundred yards or more in circumference, and when formed carried down to the lake level, land which stood fifty feet or more above the lake and was being used previous to the subsidence as a cemetery. That part of the lake basin which surrounds the sink lies at a slightly lower level than the more remote parts of the basin and is the first to be submerged at the approach of the rainy season. This area is entirely devoid of trees, and during the dry season becomes a prairie. The greater part of the basin lying to the south I '1 the railroad is thickly set with small cypress trees.
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130 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. The soil in the basin is prevaiHngly a gray sand usually darkened by the presence of organic matter. At a depth of from one to two feet the amount of organic matter is reduced, the sand being lighter in color. Sandy clays are reached as a rule at a depth of from two and a half to three feet. During a season of normal rainfall this basin is occupied by a lake having a total area of approximately two thousand acres. Following a period of prolonged drought the basin becomes entirely dry, water remaining only at the sink. In times of excessive rainfall the lake overflows at the east end, the water discharged reaching streams tributary to the St. Marks River.
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. I3I Miccosukee Basin has a total area of about 5,000 acres. In its northern part the basin is bordered by sharply defined bluffs, which rise from 50 to 75 or 100 feet above the lake bottom. Farther south these bluffs fall back and give place to a gradual rise of elevation from the lake border. At the south end bluffs are lacking. A drain known as Miccosukee drain enters from the east side. This drain consists of a low, swampy area from one-fourth to three-fourths mile in width. This swamp land supports a thick growth of hardwood trees. When full, Miccosukee Basin is covered with water to a depth of from 2 to 5 feet. Toward the south end around the border of the lake grass and button bushes project above the water even when the lake is full. The sink of Lake Miccosukee is located near the northwest corner of the basin, and is bordered by a bluff having an elevation of from 75 to 100 feet. Landslides along the border of the sink show recent enlargements of the basin. Numerous sinks occur along the border of the lake at this locality, showing enlargement of the lake basin through subsidence. The greatest depth of water found in the sink when examined September 7, 1909, was 38 feet. A channel leads back from this sink across the prairie in a southeasterly direction. This channel has cut to a depth of from twenty to twenty-five feet. Followed back from the sink the channel is of gradually reduced depth finally at a distance of about two miles merging into the general level of the lake bottom. When examined September 8, 1909, this stream was carryiiig water into the sink at a rate estimated to be 200 gallons per minute. Notwithstanding the inflow from the stream the water in the sink was being gradually lowered. Heavy rains occurred in this vicinity on September 21, 1909, and this stream when seen two days later was carrying approximately 7,000 gallons of water per minute. At this time the sink was being rapidly filled, having filled several feet during the two preceding days. From these observations it appears that the opening at the bottom of this sink permits the escape of water at a rate in excess of 200 gallons per minute, but much less than 7,000 gallons per minute. From the behavior of the sink it is probable that not more than 1,000 gallons of water are escaping per minute, and the rate of escape may be much less. The principal escape of water from Lake Miccosukee when the lake is full is through a drain which leads out from the south end of the lake and enters a sink about two and one-fourth miles from the south end of the lake. This sink is formed in a light colored limestone of Upper Oligocene age. probably representing the Chat-
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T32 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Fig. 30.— Lake Miccosukee. I
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 1 33 tahoochee formation. The drain from the lake as it approaches the sink passes through a narrow gorge cut in this Hmestone. About one-half mile farther south (Sec. 14) another sink is found. This third sink receives the flow from Mill Creek, a small stream draining considerable territory lying south of the Seaboard Air Line Railway and east of Lloyds. During a season of excessive rains these sinks are unable to carry away the water. Under these conditions the overflow from Lake Miccosukee as well as from Mill Creek ultimately finds its escape by flowing to the southwest past Lloyds to the St. Marks River. The surface in Miccosukee Basin is covered with muck to a varying depth. Borings put down near the north end of the basin, out from the margin of the drain, indicated the presence of muck for a depth of from six inches to one foot. Beneath the muck in this part of the basin was found a gray sand. This sand is underlaid, at a variable depth, by the usual red sandy clay. At the south end of the lake the sand is largely absent, the muck which is from one to three or more feet deep resting, so far as observed, directly upon the red clay. Lake Miccosukee probably represents a basin developed by solution near the headwaters of streams originally tributary to the St. Marks River. Previous to the formation of Miccosukee Basin the drainage of this part of the country doubtless passed through small streams, to the south past the present village of Lloyds, thence to the Gulf through the St. Marks River. The lake basin since its formation has enlarged to the northwest, the lowest part of the basin now being found near the sink in the northwest corner. Mill Creek which now enters from the south and disappears through a sink a few miles north of Lloyds illustrates the reversal of flow of a stream due to the formation of a sink. This stream, previous to the formation of the sink, flowed southwest to the St. Marks River. At the present time it flows north and enters the sink. At times of excessive rainfall the sink is unable to carry ofi the water and the stream under these conditions flows in its earlier course to the St. Marks River. ALLIGATOR LAKE. Alligator Lake lies in the central part of Columbia County, from one and a half to two miles southeast of Lake City. The lake basin has a total area of about 1,000 acres. Numerous smaller lakes occur to the west and north of this large lake. The sur9
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134 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. rounding country is in general level or rolling and lies at an elevation aproximating 200 feet above sea. The basin along its western side is bordered by a bluff which rises to an elevation of from 50 to 75 feet above the level of the lake. Along the eastern and southeastern side the basin passes gradually into low lying swampy hammock land, or cypress swamp. The sink of Alligator Lake occurs along the southwestern border. The escape of water at the present time is through this sink. In the country bordering the lake around this sink numerous other sinks occur. The lake is said to overflow at high water stage to the south through :i small stream known as Clay Hole Branch. A soil boring put down fifty yards from the edge of the basin along its southwest border gave the following section : Black muck with admixture of clay i ft. Yellow sand loam V2 ft. Fine light gray sand 1V2 ft. A pit made by Mr. Greer in his garden near the border of the lake gave the following section: Brownish colored imperfectly decayed vegetable matter (peat) 1 ft. Black muck with admixture of sand and ciay 2 ft. Red very sandy clay i ft. It is reported that at the time of the early settlements in Columbia County, 1835 or thereabouts, Alligator Basin was a prairie or savanna and was used at that time by the Indians as pasture land. The lake was dry in the fall of 1891, and again in the fall of 1899 or 1900. It was dry again during the winter and Spring of 1909, but was partly filled by rains during the following summer. Approximately complete records of rainfall are available at the Lake City station for the year 1897 ^^^ succeeding years. The rainfall for the year 1899, at which time the lake became dry, was much below normal, amounting for the year to only 30.49 inches. The next period of unusually low rainfall was the year 1908. During this year the rainfall amounted to only 29.83. The rainfall during the year 1909 was likewise slightly below normal, amounting at Lake City to 49.68 inches. ALACHUA LAKE. Alachua Lake or Payne's Prairie is the central and largest of the several lake basins of southeastern Alachua County. This basin is about eight miles long and varies in width from one and a half
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. I35 to four miles, and contains about twelve thousand acres. Low divides scarcely exceeding ten feet in elevation separate this basin from Kanapaha and other prairies on the west and from Levy, Ledwith, and numerous smaller lakes on the south, and from Newnans Lake on the northeast. The total area embraced within these various basins is not less than fifty square miles. For a map of this section the reader may consult the Arredondo topographic sheet of the U. S. Geological Survey. When dry or nearly so, this basin supports a dense growth of grasses and weeds. On the more elevated and dryer parts dogfennel prevails, growing to a height of eight or ten feet, while on the lower and wetter parts of the basin maiden cane abounds. The principal stream entering this basin is a creek flowing from Newnan's Lake. This creek enters at the east side of the basin and flows west and northwest to the sinks, of which there are two located on the northeast border, the water from the lake enters the Vicksburg Limestone. The sinks are partly surrounded by bluffs rising to an elevation of thirty or forty feet above the general level of the basin. Numerous sinks also occur along the border of the lake showing enlargement of the lake basin in this direction. The stream entering the more westerly of the two sinks was carrying water when examined in October, 1907, at an estimated rate of 20,000 gallons per minute. At this time the water level in tiie sink was only 2.01 feet above the general level of water in the Vicksburg Limestone as shown by the Gainesville city well,* from which it is evident that the opening at the bottom of the sink permits the escape of water approximately at the rate of 20,000 gallons per minute. It is probable, however, that the capacity of the sink is little, if any, greater than this, as indicated by the fact that the water in the sink stood two feet above the water level in the limestone. In November, 1909, the water in the sink stood approximately one and one-half feet above the level of the water in the surrounding limestone. During seasons of heavy rainfall the stream draining from Newnan's Lake and other smaller streams carry water so rapidly that the water is unable to escape through the sink as rapidly as it flows in. Under these conditions the basin fills, becoming temporarily a lake. It is probable also that the drainage sink becomes more or less completely clogged at times, retarding the escape of water, and in this case the prairie may continue as a lake through a succession of years. *Bull. No. I, Fla. Geol. Survey, p. 60, 1908.
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136 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Variation in this lake has been more or less perfectly recorded since the time of the earliest settlements in this section. When visited by Bartram in 1776 this basin was known as "Alachua s£ivannah" and served as grazing ground for stock belonging to the Indians.* The basin was visited by James Pierce in 1824 and was dry at that time. The water in the basin is said by W. W. Cameron who lives near its margin, to have been very low in 1861. When visited by Dr. E. A. Smith in 1880, the basin was comparatively full, forming a lake. The basin in fact is reported to have continued as a lake from 1S71 or 1873 to 189 1. In the fall of 1891 the basin became dry, and, with the exception of temporary overflows, has been dry much of time since that date. It is possible that the higher water stage in the basin during the years from 1871 to 1891 was due to partial clogging of the sink. The records of rainfall during these years for this section is unfortunately lacking. The following account of the disappearance of Alachua Lake appeared in the Providence Journal for September 14, 1891. The account is given with some omissions as quoted by Dr. W. H. Dall in Bui. 84, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 94, 1892. "A curious spectacle was to be seen on the outskirts of Gainesville, Florida, recently. Alachua Lake * * * jg no more. On its banks were lying thousands of dead tish * * * and the atmosphere was heavy with noxious gases. Men and boys were there in throngs with hoes and rakes, dragging to shore hundreds of fish which had sought the pools for refuge. The waters were fairly alive with their struggles for existence. Except for a small stream known as Payne's Creek flowing from Newnan's Lake into the Sink, the two main basins of the Sink, and a few stagnant pools, no water is now to be seen where a few years ago steamers were ploughing their way. This is the second time since 1823, that a similar occurrence has taken place. At that time the bed of the lake was a large prairie — Payne's Prairie — having in it a body of water called the Sink and a sinall creek. In 1868 heavy rains filled up the prairie, but the water disappeared after a short time and the prairie was again dry land. In 1873, after a series of heavy rains, the Sink overflowed .and the creek swelled to the dimensions of a lake. During several years the waters increased till a larger lake was formed, and for fully fifteen years sufficient depth of water stood over the prairie to allow of small steamers. During the last two years, however, the waters have been gradually lowering, and .about four weeks ago they commenced going down with surprising rapidit3% the lake falling about eight feet in ten days, until now nothing is left of Alachua Lake but the memory of it. The Sink is considered the cause of this change. There is evidently an underground passage connected, and for some reason not understood, this underground passage has been acting as a drain until all the water in the lake has been drawn off." In this account the fact is noted as is usually the case that after the lake becomes somewhat restricted the water seemed to escape *Bartram's Travels, First Edition, page 203, 1791. Philadelphia.
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Fig. 32. — Lake Jackson. View taken from the nortli end uf the lake. Photograph by R. M. Harper. Fig. 33— Alligator Lake. View taken from the blnff overlooking the lake. Photograph by A. M. Henry.
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I'lll. .? I I he lliL (.1 I Akc I ..il.iytltr. \'"\ii. .iS. r.i\iu'-. ri.iiiic ,il Ii>\v w.iliT slum'. \'if\v from llic sink I'liolo I'lK,^" I'.iMu'-. ri.iiiic il low w.iln sl.iKi-. I'liolDKLipli liy l\ M. ll.iiniT.
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Fig. yj— Spouting well near Orlando. Photograph by T. P. Robinson.
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 1 45 with great rapidity. The rapid lowering of the surface is usually due, however, as previously stated, not to greater rapidity in the escape of the water, but to the fact that as the total surface area of the lake became greatly restricted the escape of a given amount of water lowers the surface much more rapidly. The following remarks regarding the lake appeared in the Washington Evening Star of September 19, 189 1. This quotation is also from Dr. Ball's report : "The Star recently printed an account of the disappearance of Alachua Lake in Florida, a lake that was so well established that a steamboat line was maintained on it. A U. S. Geological Survey party has been engaged at work in that region, A member of this party, Mr. Hersey Munroe, who is now in the city, gave an interesting' account of the lake, or rather the ex-lake, to .a Star reporter. "Alachua Lake," said Mr. Munroe, "is situated in north latitude 29 degrees 35 minutes and west longitude 82 degrees 20 minutes, in Alachua County, Fla., and 2 miles south of Gainesville, the county seat. The lake was formerly a prairie, known as Alachua prairie before the Seminole War during 1835-37. It has since been named Payne's Prairie, after King Payne, an old Seminole chief of an early day. The prairie was a great grazing spot for the Indians' cattle and later was used for a like purpose and for tillage by the whites, some fine crops of corn and cotton being grown. The prairie lands are immense meadows, covered by the finest grass, interspersed with clumps of beautiful oak trees and palmettoes. These Lands are subject to inundation during the summer season. Hatchet Creek rises 3 miles north of Gainesville and flows in every direction of the compass for a distance of 10 miles, emptying into Newnan's Lake, a beautiful sheet of water covering, 10 square miles. "how the lake was formed. "The overflow from Newnans Lake forms a large creek named Prairie Creek, which wended its way through Payne's Prairie to Alachua Sink, one of the curiosities of the State. There the waters found their way into a subterranean passage. Visitors, to have their curiosity gratified by seeing what the effect would be to have logs thrown into the sink, were the probable cause of the overflow of Payne's Prairie. The logs would float out to the center of the sink, whirl around in a circle and suddenly disappear. This choking of the outlet to the waters of Prairie Creek caused the overflow and made a sheet of water sufficient to float small steamers and other crafts. "One steamer in particular had a splendid freight traffic, during the vegetable season carrying shipments of vegetables from its wharf on Chacala pond across Alachua Lake to the mouth of Sweetwater branch, the nearest point to Gainesville, the principal place for shipment north. After the overflow and the forming of a lake it was christened Alachua Lake. This name has been decided upon by the United States Board on Geographic Names. Alachua Lake is 8 miles long, east and west, and in one place 4 miles in width, north and south, covers 16,000 acres, and the average depth is from 2 to 14 feet. "lowering for several years. "For several years the lake has been gradually lowering. The elevation of the water above sea level as given by the Savannah, Florida and Western Rail-
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146 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. road some years ago is 64 feet. By accurate levels run by one of the topographical parties of the Geological Survey working in this section during the winter of 1890-91 the elevation of the water was found to be 58 feet, thus showing that the lake had been changing elevation ; and about two weeks ago I was informed that Alachua Lake had disappeared entirely, that only small pools remained and the usual amount immediately around the sink." The early geological history of that section of Alachua County now occupied by these larger basins and lakes was apparently as follows : Originally the surface runoff from southeastern Alachua County made its way through Orange Creek and the Ocklawaha River into the St, Johns River. These streams were then heading Fig. 38. — Sketch map of Hogtown Prairie and surroundings, illustrating a stage in the development of a solution basin. From the Arredondo topographic sheet, U. S. Geol. Survey. The 60-foot contour line borders the prairie. back in the plateau region of Alachua County, and were fed both by the surface runoff and by the numerous small springs issuing from the clays and sands of the Apalachicola group underlying the
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. I47 plateau. In the course of time the streams cut down to or nearly to the underlying Vicksburg Limestone. The result of the closeapproach 10 tins limestone was tne tormation of sinks due to solution in the limestone. After the formation of the sinks it became possible for the water to pass through the sinks and find its escape by subterranean drainage. This process of solution and subsidence continued through long intervals of time has resulted in the formation of these numerous basins. Some of these basins have been carried to a level equal to or below their original outlet through Orange Creek. Basins may be seen at the present time in varying stages of development. In the plateau itself no basins are found. Even here, however, are found occasional sinks, the first evident effect of the reduction by solution. An illustration of a partially developed basin may be found in Sanchez Prairie near Hague. The country surrounding this small basin stands at a level of about i8o feet. The basin itself occupying an area of a few hundred acres is reduced to an elevation of about lOo feet above sea. Hogtown Prairie near Gainesville (Text figure 38) represents a more advanced basin. Hogtown Creek probably originally flowed through Alachua Basin, thence to the St. Johns River through Orange Creek. The formation of the sink, however, permitted a subterranean escape and around this sink is formed Hogtown Prairie, now separated from Payne's Prairie by elevations amounting to twenty or thirty feet. OCHEESEE LAKE. Of the few lakes occurring in Jackson County, Ocheesee Lake is perhaps the largest. This lake lies in the southeastern part of the county extending from near Grand Ridge in a southeasterly direction to within three or four miles of the Apalachicola River. Ihe total length of the lake is six or seven miles. In breadth it varies from a few rods to possibly three-fourths of a mile. At the northwest end the surrounding country rises very gradually. The southwest part of the lake, however, is surrounded by red sandy liills which rise from 75 to 100 feet above the bottom of the lake. The lake is perhaps best described in this instance as a swamp, the greater part of the lake bottom being occupied by a growth of cypress, although near the east end open water occurs over an area ox about 100 acres. The water from the lake sinks into the Chattahoocliee Limestone at the southeast end of the basin. The history of the development of this lake is very clear. Originally the drainage from this part of the county passed by
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148 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. a surface stream to the Apalachicola River, At a distance of three or four miles from the river, this stream, after cutting its channel some depth, reached the Chattahoochee Limestone. When this formation was reached the water passed into the earth, the drainage becoming subterranean. Subsequent erosion carried the basin to its present level. METHODS OF DRAINAGE. Two methods of draining basins of this type may be considered, (i) drainage by surface ditching to some stream or other outlet lying at a lower level; or (2) drainage into the underlying water bearing formation. DRAINAGE BY SURFACE DITCHING. Surface ditching usually suggests itself as the more natural method of drainage, and it is often inferred in the absence of definite information that the lakes lie at a higher level than near-by streams. This frequently is not the case, and such an assumption miay lead to a very costly error. A lake or prairie of this type a few miles southeast of Citra was connected many years ago by canal at considerable expense with a tributary of the Ocklawaha River. Upon completion of the canal it was found that the lake basin was at a lower level than the stream bed, the water from the stream actually flowing into the lake. The peculiar method of formation of these lake basins by solution, as previously explained, carries them frequently to a lower level than the stream which served in earlier stages as an outlet. . Lake lamonia as previously stated lies practically on a level with the Ocklocknee River, and receives the overflow of that river during high water stages. Alachua Lake basin lies, as shown by the topographic map, at practically the same level as Orange Lake and the headwaters of Orange Creek which served formerly as the outlet. DRAINAGE INTO THE UNDERLYING FORMATIONS BY WELLS. Drainage into the underlying formations takes place naturally through the sinks already existing. Artificial drainage either by enlarging the sinks, or wells dug or drilled through to the water bearing formation is frequently resorted to. In either case the principle is the same. The underlying limestone is porous and cavernous, and is filled with water to a definite although slightly variable line or level known as the permanent underground water level.
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SOME FLORIDA^ LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. lAQ \ Solution in the limestone occurs both above and below the water line, but chiefly above. As solution continues the overlying material is no longer able to support its own weight and caves in, forming a sink or natural opening from the surface to the limestone. As long as this sink remains open, water passes through and escapes readily into the limestone. Drilled or dug wells serve as artificial openings to the same formation. Wells drilled into this limestone will serve either as supply wells from which water may be pumped or as drainage wells into which water may be conducted. It is generally the case that a well entering this formation that can not bo appreciably affected by pumping, will also conduct water readily. If the openings into the well are sufficiently free to permit ready flow to the well when being pumped, they are, conversely, sufficiently open to allow the water to spread rapidly from the well when used as a drainage well. The amount of water held in the pores and cavities of the limestone is so great that the water level is not appreciably afifected either by the water removed when a well is being pumped, or by the water added when a well or sink is used for drainage purposes. Attempts to enlarge existing sinks or to re-open sinks that have become clogged have usually proved futile. It is doubtless true that the opening through sinks is a more or less winding channel and to rc-open this when clogged with debris is difficult. Better success has been obtained by dug or drilled wells. Where the underlying porous formation into which the. well is to be drained lies near the surface, dug wells can be used to advantage and may be preferable. Dr. H. Bjystra has used this method in draining a small lake or "prairie" on his farm near Brooksville, Florida. At this locality the cavernous limestone lies near the surface and is reached by relatively shallow wells. The one difficulty experienced as reported by Dr. Bjystra is the fact that during the summer rainy season in one or two instances the rainfall has been so heavy within a short space of time that the wells were unable to carry away the water as fast as it fell, the result being temporary overflow of the farm and serious injury to growing crops. When used as pasture land the temporary or partial overflows are, of course, less serious. Drilled or bored wells have been in some instances notably successful. An advantage in the drilled well is that it can be put down to any required depth, and when properly cased and screened is permanent. The effectiveness of the well is dependent upon the structure of the formation penetrated. If the water-conducting power of the formation reached by the well is slight a limit is thereby placed on the effectiveness of the well. Unless the flow of
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150 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. water at the bottom of the well is free the in-take of water is necessarily limited. Assuming free movement of the water at the bottom of the well, the rapidity of in-take and hence the efficiency of the well is influenced by (a) size of well; (b) construction of well; (c) depth of water above the mouth of the pipe; (d) distance from the top of the pipe to the underground water level.* (a) The capacity of a drain pipe increases rapidly with increased diameter. The area of the section of the pipe is proportionate to the square of the diameter. Thus the area of the cross section of a 12-inch well is nine times that of a 4-inch well. Moreover, for a given velocity the friction of movement is less in a large than in a small pipe. (b) The construction of a well also affects its rapidity of intake. When the pipe is cut off squarely at the top according to the usual custom, the full capacity of the well is not realized. The rapidity of in-take may be appreciably increased by the use of a flared or bell-shaped mouth at the top of the pipe. (c) If the underground water level lies some distance from the surface and if there is free discharge at the bottom of the well, siphonage or draft-tube action increases the rate of flow. When the distance from the top of the pipe to the underground water level is 37, feet or over, the maximum possible draft-tube head of 32.8 feet may be available. (d) The influence of the depth of water above the mouth cf the pipe is as follows : Assuming that the water flows into the pipe as through an orifice, the in-take at the mouth of the pipe will be proportionate to the square root of the depth of the water above the mouth of the pipe. The velocity of flow in the drainage well may be measured by means of Pitot's tube. This is a bent tube one arm of which is graduated, used to determine the velocity of running water. To make the measurement insert the tube vertically in the top of the pipe, the short end projecting upward and having its mouth a few inches below the top of the drain pipe. The velocity of flow in the pipe is expressed within close limits by the following formula in which h is the height in inches to which the water rises in the long arm above the surface of the lake.* v= V^^W = ''' V' *U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Paper, 145, p. 36, 1905. R. E. Horton.
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. I5I The flow in cubic feet per second into the well will be dsjTi Q= 0.0055 rf^V=__L_ „,,Hy In this formula Q represents the flow in cubic feet per second ; d is the inside diameter of the pipe in inches, and h the height in inches to which the water rises in the long arm above the surface of the lake. V is the velocity of flow. A notably successful instance of drainage by wells where the interests of a municipality were involved occurred at Orlando, Florida, and was given in Bulletin No. i, as follows: "A very considerable land area south and east of Orlando, embracing possibly fourteen square miles, lies in an irregualr basin with many lakes, marshes, and ponds. The overflow from this area originally drained to and disappeared through a natural sink about one mile east of the city. This sink became clogged in April, 1904. Unsuccessful efforts were made to re-open this sink, first by removing hyacinths accumulated around the opening, and later b)' the use of dynamite. In the meantime, heavy and continued rains formed a lake around the sink, overflowing the surrounding lands. In August, 1904, efforts were made to dispose of the water through drainage wells. The first well put down was a two-inch test well. The well reached a porous stratum and was thought to justify the expense of a larger and deeper well. Difficulty and delay were experienced in the drilling, but by August, 1905, two wells, one eight-inch and one twelve-inch, put down at the side and near the original sink, had been completed. Two other wells were started and abandoned owing to the difficulties in drilling. The two successful wells were running at full capacity. It was thought probable that the two wells already put down would prove sufficient. Heavy rains followed, and by January, 1906, a considerable area, including some cultivated ground, was flooded, practically all county roads leading into Orlando from the east were partly under water and impassible. The colored settlement known as Jonestown in the suburb of Orlando was partly under water and uninhabitable; the water was approaching the city of Orlando itself and the situation was becoming alarming. Levels taken by the county authorities indicated that drainage through surface canals was impossible or impracticable. Two additional twelve-inch wells were bored in November and December of 1906. The effect of these was evident at once, the lake beginning to fall. By February a third twelve-inch well had been completed making in all one eight-
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152 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. inch well and four twelve-inch wells running at this time. By the end of March the water had returned practically to its normal level and has since been kept under control. "Four of these drainage wells are located near the original sink and have a uniform depth of 140 feet, a cavity several feet in diameter having been reached at that depth. The fifth well is located one-half mile west of the sink, and terminates in a porous stratum at a depth of 340 feet." Since the completion of these wells by the city a number of other drainage wells have been put down by individuals, used largely to reclaim trucking and farming lands. One of these drainage wells near Orlando developed recently the unusual phenomenon of spouting. The well is located three miles north of Orlando on land belonging to Charles T. Myers. It was drilled in 1907 jointly by Mr. Myers and Messrs. McNeal ard Davis, the latter gentlemen having the property leased for farming purposes. The well is twelve inches in diameter and has a total depth of 260 feet, is cased 60 feet, and it is located at the edge of a small lake. The level of permanent underground water cii this locality is 2)3 ^^^t from the surface. Trucking is carried on around the border of the lake and the well is intended, by carrying off the surplus water, to prevent the lake from rising above a given level, since to do so would flood the farming land. The well is similar in character to the other drainage wells of this locality and as in the case of most of the other wells, terminates in a cavity in the limestone. The well was first seen by the writer October 4, 19 10. At this time the water of the lake stood a few inches above the level of the pipe and the well was receiving water at much less than its full carr3^ing capacity. At intervals of a few minutes the well would reverse itself and spout, throwing a column of water into the air. The spouting comes on gradually. First the well ceases to receive Vv'ater and begins bubbling; the column of water follows, rising'with considerable force to a height of twenty feet or more above the surface, the spout occurred with tolerable regularity at intervals or four minutes. Mr. R. D. Unis, who has charge of the farm, states, however, that the intervals between spouts vary from two to fifteen minutes, being probably influenced by varying conditions under which the water enters the well. (Fig. 37). Although drilled about three years ago and receiving water more or less constantly since that time the phenomenon of spouting developed for the first time on September 26, 1910, the first spouting having occurred about eight o'clock on the morning of that
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 1 53 day. The well continued spouting without interruption for a Httle more than a week and until shut off by the owner. Various fanciful theories have been advanced to account for the Spouting, including supposed occurrence of gas and oil, and the supposed influence of recently formed sinks in the interior of the State. The true explanation is evidently much more simple. At the present stage of the lake the well is receiving water at less than its full carrying capacity and as the water enters the vertical pipe it forms a suction carrying a large amount of air into the well, which doubtless collects in a chamber or cavity along the side or at the bottom of the well. As the well continues receiving water the air accumulates under pressure in the earth until ultimately the pressure under which the air is confined is sufficient to overcome the weight of the overlying water and hence rushes out with considerable force carrying the column of water with it. The fact that the well when first drilled did not spout, and afterwards began spouting, doubtless indicates that the essential conditions were subsequently developed either by caving or by other changes in the underground cpnditions. The spouting of the well is therefore on the principle of the airlift pump in which air under pressure is conveyed into the well through a special tube for that purpose and being liberated in the well lifts a column of water to the surface. In this spouting veil, however, the air pressure is developed within the well. This well may, therefore, be classed as a self pumping well. When partly shut off so that only a limited amount of water enters, the air taken into the well is able to return to the surface freely. Under these conditions spouting ceases. It is probable that if an elbow is placed on the well, allowing the water to enter laterally instead of vertically, the amount of air taken into the well v.'ill be so far reduced that the spouting will cease. Likewise when the lake rises so that the water stands several feet above the top of the pipe entering the well it is to be expected that the spouting will cease, since the pipe will then be carrying water at its full capacity, and little or no air under these conditions entering the well.* The drainage wells are themselves remarkable and found in such perfection only under geological conditions similar to those existing in Florida. Of the many peculiarities of these wells, . *Since the above was written very heavy rains attending the storm of October 17, 1910, caused the lake to rise 18 to 20 inches, and Mr. Unis writes that when the water rose in the lake the well ceased spouting.
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154 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. however, that of spouting is certainly the most striking and reKiarkable. It is of interest to note that a similar spouting well has been reported by Professor McCallie at Albany, Georgia.* In considering the use of wells for drainage purposes the relation of the lake basin to the underground water level should first be definitely determined. The effectiveness of the well is reduced as the water level is approached, and it is of course obvious that the water in the lake can in no case be carried below the underground water level. Many of the larger lake basins are known to liivery close to the water level. If the lake basin lies as low as the permanent water level it is obvious that the water in the lake can not be drained by wells, moreover since the effectiveness of the well is affected by the near approach to the water level, it is hardly practicable to reduce the water in the lake quite to the permanent underground water level. It must also be borne in mind that while the underground water is a permanent supply the water level or water line is not stationary, but varies with the seasons. The amount of variation for the locality concerned should be determined. The fact that a lake basin stands somewhat above the water line at the close of a long dry season 's not proof that it will be found to s^and above the water line after a season of heavy rainfall. In some sections of the state the range of variation of the water line has been found to be as much as ten feet, and may in some instances exceed that amount. The relation between the level of the lake basin and the underground water has been determined for a few of the lakes. Measui-ements of Alachua Lake were made in 1907 and again in 1909. When measured in October, 1907, the water level in Alachua Lake was found to be 2.01 feet above the level of the underground water of the Vicksburg Limestone formation as determined from the Gainesville City well.* When measured in November, 1909, the water in the sink stood approximately 1.4 feet above the water level in the limestone as indicated by the city well. At the time these measurements were made the lake was at a low water stage. The underground water level was likewise at a low stage. From these measurements it appears that Alachua Lake during the dry seasons at least is lowered by natural drainage through the sink to or practically to the underground water level. During the rainy season the water in the lake doubtless rises above this level, although it must be borne in mind that the water line also rises during the rsiny season, a fact that should be borne in mind when planning drainage. *Science, Vol. 24, p. 694, 1906. *For a record of this well, see Bui. No. i, pp. 30 and 88-89, 1908.
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 1 55 Approximate measurements of the water level in Alligator Lake near Lake City have also been made. This is one of the smaller basins and the measurements indicate that the level of the water in the lake stands appreciably above the underground water level. In this instance the measurements of the water level and the lake level were made at different seasons of the year and the results can be only approximately compared. The data on this lake are as follows : Levels made by Professor N. H. Cox, on June 19, 1903, showed that the water in Alligator Lake stood 94.22 feet below the Union Depot at Lake City. The lake at the time the levels were made was at medium full stage. The water of the Lake City public well, located near, and en about the same level as the depot was found at the time the well was completed in 1907 to stand 134 feet from the surface. Allowing for any correction that it might be necessary to make owingto the fact that the measurements of lake level and ground 't3 water level were not made at the same time it would still seem that the lake basin in this instance stands somewhat above the water level. RELATION OF THE GROUND WATER LEVEL TO THE FORMATION OF SINKS. It is of interest in this connection to note the influence of the ground water level on the formation of sinks. Sinks do not form in Florida in that part of the State in which the water first encountered as permanent water in the limestone is under sufficient pressure to flow at the surface. The reason for this seems obvious. In areas of artesian flow, such cavities as exist in the limestone are filled with water under pressure, which, together with the resistance of the strata to breakage, is sufficient to prevent the overlying materials from subsiding and thus forming sinks. Along the border line between the flowing and non-flowing area the artesian water frequently breaks out forming springs. On the other hand the areas of most rapid formation of sinks are those in which (i), the limestone is rather near the surface; (2), the underground water level is below, although comparatively near the surface, and (3), the materials lying above the water bearing limestones are so far disintegrated that they permit the surface water, rainfall, to pass readily through them into the limestones beneath. Under these conditions the fluctuation of the water level has a pronounced effect. When the water level is high, as following the rainy season, the materials are water soaked almost to the surface. When the water level is
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156 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. low, following a prolonged drought, the support is withdrawn, and the already partially disintegrated strata break and subside into such cavities as have been formed by solution in the limestone. Where the strata lying above the limestones reach a considerable thickness their resistance to breakage is of itself sufficient to prevent the formation of sinks. No specified thickness of strata can ibe given through which sinks will not break, since this depends both upon the character of the strata and the size of the cavities in the underlying limestone. In the plateau section of Florida sinks have broken through as much as 100 feet of materials, a large part of which, however, are themselves more or less calcareous and phosphatic, and hence may have been rem.oved in part by solution before breaking. Fig39— Sketch indicating the relation between ground water level, surface level, sinks and lake basins in central Florida from near Gainesville, passing through Payne's Prairie and Orange lake and following the Ocklawaha river to the St. Johns river. The surface level is represented by the line "a"; the artesian water 'level by "b"; the top surface of the principal water bearing limestones, chiefly, if not entirely the Vicksburg formation, by "c." The verticail scale of the drawing is i in. equals approximately 100 ft.; horizontal scale, i in. equals 5 miles. The materials lying above the water-bearing limestones include, in the vicinity of Gainesville chiefly the Alum Bi'.uff formation, while east of Orange Lake, later formation overlie the Alum Bluff. All of these formations dip toward the east, although in this sketch the dip appears exaggerated, owing to the differences between the vertical and horizontal scales. The surface level on the plateau, on the edge of which the city oi Gainesville stands, is about 180 feet above sea. Upon going down this escarpment to Payne's Prairie, the surface level falls to from 60 to 80 feet above sea, this elevation being maintained with little variation while crossing the group of basins which include Payne's Prairie, Orange and other lakes. Beyond Orange lake the slope is gradual to the St. Johns river, which is within a few feet of the sea level.
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SOMK I'l OKIDA I.AKKs AND [.AKl-: I'.ASINS. 1^7 The artesian water level, "b", in the vicinity of Gainesville on the plateau, is 125 to 130 feet be'jovv the surface (50 to 55 ft. above sea level). In passing to the coast, this line shows a gradient and at the St. Johns river is probably about 50 feet above sea level. Tn the section represented by this sketch, the artesian water line crosses the surface somewhat east of Orange Lake, this beinti^ the border line between the flowing and the non-flowing artesian areas. In the area of artesian flow, that is east of the point in this sketch, at which the line representing the water level crosses the surface, sinks do not occur and are not to be expected. Along the border line of the escarpment sink formation is most active, in the pilateau where the limestones are covered with a thickness of 100 feet or more of stratified materials, sinks form less frequently. The escarpment shown in the sketch has been formed and is being carried inland by surface erosion and underground solution, the formation of sinks being one of tlie results of solution. VARIATION IN THE GROUND WATER LEVEL. The ground water level is first of all subject to change owing to the annual wet and dry seasons. Almost one-half of the annual rainfall in Florida occurs during the summer months, and following this season the ground water level rises for a time, reaching its maximum some weeks after the rainy season ends. It then gradually falls until the next following rainy season begins. This may be regarded as the normal variation on the ground water level, which amounts in places where it has been measured to from eight to ten feet or more. This variation in water level affects as a rule not materially the amount of water that a well will supply upon pumping, but merely the level at which the water stands in the well. In the case of flowing artesian wells, however, it is indicated by a change in the pressure, and those wells located near the border line between the flowing and the non-flowing area may cease to flow during the dry season. A second and more marked variation in the ground water level arises from those periods including often a succession of years, of reduced rainfall, or a similar period of excessive rainfall. The variation of the ground water level during such time, although not accurately determined, is evidently much greater than the normal annual variation. Not only does tlie underground water level fluctuate according to seasonal and periodic rainfall, but it is also being gradually lowered by the lowering of its outlet. The underground water finds its natural outlet through springs which enter the streams or emerge into the ocean. Since the streams are constantlv deepening their channels it follows that the outlet for the underground water is being lowered and hence the water line itself is necessarilv beinsT o-rad-
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158 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. iially lowered. This gradual change in the water line in geologic time affects the life history of the lake basins, but does not of course affect the observed behavior of the lakes. SUMMARY, The basins of the temporary lakes have their origin in erosion by solution and by mechanical wash. Some of them appear to represent the enlarged valleys of what was originally a small stream. Sinks form along these streams diverting the course of the water into the underlying limestones. Other basins originate fromi sinks in no way connected with stream valleys. The origin of the sink was due primarily to solution in the limestone. After the sink is formed the general level of the surrounding area is lowered somewhat by mechanical wash, the material being carried into tlic sink. Subsequently other sinks form in the immediate vicinity, due also to solution. The large amount of water which entered the limestone from the sinks already formed facilitates solution and results in the formation of additional sinks. The continuance of this process through a long period of time results in the development of the large basins occupied by these lakes. From their manner of development it follows that the steepest bluffs as a rule are those immediately facing the active sinks. Likewise for reasons already given new sinks occur most frequentlv in the area immediately surrounding the active sink. The lakes occupy basins that have worked their way through the surface deposits, chiefly the Alum Bluff formation, down to or nearly to the underlying limestones of either the Chattahoochee or the Vicksbursf formations In anv case, however, tlie lake basins can scarcelv be lowered below ground water level, since for a stream entering a sink, the permanent ground water level is base level. The behavior of the lakes is largelv explained by the seasonal and periodic variation in the rainfall which affects the ground water level. The lakes appear to go dry suddenly. This, however, is often more apparent than real. So long as the entire basin is submerged, the water line recedes so slowly as scarcely to be noticed. Afterwards, however, when only a part of the basin is covered, or when there is water only in the small basin immediately around the sink, the water lowers very rapidly and the lake seems to be suddenly running dry. It is true, however, that the escape of the water is not infrequently facilitated by the formation at low water stages of new sinks. It is doubtless true that some of the lakes, especially the
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SOME FLORIDA LAKES AND LAKE BASINS. 1 59 smaller ones, could be drained by surface ditching. Any attempt at drainage should be preceded, however, by the preparation of a carefully made topographic map of the region, or at least sufficient exact leveling should be made to determine definitely the relation of the lake basin to the proposed outlet, and to the intervening country. While some of these lakes can be drained by bored wells it is not to be assumed that all can be so drained. As has been shown some of these lake basins, especially the larger ones, have been lowered by solution practically to the permanent underground water level. Before attempting drainage by wells definite data should be obtained as to the relation between the level of the lake basin and the underground water level of that locality. This information can often be obtained by running a line of levels from the lake to a near by deep well and comparing the level of water in the lake with the level at which the water stands in the well. If necessary, test wells may be drilled before undertaking large wells. Such lakes as have been lowered by natural drainage actually to the underground water level can of course be lowered no further by wells.
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THE RELATION BETWEEN THE DUNNELLON FORMATION AND 1 HE ALACHUA CLAYS OF FLORIDA. E. H. SELLARDS. The term "Alachua Clays" was proposed by Dr. VV. H. Dall in 1885 for the clay beds in the vicinity of Archer from which at that time extensive collections of vertebrate fossils were being made. The hrst published account in which this term was used, however, is found in Bulletin 84 of the United States Geological Survey, page 127, 1892. The formation is there described as occurring in sinks, gullies and other depressions in the Upper and Lower Oligocene (then regarded as Aliocene and Eocene respectively). The clays were considered by Dall as representing a remnant of a previously more extensive formation. Although in his original description, Dall mentions a number of localities, including those on Peace Creek, Caloosa Piver and rock crevice's at Ocala, now known to be ^ of later date, yet the deposits are sufficiently characterized by the description of the exposures in the vicinity of Archer which are regarded as the typical localities. The term "Dunnellon formation" was first used by the writer m 1910 to designate the extensive deposits which hold the hard rock phosphates of Florida. While the prevailing phase of the Dunnellon formation is light gray phosphatic sands, the deposits include also local beds, lenses, or masses of clay, as well as phosphate rock, flint boulders, pebble conglomerate and limestone fragments. A recent examination of typical localities has convinced the writer that the Alachua Clays and the Dunnellon formation are not separable, the former representing, in fact, a local phase of the latter. The Dunnellon formation, as I have elsewhere shown, has accumulated from the residue of the formations that have disintegrated in situ, the material having been reworked to a considerable extent, through the agency of the sinks, sink hole ponds, small lakes and local streams that existed in this area during the earlier stages of its physiographic development.* *Fla. Geol. Surv. Third Ann. Report, p. 32, igio; and Fifth Ann. Report, pp. 53-56. IQ13. 161
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1 62 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. The Alachua Clays, with little doubt, represent the location of such sinks, ponds or lakes. This view is supported by the local extent of the clay beds, the manner in which the fossils are imbedded, as well as by the species that are found in the clay. Sinks very possibly began to form in central Florida as early as the late Miocene. Sink formation must certainly have been active during the Pliocene, and has continued in fact through the Pleistocene to the present. It would seem, however, that the Pliocene was the time in which sink hole ponds, small' lakes, and local surface streams reached their abundant and typical development in this part of the State. An analagous stage of development may be observed in adjacent sections of the State at the present time. The vertebrate fauna of the Dunnellon formation and the Alachua Clays is practically the same, including the mastodon, rhinoceros, camel and early horse.* \\'ith these late Miocene or early Pliocene forms is found Odocoileits, Tapirus, Megatherium and other late Pliocene or Pleistocene types. The mixing of fossils results unavoidably from the manner of accumulation of the deposits, for while the formation is believed to have accumulated chiefly during the Pliocene, yet sink formation having continued later forms were carried into the deposits and mixed with the earlier. The term "Alachua Clays," although descriptive of the localities to which it was applied, yet is not applicable to the formation as a whole. Since, however, this term has precedence in time, and is also well established in literature, it seems advisable to drop the term "Dunnellon formation," and to designate the deposits as a whole as the Alachua formation. *The mastodon found in these deposits is M. floridanus. The horse is Neohipparion, of which at least two species are present. The camel found in the Alachua clay deposits, of which three species have been described, was identified by Leidy and Lucas as Procanielus. Two species of rhinoceros are also recognized, namely Teleoceras fossiger and Aphelops nialachoriniis.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA ROLAND M. HARPER 163
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INTRODUCTION In connection with the preparation of the report on the peat deposits of Florida, issued by the State Geological Survey in 1910 in co-operation with the United States Geological Survey, Dr. R. M. Harper, the author, collected during the years 1908, 1909 and 1910, a large number of notes relating to the natural geographic divisions and the native vegetation of the State. The data thus obtained formed the basis of the division of the State into geographic provinces as given in the peat report. Since the publication of that report, however, Dr. Harper has materially added to these notes, and to the bibliographic references bearing on this subject. He has taken also a large number of photographs, most of those used in this report having been contributed by him. The division of the State into its geographic provinces as given in the earlier report having proved useful and suggestive, and the edition of that report being now practically exhausted, it has seemed advisable, utilizing the large amount of data already available, to issue a detailed report relating specifically to the geography and vegetation of the State. For this purpose the data on hand are being supplemented, and have been brought up to date for northern Florida by additional field work by Dr. Harper during the year 1914. For southern Florida additional data are necessary. The present report is therefore limited to northern and western Florida, including about Iwo-fifths of the area and three-fifths of the present population of the State. The problem of determining the agricultural capabilities of virgin soils by means of the native vegetation is one that has engaged many investigators, and there is perhaps no place in the eastern United States where this question can be studied to greater advantage or profit than in Florida where the original vegetation still remains over approximately nine-tenths of the whole area. Moreover, since the agricultural lands of Florida are being rapidly settled and cleared it is important to preserve at this time a record of the original distribution of the native vegetation together with its relation to the geographic divisions of the State, and to make this record available in subsequent more detailed soil studies. 165
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1 66 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. This report preserves these valuable records and is moreover a contribution toward a better understanding of the complex relationship which exists between native vegetation, topographic and drainage conditions and soils. E. H. Sellards, State Geologist.
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I CONTENTS. Page Scope of the report 171-172 Geographical significance of vegetation ^7Z-'^77 Methods of quantitative analysis 177-180 Plan of regional descriptions 180-189 Bibliographic references explained 180-181 Geology and soils 181-182 Climate (with table) 182-184 Vegetation types 184-185 Effects of fire 184 Effects of civilization 185 Plant lists explained 185-188 Symbols for relative abundance : 186 Treatment of weeds 187 Economic features 188-189 Map of northern Florida showing geographical divisions 190 The regions in detail 191-343 Synopsis of geographical divisions 191 1. Marianna red lands (Jackson County) 193-200, 346-349 2. West Florida lime-sink or cypress pond region 201-209, 348-353 3. Apalachicola River bluffs and bottoms 210-216, 352-355 4. Knox Hill country (Walton County) 217-222, 350-357 5. Holmes Valley (Washington County) 223-224, 356-357 6. West Florida lake region 225-228, 358-359 7. West Florida pine hills 229-241, 358-361 8. West Florida coast strip 242-247, 360-363 9. Apalachicola flatwoods 247-253, 364-365 10. Middle Florida hammock belt 254-265, 366-371 11. Tallahassee red hills (Leon County) 266-279, 372-375 12. Bellair sand region 280-288, 376-^,77 13. Wakulla hammock country 289-296, 378-381 14. Panacea Country (Wakulla Cdunty) _' 297-301, 380-381 15. Gulf hammock region 302-309, 382-383 16. Middle Florida flatwoods 310-313 17. Peninsular lime-sink region 314-3T9, 384-385 18. Peninsular lake region 320-325, 384-385 19. East Florida flatwoods Z^^-Z37j 386-387 20. East coast strip : 338-343, 388-391 Illustrations (see list on next page) 345-391 Statistical summary 393-396 Additional information about soils 397-399 List of trees 400-406 List of Ericaceae and Leguminosae 407-409 Bibliography 410-416 Index of plant names 417-437 Number of species enumerated 417 General index 439-451 167
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ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. Page 41. Hardwood forest about 7 miles N. W. of Marianna 347 42. Rocky hillside near Long Moss Spring 349 43. Wet pine land and lime-sink south of Sneads, Jackson Co. 349 44. Small dry lime-sink in eastern part of Walton Co. 349 45. Open pine woods on hill, western Washington Co. 35^ 46. Interior of a bay, western Washington Co. 35^ 47. Open pond with scattered cypress trees, Washington Co. 353 48. Interior of small May haw pond, Washington Co. 353 49. View from near top of Aspalaga Blufif, Gadsden Co. 353 50. Shady ravine with stinking cedar, Aspalaga Bluff 355 51. Muddy swamp of Apalachicola River, Liberty Co. 355 52. Dense second growth of short-leaf pine, Knox Hill country. 357 53. Looking north across Holmes Valley south of Vernon 357 54. Small circular lake in lake region, Washington Co. 359 55. Estuarine swamp of Blackwater River near Milton 359 56. Scene about 2 miles S. E. of DeFuniak Springs, Walton Co. 361 57. Branch-swamp and boggy slope between DeFuniak and Portland 361 58. Shore of St. George's Sound near Lanark 361 59. Treeless stationary dunes on Dog Island, Franklin Co. 3(^3 60. Forest of spruce pine on peninsula, Santa Rosa Co. 363 61. Looking south from old dunes near Lanark 363 62. Flatwoods on St. James Island, Franklin Co. T 365 63. Muddy bayou in estuarine swamps of Apalachicola River 365 64. Gum swamp or bay 5 miles W. N. W. of Tallahassee 367 65. Flatwoods near Capitola, Leon Co. 369 66. Marshy prairie about 5 miles east of Greenville 369 67. Santa Fe River near Worthington Sprmgs 371 68. Horizontal rows of peanuts around lime-sink, Alachua Co. 371 69. Landscape near Tallahassee, Leon Co. 373 70. Ponds and dead live oaks in fields, Leon Co. 373 71. Cypress, etc., in eastern part of Lake Lafayette 373 72. Short-leaf pine woods about 5 miles N. E. of Tallahassee 375 73. Red oak, dogwood, etc., about 3 miles north of Chaires 375 74. Long-leaf pine and black-jack oak near Bellair, Leon Co. 377 75. Munson's Lake or Pond, Leon Co. ._ 377 76. Looking up Wakulla River, Wakulla Co. 379 77. Deciduous forest near Crawfordville 379 78. Scene on road from Crawfordville to St. Mark's 381 79. Small bay about 2 miles N. W. of Panacea Springs 381 80. Marly (?) flatwoods, Taylor Co. 383 81. Interior of a low hammock, Lafayette Co. 383 82. High pine land with rosemary bushes, Alachua Co. 385 83. Deforested high pine land in phosphate country, Alachua Co. 385 84. Scrub on east side of Lake Kingsley, Clay Co. 385 85. Cypress pond near Bellamy, Alachua Co. 3S7 86. Lake Butler, Bradford Co. 387 87. Exposure of coquina on Anastasia Island 389 88. Salt marshes near Mayport 389 89. Salt marsh and hammock, Anastasia Island 391 90. Looking north on dunes, Anastasia Island 391 168
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ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. Page. 209. Second paragraph. About iwo-thirds of the inhabitants of regfion 2 are white. 225. Last line of table. For 33.5 read 3.9. 236. Line 2. After Fraxinus Caroliniana insert *. 240. Line 8 begins a new sentence, 247. The soils of region 9 seem to be more silty than those of other flatwoods regions. 254. Add to references, U. S. Bureau of Soils Circular ^2, on Payne's Prairie. 265. Line 8. Insert pears between peaches and English peas. 270. Middle paragraph. Gophers are said to occur near Bradfordville. 272. Near middle. Strike out one of the + marks before Quercus stellata. 276. Near middle. Move Goldenrod up one line. 277, Line 13. For Euphorbia heterophylla read E. dentata. 277. Line 17. After Cenchrus tribuloides insert (X) 279. Second paragraph. There are gates across, the roads at the edges of this region in several places, to keep out cattle from neighboring free-range regions. 323. Line 2. Insert + before Serenoa serrulata. 338. Add to references, Harshberger (64, 69, 71). 342. Line 13 of first paragraph, for "and" read "or." The names of the following evergreens, printed in ordinary type, should have been in bold-face : Page 197. Line 21. Persea Borbonia, 198. Line 22. Sebastiana ligustrina. 199. Line 2. Polystichum acrostichoides. 220. Line 41. Epidendrum conopseum. 220. Line 45. Asarum arifolium. 234. Line 16. Quercus laurifolia. 260. Line 8. Osmanthus Americana. 263. Line 4. Eriogonum tomentosum. 405. Line 40. Batodendron arboreum (semi-evergreen). (There are doubtless other errors of this kind due to insufficient observation of some of the smaller shrubs and herbs in winter.) Typographical errors which are self-evident are not mentioned here. 169
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. Scope of the REroRT. The territory covered by this report is that part of Florida north of the southern boundaries of Lafayette, Alachua, Putnam and St. Johns Counties, an area of about 22,600 square miles. Within this area there is so much diversity of geographical conditions that any attempt to treat it as a unit, as is commonly done with whole states or countries in encyclopedias and school geographies, would be very unsatisfactorv as well as unscientific. The wants of some readers would be best serv'ed by describing each county separately, but that would be equally unscientific, and would involve too much repetition. But the area can be divided into natural geographical division.^, which are almost as numerous as counties, and therefore average but little larger ; and as each division is essentially homogeneous throughout, speaking in a general way, a description of the country by regions has decided advantages over any other plan. A classification of geographical divisions for the whole state was given in the Third Annual Report of the State Geological Survey four years ago. The northern part is now subdivided somewhat more minutely and probably more accurately than was done at that time, and the salient characters of each region are described separately, with special emphasis on the vegetation, for reasons explained elsewhere. Although the writer has been in every county and traversed nearly every mile of railroad in northern Florida more than once, and has re-visited everv" division herein described during the present vea'r. it has of course been out of the question to explore everv township in the few vears available ; and previous publications contain verv little information about the sections not yet A^sited. which are mostly remote from railroads. For this and other obvious reasons the regional descriptions are necessarily very generalized : and it has not been possible to make allowance for many exceptions, such as hills in some of the flattest regions, fertile spots in some of the poorest regions, etc. Likewise features which n 171
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1/2 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SUR\'EY SIxTH AXXUAL REPORT. have been full}' described in other easily accessible publications are not dwelt on at length.* This report discusses not only the more striking natural features of each region, but also certain economic features, in order to illustrate the manner in which and the extent to which the natural resources (other than minerals and underground waters, which ha\e been treated in considerable detail in previous publications of the Survey) have been utilized. This sort of information really belongs more to the domain of a census or statistical bureau, but it is given here because it seems appropriate, and because such data have heretofore been given only for counties and other political divisions, instead of natural divisions. In this way some very interesting differences between neighboring regions in density of population, status of the lumber industry, leading crops, etc., are brought out, and many geographical corrections can be made l)etween these features and soil, topography and vegetation. As in all scientific reports, the use of some technical terms is unavoidable, but these are explained as far as possible, and most of the matter which, although necessary to the proper exposition of the subject, will interest scientists more than any other class of readers is printed in smaller type, which the average reader can avoid if he desires. The writer will always be grateful for having his attention called to errors and serious omissions, or statements which could be improved upon without undulv increasing the length of the report ; and all such criticisms will be taken advantage of in future publications. *In many ways the best description of the natural and agricultural features of Florida ever published is the report on cotton production by Dr. Eug.ene A. Smith in the sixth volume of the Tenth Census, covering about 80 quarto pages, with three maps. Its accuracy is rcm.arkable, considering the fact that the author spent only about six weeks in Florida, and that in the rainy season (summer) and at a time (1880) when there were no railroads in the State south of latitude 28° and only a few north of there. Tn preparing this report he had the advantage of long experience in an adjoining state, and he was unusually successful in extracting rehal)le information from the writings of some of his predecessors in Florida. He also brought out many new facts, especially in relation to the geology. The descriptive matter in Dr. Smith's report, as in most of the other state descriptions in the same series, is arranged both In natural divisions and bv counties.
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geography and vegetation of northern florida. 1 73 Geographical Significance of \'egetation. Native vegetation is probably the most sensitive indicator of geographical conditions that can be found ; for every variation in soil or climate is reiiected in some way in the vegetation, so that if we understood the matter perfectly we could tell by inspection of the vegetation of an uninhabited region, without examining the soil at all, just what its agricultural possibilities would be. There is no better place in the eastern United States to apply this sort of knowledge than Florida, for in most parts of the state not more than lo per cent of the land is under cultivation as yet, and the relations between soil and vegetation are often very marked.* The fundamental facts about the \-egetation set forth in the following" pages ought to become more and more valual)le in the future when the farms have encroached upon the forests to such an extent as to make the opportunities for this sort of investigation much more limited than they are at present. In most of the other eastern states some types of vegetation have disappeared entirely, and others have been mutilated so that it is no longer possible to form an adequate idea of their original condition. In an area as small as that under consideration the diversity of vegetation seems to be due almost entirehto soil and topography, and the climatic belts or "life-zones" into which the whole continent is sometimes divided cannot he used. Many attempts have been made in other parts of the world to correlate vegetation with soil, but few general principles of world-wide application have been deduced as yet, apparently because the vegetation has nearlv always been studied qualitatively and taxonomicallv instead of quantitatively and morphologically. In other words. iuA'-estigators have usually tried to connect environmental conditions with the presence or *Tn fact most of tlie attempted classifications of Florida soils that were published vry to very recently have heen classifications of vegetation primarily, for they make use of such terms as "high pine land," "hammock." "swamp," "scrub" and "prairie," which arc vegetation types rather than soil types. And maps of Florida and parts thereof on a large scale show many vegetation features, such as San Pedro P.av, Pa>ne's Prairie, the Gulf Hammock (Levy Co.). "Swamp with dense growtli of cypress and red cedar" (Hernando Co.), Annuttalagga Hammock (Hernando Co.), Grass Slough (DeSoto Co.), the Rig Sawgrass (DeSoto and Lee Cos.), the Big Cypress (Lee Co.), and the Everglades. (See also 3d Annual Report, plates 11-13: 5th. plates 10-12).
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1/4 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. absence of certain species, regardless of their relative abundance and structural adaptations. In a certain neighborhood a certain plant may be common and apparently confined to a particular geological fonnation or type of soil, so as to lead to the belief that it is a good indicator of that type of soil* ; but if a few specimens of the same plant are afterwards found on a very difTerent soil in another part of the country that hypothesis is usually abandoned. But again the plant on the other soil, at first supposed to be the same species, may upon closer investigation be found to be a little different, and thus the original correlation may be re-established. In such cases everything depends on correct identification, an art in which very few botanists .are proficient in this day and time. A much better way of correlating vegetation with soil is to determine (first the relative abundance of the different species in a given area, and then group together all those that have some character in common, such as trees, vines, evergreens, grasses, or plants belonging to some particular family, and see what proportion they make of the total. Some significant correlations can then often be made between these statistics and certain soil characters, such as texture or moisture or the percentage of some particular element or combination of elements. This kind of work could be carried on after a fashion by a botanist in a strange land where he did not know the name of a single plant; though of course it would be desirable to know the familv to which each one belonsfed. The usual way of studying the plant population of a state, county, or other area, is merelv to make a list of the species of plants, noting their local distribution, habitats, etc.; which is a study of the flora rather than of the 7'cc/cfation. The flora of Florida is now pretty well known, but this knowledge has been of comparatively little use to geographers. The inadequacv of qualitative studies may be illustrated by some analogies from other lines of investigation. A census report does not simply state that the population of a certain city, county or .state is composed of natives and of immigrants from England. France, Germany, etc., but tells exact*For references to several studies of this kind see Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 17:8-9 Cfootnote), 1906. See also Hilgard. Tenth Census U. S. 5:68 — 69, 76, 229. 1884: Soils. 487-526. 1906.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN TEORIUA. 175 ly how nikiiy ut each class. In describing the agricultural output of Florida we do not merely say that corn, cotton, oranges, vegetables, etc., are raised in the state, but we give the quantity of each in bushels, bales, or crates, as the case may be. A chemist in analyzing a mineral or soil or water or other substance does not content himself with making a list of the elements which it contains, but weighs each component carefully and expresses the results in percentages or in some other appropriate manner.* In this report the vegetation is discussed quantitatively throughout. In each regional description the names of all the plants ol> served (except the rarer ones, which are omitted) are brought together in a single list, without separating the different habitats. A detailed study of habitats or vegetation types would require much more repetition of plant names and take up more space in other ways, and would be far too great an undertaking for a preliminary report like this. At some time in the near future it may be desirable to take up one region at a time and classify its plants by habitat ; but the present study is essentially geographical, and the geographer *Some illustrations of the advantages of quantitative studies in correlating vegetation with soil may appropriately be inserted here. Two neighboring townships might both contain exactly the same species of pine and oak, say two or three of the former and a dozen of the latter, so that qualitative lists would show no difference between them. But if a forester should find that the virgin forests of one township averaged ten pines and a hundred oaks to the acre, while in the other the proportions were reversed, he would be justified in concluding that there was a considerable difference in soil, for it is well known that most oaks grow in richer soil than do most pines. Some valuable observations of this cliaracter were made by Coville and Branner in Arkansas a quarter of a century ago, long before most botanists had ever thought of studying vegetation quantitatively, f See Rep. Geol. Surv. Ark. for 1888, vol. 4, pp. 246-247.) It is a matter of common observation in the southeastern United States, if not in other parts of the world, that deciduous trees are most abundant, not onl)' in species but in individuals, on clayey and silty soils, and evergreens on sandy and peaty soils. But the differences between these soils are not merely physical. From all the available analyses of soils in which deciduous trees predominate it appears that they are all high in potassium (having usually at least 0.2 per cent soluble in hydrochloric acid), liowever much they may differ in calcium, phosphorus, nitrogen, and other essential constituents. .A.nd all soils with less than .05 per cent of acid-soluble potassium (or .06 per cent of potash, as it is usually expressed in analyses) which have come to the writer's knowledge are characterized by vegetation that is mostly evergreen. (The converse of these statements is not always true, however, for some soils well supplied with potassium support many evergreens. But in such
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176 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURNEV SLxTH AXXUAL REPORT. is not specially concerned with plant associations, which are more the province of the plant sociologist and ecologist. This meth(;d of lumping together all the plants of each region is analogous to that of the chemist who in analyzing a rock containing a mixture of several minerals grinds it all up and detemiines the composition of the whole, regardless of the separate minerals. The work of the plant sociologist is analogous to that of the mineralogist who might take the same rock and identify the minerals in it, and then analyze each mineral separately. The present paper seems to be the hrst attempt that has been made to analyze quantitatively the veg'etation (including shrubs and herbs as well as trees) of so large an area, and no doubt there is considerable room for improvement in the methods used. The methods here employed in making quantitative analyses of vegetation are described below, for the benefit of persons who may wish to test them in the same area, or to do similar work in other parts of the country. cases it appears that the avaihil:)ility of the potassium compounds is restricted by some unfavorable condition, such as cold in the far north, aridity in some of the western states, and perpetual saturation of the soil in estuarine swamps.) The soils of the "Yazoo Delta" of Mississippi contain from 0.25 to 0.91 per cent of potassium, according to Hilgard, and in that whole area of over 7,000 square miles there are practically no evergreens. Somewhat similar conditions exist in Indiana. Illinois, the western parts of Kentucky and Tennessee, and a good deal of contiguous territory. On the other hand, all the available analyses indicate that potassium is less abundant in the Atlantic coastal plain than in the regions of older formations, and evergreens are more abundant there than in any other part of the eastern United States. Potassium is said to be notably deficient in peat, the world over, and rather scarce in tropical soils: and the abundance of evergreens in peat l)ogs and in the tropics is well known. Epiphytes (air-plants') Jiave access to no potassium, or other mineral substances, except in tlie form of dust, and they are all evergreen. It seems, therefore, that the proportion of evergreen and deciduous trees in a given region or forest is a pretty good indication of the amount of available potassium compounds (commonly spoken of as potash) in the soil : and of course it is the number and size of the individuals rather than the number of species that counts. There is a widespread belief that calcium ("commonly expressed in terms of lime) is the most important factor in soil fertility: but however that may be, it does not seem to bear' any definite relation to evergreens. This belief ^originated long before the days of chemical analyses, liecause calcareous soils are usually recognizable at sight, while the presence of potassium can be demonstrated only by a rather laborious analysis. The average Florida soil seems to
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GEOGKAl'Jl V AX I) \ EGK'IATIOX OF XUKTJIKUN I-I.ORIDA. 1/7 f METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF VEGETATION. Up to ten or twelve years ago nearly all descriptions of vegetation were qualitative, and usually very incomplete besides. Toward the close of the last century, when the importance of quantitative studies was becoming apparent, botanists in the neighborhood of the Great Plains, where the vegetation is mostly prairie, devised the scheme (commonly known as the quadrat method) of counting all the plants on a measured area of ground (usually a meter square in grass-land, or ten meters in forests), repeating the process at several different places in the area studied, and then consolidating the returns. But where plants grow in tufts or colonies, like most grasses, it is practically impossible to cqunt them ; and after all it is not the number of individuals that is significant so nnich as their size. (For the productivity of a forest, orchard or field is not expressed in number of trees, stalks of corn or cotton, or hills of potatoes, but in cords of wood, feet of lumber, gallons of turpentine, boxes of oranges, bushels of corn, bales of cotton, etc.) This objection to the quadrat method could of coufse be met by pulling the plants up and weigh.ng them, but even in its present form it would take an enormous amount of time to apply it to a whole state or even a county. F"or many years foresters have been estimating timber by counting and measuring all the trees on selected typical areas, of an acre or so, and repeating the process at intervals over the whole tract that is being investigated. This method is ideal in its way, and has already been applied to small areas in Florida, but it is entirely too slow for present purposes. be better supplied with calcium than that of some of the interior states where deciduous trees are most prevalent, and limestone is particularly abundant in extreme southern Florida; but in that part of the state the potassium content of the soil is below the state average, and the vegetation is nearly all evergreen. For further information on tliLsuljject of the relation of potassium to vegetation the interested reader should consult an article by Dr. H. W. Wiley on "Potash and its function in agriculture'' in the Year-book of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1896, pp. 107-1,^6. and a short note by the same author in Science (II. 17:794-795) for May 15. 1903. The writer has published some observations on this point in (Jeol. Surv. Ala. Alonog. 8:28-29. 1913; 'J'orreya 13:140-141. 1913; Bull. Torrey Bot. Chib 40:398. 1913 ; 41:218, 1914; Rep. Mich. Acad. Sci. 15 :i97. 1914. Plants of the heath family (Ericaceae) seem to bear much the same relation to potassium that evergreen trees do, but may be influenced also by calcium ; while the majority of leguminous plants ( Leguminosae), as well as those belonging to the large families Euphorbiaceae and Compositae, seem to prefer dry soils poor in nitrogen, but well supplied with mineral plant food. Grasses evidently prefer richer soils than sedges, but just what elements are significant in these cases has not yet been determined. In all investigations of this character it is essential to have quantitative data, for in the families named there are many species that are exceptional in their soil preferences, so that the mere presence or absence of several species belonging to one of these families might not have much significance: but by consolidating the figures for each family in a given area a number is derived which ought to be fairly constant for all places where conditions are essentially the same.
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178 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. The writer has gradually evolved a method of quantitative analysis of vegetation which, though necessarily less accurate than those just mentioned, is much hetter adapted to rapid reconnoissance work. A description of it follows : In traveling through Florida or any other part of the country where natural vegetation is abundant, I try to jot down the name of every wild plant observed, with some indication of whether it is abundant, common or rare, repeating the notes at convenient intervals, usually at every milepost when on a train, or at every stream or other topographic feature when walking. In this way the largest and most abundant plants are Hkely to be noted oftenest, which is just what is wanted in a quantitative study. Then at some subsequent time I go through the field notes for each region (or even for each habitat separately if desired) and count the number of times each species is mentioned, making allow^ance for relative abundance as follows. Where a species has been noted as abundant I count it three times, where common I count it twice, and where rare I do not count it at all. Even this does not do justice to the great abundance of the longleaf pine and some other conifers, so I then usually multiply the figures for Pinus palustris by 4 and those for P. Elliottii, P. Taeda, P. serotina, P. echinata, P. clausa, Taxodinm imbricarium, and Chanvaecy parts by 2, and sometimes adjust the figures a little arbitrarily besides, if the results are obviously inconsistent with known facts. (It would probably be well to treat grasses in a similar manner, but that has not been undertaken). The resulting figures can then be added together and the percentages calculated. Allowance has been made for the difference in size between trees, shrubs, herbs, etc., by the following device. Before calculating the percentages I take the size of the average forest tree as unity, divide the figures for small trees by 10, those for shrubs and woody vines by 100, and for herljs by icoo. If the smaller flowerless plants were included, the mosses, lichens, and larger fungi might be divided by 10,000, and so on "ad inftnitiim." This decimal system is of course very arbitrary, but it has been adopted for convenience in dividing, and it is probablj'' about as accurate as any other .system of equal simplicity that could be selected. Sources of error. Of course it cannot be claimed that the percentages obtained by this method are very accurate, but with all its imperfections it is far superior to anything used for such a large area before, and future investigations perhaps will not materially alter my main conclusions. The principal possible sources of error in the present enumeration, and the checks on them, are as follows : 1. A great deal of the long-leaf pine, and some of the other trees, especially cypress, has been removed by lumbermen, so that these trees are relatively less abundant now that they were originally. If it were desired to re-construct the original condition of the forests, perhaps the use of 6 or 8 instead of 4 as a multiplier for long-leaf pine would give a pretty close approximation to the truth. 2. The farmer in clearing land usually attacks the uplands first, making most of the swamp plants relatively more abundant. But there are not many parts of Florida where the proportion of cleared land makes much difference yet, and this report seeks to represent present conditions, anyway.
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I CKOtlKAI'II V AXl) N'EGKTATinX OF XOKTTIKRX FT.ORinA. I JtJ 3. I he boundaries of the regions may noi liave been accurately located in everjcase, and thus species may be included in some of the lists which do not properly belong there; just as in analyzing a mineral or ore, fragments of other minerals associated with it may be included. Errors of this kind are least in the largest regions, and those in which many notes have been taken near their centers, well away from neighboring regions. 4. For some of the regions, especially the smaller ones, my observations have been too fe^' to make the plant lists reasonably complete and the iptrcentages sufficiently accurate. In such cases the percentage figures are omitted entirely, but the approximate relative abundance is indicated by the sequence, as in all other cases. 5. Mj' practice of taking notes from the car-window and on hurried journeys on foot tends to show relative frequency rather than relative abundance ; for if I saw ten specimens of a certain tree in every mile for ten miles and a thousand specimens of another in one mile and no more for ten miles the former would figure more largely in the returns. But such extreme cases are unusual and likely to counterbalance each other to a considerable extent in the long run; and besides the discreiiancies are not so objectionable when bulk is taken into consideration, as is attempted here. 6. Some of the herbs are quite conspicuous when in bloom and veryinconspicuous or practically invisible at other times, so that notes made in the same region at different seasons may dit•er considerably. But at the beginning of every list the months in which the observations were made are given, so that the reader, especially if he is familiar with the flora, may form some idea of its completeness. Of course the herbs that are recognizable any day in the year, such as Spanish moss and wire-grass, will figure more largely in the returns than those that disappear in summer or winter, and there seems to be no obvious remedy for this. Shrubs and vines are affected less by this seasonal error than herbs, and trees, especially evergreens, very little. 7. Some of the herbs are so small that they cannot be seen at all from a moving train. But every region has been explored on foot more or less, so that few species of flowering plants have been overlooked entirely mereIjon account of their size ; and where bulk is the primary consideration, as it is here, it is right and proper that the smallest plants should have the lowest percentages. 8. Some species are diflicult to identify at sight, especially when one is traveling thirty miles an hour, and some of my identifications may be wholly erroneous, for this and other reasons. Some errors of this sort, however, can be checked up afterwards by what is known of the distribution, lial)itat, time of flowering, etc., of the species in question ; and even where they are not corrected they do not affect the statistics of the proportions of evergreens, grasses, Leguminosae, etc., for it is not likely that I have mistaken the fainily of plants in any case. Of course to be sure of the identity of every plant, specimens should be collected for study and comparison, but that sort of work consumes much more time than it is usually worth. Those parts of the country where botanists are most particular about the correct identification of plants are generally those where the least, progress has been made along phytogeographical lines.* *In this connection see Bull. Am. Geog. Soc. 45:41 (middle paragraph). 1913.
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l8o FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 9. At an\ time what has been regarded as a single species may be divided into two or more by some taxonomist. When that is done the components will often be fovmd to be confined to different regions, but even if both (or all, as the case may be) grow in the same region, thus giving them smaller percentages and lower places in the list than the composite species had, it does not make any appreciable difference in summing up the percentages for each family or other category of plants. PLAN OF REGIONAL DESCRIPTIONS. The description of each region follows as nearly as possible tlie following plan : References to previous literature and illustrations. Location and area. Extent of similar country elsewhere (if any). Geology and Soils — Soil analyses (if any). Soil fauna or subterranean animals. Topography and Hydrographj'. — ]\Iaximum and minimum altitudes. Springs arid streams, lakes and ponds. Character and fluctuation of water. (Climate. See page 182.) Vegetation Types. — Frequency of fire in each. Field work of the writer, by months. List of plants — Trees. Small trees or large shrubs. Woody vines. Shrubs. Herbs. • » Noteworthy features of the list. Characteristic species, etc. Percentage of evergreens, Ericaceae, Leguminosae, etc. Economic features. Utilization of native plants. Proportion of improved land. Density of population. Rate of increase. Proportion of white and colored. Principal crops. Illustrations. The amount of space devoted to each topic varies with the character of the region, and the order is not always exactlv as given above. Some of the items in the foregoing outline seem to call for a little more explanation, which follows. Bibliographic references. A list of books and papers relating to the geography of northern Florida will be found near the end of this volume. (See table of contents.) At the beginning of each regional description there are references to the more important or easilv accessible works in the list from which additional infnrma-
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GEOGKAIMIY AND NEGKTATlO.X OF NORTH I:RX FLORIDA. l8l tion about that particular region can be obtained. For the sake of brevity these references do not gi\e the complete citations, but only the author's name, the number of his paper (as given in the bibliography), and the page numbers if any particular pages can be designated as bearing on the region under consideration.* In most cases there are also references to illustrations which have been published in previous annual reports of this Survey. Licoioc/y ami soils. The geology of the whole state and \arious parts thereof has been discussed in several easily accessible state and government publications, some of which are referred to herein. Consequently little more needs to be said about the geologv here, except in a few cases where previous accounts seem to be inadequate. (It might be remarked in passing that geological in\estigation in Florida, as in many other parts of the coastal plain, is attended with peculiar difficulties, owing largely to the prevailing blanket of sand, and our knowledge of some of the problems is still far from satisfactory.) ^lineral resources and underground waters are here referred to onlv incidentally, for they have been discussed at considerable length in previous publications of the State Geological Survey. Soils are desc'ribed only in a superficial way. Detailed descriptions of the soils of some of the counties, withotit chemical analyses, are included in the reports of the U. S. Bureau of Soils for about ten years past. (See bibliography for list of areas surveyed by that Bureau in northern Florida). Some mechanical (i. e. physical) analyses of soils ha\'e been copied from these government reports. Very few chemical analyses for northern Florida are a^•ailable, unfortunately, but four or five essentially complete ones have been taken from the sixth volume of the Tenth Census (Smith 2 in l>ibliography), and several showing the amounts of certain essential elements have recently been made for us in the laboratorv of the State Chemist. Under the head of soils are included some desultory notes .on the soil fauna, or subterranean animals, which have a very important influence on soils and therefore on vegetation. As in most other parts of the country, ants are found nearly everywhere except in the wettest places. Earthworms, which are perhaps the most *Some of the older books cited in the bibliography have been seen only in New York librarie,s. and cannot be referred to bj' page at this time.
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l82 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. important soil renovators in clayey soils, especially in climates a little cooler than ours, are rather scarce m Florida. Our two largest burrowing animals, which are confined to the coastal plain, or nearly so, and seem to be more abundant in Florida than in any other state, are the "salamander" (a rodent, Gcumys TiLza)*and the "gopher' (a turtle, Testudo or Gopherus Polyphemus). These, especially the former, are common in dry sandy pine lands, and together thev must move almost every particle of soil in considerable areas every few years, and thus counteract to a considerable extent the leaching effect of the rain. In places not accessible to these animals, such as islands, the soils are often perceptibly poorer than the average. Other common soil animals are moles, crawfish (in wet places), crabs (in and near salt marshes), and many insects and Crustacea which have not been identified. Climate. As the climate does not vary much from one point to another within the area studied (which extends over less than two degrees of latitude), it is not discussed for each region separately. The following table gives certain climatic data which appear to be significant, for all stations in northern Florida for which the records have been kept long enough to make the averages reasonably accurate. Most of them are taken from Section 83 jof Bulletin W of the U. S. Weather Bureau, which brings the records down to the end of 1908. The data selected are the average temperature for January, July, and the whole year, in degrees Fahrenheit, the average length of the growing season (period between last killing frost in spring and first killing frost in fall), in days, the average annual rainfall, in inches, and the percentage of it that comes in the four wannest months (June to September) and in the six warmest months (May to October, inclusive) . *For notes on the distribution and habitats of this animal in Florida and elsewhere see Science II. 35:115-119. Jan. 19, 1912.
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GEOGRArnv .\XD VEGET.\TION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. iSs STATIONS Temperature Jan. July Annual a o O Rainfall Annual Per cent JuneSepl. Per cent May0.t. Flomatoii" Pensac'ola DeFuniak Springs _. St. Andrew's Marianna Carral-elle Tallahassee Stephensvillet Archer Gainesville Lake City Macclenn}Jacksonville St. Augustine HuntingtonJ 52.3 51.6 52.1 50.6 53.5 52.1 51.4 55.4 54.9 55.6 54.6 53.9 56.2 56.4 81.4 80.5 81.8 81 .0 81.7 80.4 80.7 81.0 81.4 81.1 81.9 80.9 81.8 81.8 66.2 67.9 260 285 66 .8 69.3 67.2 67.2 69.0 69.3 69.2 68.9 68.2 69.4 70.2 57.80 56.07 65.49 58.69 302
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1S4 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SL'RNEY SLXTH ANNUAL REPORT. the year, but the four warmest niuiuhs get a httle mure than their share. Takingthe area as a whole, the sahent features of its chmate. as compared with that of Georgia and Alabama, are the mild dry winters and wet summers. The copious suminer rains, while they make droughts rare, seem to be largely responsible for the prevalence of sandy soils and evergreen trees in Florida, for the rain tends to leach out the clay, lime, potash, etc.,* and leave the sand, and evergreens seem to be especially characteristic of soils poor in clay and potash, as already noted. t Vegetation types. No systematic study of vegetation types is attempted here, as explained on page 175, but under each region a few of the leading types are mentioned. Special reference is made to the frecjuency of fire, which varies greatly in different regions and in different types of vegetation. Outside of the long-leaf pine regions of the South (and somewhat similar forests in a few other parts of the world), forest fires are comparatively infrecjuent, and have been commonly regarded as regrettable accidents. But in Florida it is evident that fire is a part of Nature's program. The pine forests which cover the greater part of the state everywhere bear the marks of fire, which visits any one spot perhaps once in two years, on the a^•erage. In pre-historic times the fires must have been started mostly by lightning, hut now they are mostly of human origin. Although fires are more numerous at the present time than thev were originally, the area over which each one can spread is limited by roads, clearings, and other artificial barriers, so that the frecjuencv of fire at any one point may not have changed much. Long-leaf pine is injured less by fire than almost any other tree, so that the effect of repeated fires is to give this tree the advantage over all its associates. It is reasonably certain that if fire were kept out of a l(Mig-leaf *Cherrapongee, in Assam, is the wettest known place in the world, having an annual rainfall of over 600 inches;' and travelers who have been there report the surrounding country as practically barren. No doubt if the soil is not all washed away it must be pretty thoroughly leached of plant food. tSome of the probable relations of seasonal distribution of rainfall to the character of the soil have been discussed briefly by the writer in Bull. Torrey Bat. Club 37:415-416. 1910: 40:395-396. 1913: Torreya 13:141. 1913; Geol. Surv. Ala., Monog. 8-19, 24, 36. 1913. For notes on the relation of evergreens to soils see footnote on pages 175-177 of this report.
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GEOGRAIMIV AM) XKGICTATIOX OF XORTIIERX FLORIDA. 185. pine forest long enough hardwood trees of various kinds would come in and choke out the pine (which does not thrive in shade), and tlius convert the pine forest into a hammock.* Most of our hammocks are in situations protected from fire b>the topography, as on slopes down which fire would not travel readily, or in places partly surrounded by water. Besides the native vegetation every region has areas greatly modified h\ civilization, such as cultivated fields, old fields, roadsides, railroad rights-of-way, etc. Some of the plants in such places are native species which have survived the changed C()nditions, but most of them have been brought in unintenti(jnally by man or domestic animals from other parts of the country or from foreign countries. Most of the foreign weeds in Florida seem to be of tropical origin, but we also have quite a numlier from Europe and Asia.f The great majority of them are herbs. Plants which exist only in cultivation are not here regarded as vegetation. Plant lists. Each list aims to include all the wild plants, both native and introduced, seen by the w^riter in the region under consideration, except the rarer ones. Trees and shrubs seen onl}once or twice in a given region are usually omitted, except in the case of some of the smallest regions. A much larger proportion of the herbs is omitted, partly to save space, and partly because the names of the rarer herbs would be meaningless to the average reader. For some of the larg'er regions no herb is mentioned which has been seen less than fi^'e or six times, which involves the omission of over a hundred species from such a list. (For there are exery where more rare species than common ones.) Such omissions however have little effect on the conclusions drawn from the quantitative analyses, for the percentages of the omitted species are vtvy small fractions. *This was pointed out a quarter of a century ago by the late Mrs. Ellen Call Long, of Tallahassee, but her views never gained much credence in the North, where forest conditions are very different. The matter has been further discussed by the writer in Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38:515-525iQH: 4T -^UiQU; Geol. Surv. Ala. Monog. 8:25-26. 83, 116. 1913. Pop. Sci. Monthly. 85:353-354. 1914. (See also C. D. Howe in Forestry Quarterly. 11 :545-546. Dec. 1913^tFor notes on Florida weeds see tlie paper by Neal cited in the bibliography, .-mrl for sneculations on <-V;c origin of some of our weeds see Bull. Torrey Bot. Cluli 3S :34r-3''^o. 1908.
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1 86 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT, The lists are divided into five parts, as follows: — (i) trees, large enough to make lumber ; (2) small trees or large shrubs (some of which may become good-sized trees elsewhere) ; (3) woody vines; (4) ordinary shrubs; (5) herbs. These categories grade into each other more or less, for Nature draws few sharp lines ; but in the great majoritv of cases there is no doubt about which class a plant belongs in.* The cellular cryptograms (i. e., mosses, lichens, fungi, etc. j are left out entirely, partly because the writer is not one of those few persons who can identify them at sight, and partly because they are so small as to be insignificant in cjuantitative analyses. In each of the five classes the species are arranged in order of percentages. The percentage figures precede the names, except in the case of a few of the smallest or least explored regions, as explained above, and toward the foot of the lists, where they are omitted because they would require too many decimal places. A feature of these lists which seems to be entirely new is the indication, by arbitrary symbols, of species that are decidedly more or less abundant in a given region than in the whole area considered. Where a species is more abundant than in the average area a + sign is used, and where it is more abundant than in any other region the sign is doubled. Where it is less abundant than the average the fact is indicated by a — sign. Of course theoretically in any region every species mentioned is either more or less abundant than it is in northern Florida as a whole, but these symbols are used only where the apparent difference is great enough so that it is not likely to he reversed by future investigations. This scheme has both a scientific and a practical value. First, it shows at a glance what species are most characteristic of each region, and which may be assumed to prefer the particular soil conditions that prevail in that region. Some interesting conclusions are brought out in this way in some of the regional descriptions. Second, any one who is looking for a supply of any particular kind of timber, or any herb, can tell by the double + marks just where *In a few of the lists the s.ame species (e. _g., Kyssa Ogcche) appears both as a large tree and as a small tree or shr.ub, but not without reason. The persimmon (Diospyros Virgiiiiaiia) is often a full-sized tree, but shrubby specimens are more numerous than arborescent ones, and consequently it appears in most of the lists under the head of small trees or shrubs. The same i> true of the s.assafras, except that it rarely becomes a regular tree in Florida.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORHIA. 187 in northern Florida that species is most abundant. To obviate the necessity of looking' through nineteen or twenty lists, the pages on which the double + marks appear are all indicated in the index. The technical name of every species is given, the names being mostly the same as in the second edition of Small's Flora of the Southeastern United States, 1913. (Where that book is not followed it is usually because the subdivision of genera and species is carried farther in it than the facts seem to warrant.) The names of evergreens are printed in bold-face type, so that they will be more conspicuous, as the plants themselves are in winter. In the case of a few species that are semi-everg'reen onlv half the name is printed in bold-face. The names of weeds are followed by (X), or in doubtful cases (X?). In deciding whiA are weeds no dependence has been placed on statements in botanical manuals, for in such books many species which are unc|uestionably weeds are not distinguished in any way from native plants. The only reliable test of weediness is habitat, a matter which is greatly neglected by most systematists. When a species is found in a given region only in habitats created or modified by civilization it is assumed that it did not exist in that region originally; whether the history of its introduction is known or not, and even whether the same species is known in any foreign country or not. The application of this criterion results in classing as weeds many species which have probably never been thus stigmatized before. (It is interesting and probably significant that very few of the weeds are evergreen). The technical names are followed by common names, if such are known.. Nearly all the trees have common names, but some of the smaller plants are so inconspicuous or unimportant that they have never been named except by botanists. For many such plants alleged common names can indeed be found in botanical books, but these are often mere translations of the technical names, and would mean no more to the average reader than the technical names do. The common names adopted here are hona-Hdc ones, known to be used in Florida by persons who did not get them from books, biit in a few cases names used in other states, which may be familiar to some readers, are given in parentheses. In the last column the usual habitat of each species is indicated in a few words, but no special study of habitats is attempted here. as previously explained. . . 12
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l88 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. After each plant list are a few remarks on characteristic species, species conspicuous by their absence or scarcity, and other noteworthy features of the vegetation, including particularly a summation of the percentages of evergreens, Ericaceae and Leguminosae, which are correlated as far as possible with soil characters. In this way some conclusions are drawn which have never been possible before, and which it is hoped will be of some value. Economic features. The most important use made of the native vegetation is converting the pines into lumber and naval stores ; but no satisfactory statistics of the production of these commodities for areas smaller than states seem to be available, so that the status of the industries can be indicated only in a general way. In all the regions a great deal of wood is consumed for fuel (for coal is little used in Florida except on the railroads and in the cities) ; and the native grasses and other herbage furnish pasturage for cattle, which have free range in every region here described except one. Another way in which the vegetation is converted to the use of mankind through the agency of animals is in the production of honey, which is an important item in some of the counties, and might be made so in nearly all. The statistics of population, improved land, etc.. are derived mostly from the 13th U. S. census (of 1910) by the tedious process of dividing up the figures for each county proportionately to the area of the several regions represented therein, and adding all the figures for each region. This involves the assumption that the population is uniformly distributed in each county, which of course is not quite correct ; but the errors arising from this cause counterbalance each other to some extent. For total population (but not for race and sex) the figures are given in the census reports for precincts as well as for counties, but in the absence of maps showing the location of the precincts no geographical advantage can be taken of that fact. The crop statistics in the government census reports are unsatisfactory because they do not give values for areas smaller than states, and do not separate the two kinds of cotton, and the numerous kinds of vegetables 'that are raised in Florida. The information about crops given herein is derived mostly from the biennial report of the state Commissioner of Agriculture for 191 1 and 1912. The production of any one crop varies so from year to year that it
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GEOGRAP]IV AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 1S9 is hardly worth while to publish the figures for the several regions, but the crops of each region are arranged as nearly as possible in order of value. The rank of the different crops varies from one region to another much like that of the native trees, though not to so great an extent, for differences in soil are now overcome in large measure by the use of fertilizers. The amount of imp'roved land and the density and other features of the population are usually correlated pretty closely with soil, topography and vegetation. For example, where rich soils and deciduous forests predominate there is nearly always a larger area under cultivation, a denser population and more negroes than in the pine regions wit1i p. ortr soil;* Imt the population is increasing faster at present in some of the poor soil regions than in the richer ones, because the latter have more nearly reached the limit of density of purely agricultural population (which in the eastern United States seems to be about 40 inhabitants per square mile.) Illustrations. The illustrations have been selected with a view of giving typical examples of the vegetation and other scenery of each region, but several times as many would be necessary to do the subject justice. Except where otherwise specified they are from the writer's own photographs. Figures 51, 54, 55, 63, 64, 66, 76, and 84-88 are reprinted from previous annual reports, and 72 from the Popular Science Monthly. The rest are published here for the first time. In order to simplify the binding, and also make them easy to find, they are assembled together at the end of the last regional description. *In this connection see E. A. Smith, Tenth Census U. S. 6:71-74. 1884.
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190 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. h i> — . .,.,r. T=OCE
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. IQI TflE REGIONS IN DETAIL. " The location and area of the several regions are shown by the outline map (page 190). The following synopsis, which is patterned after a taxonomic key, brings out the contrasts between neighboring regions about as well as it can be done in so few words. SYNOPSIS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. Soil largelj' red clay. Topograph}rather hilly. Streams common. Limestone outcrops frequent. Caves and natural bridges present.... I. Marianna Red Lands. Limestone impure, cropping out only on bluffs. No caves 3. Apalachicola River Bluffs. No rock outcrops 4. Knox Hill Country. Streams scarce. No lakes 5. Holmes V alley. Lakes and ponds common 11. Tallahassee Red Hills. Soil and topography various. Hammocks common 10. Middle Florida Hammock Belt. Soil prevailingly sandy. Topography normally dissected. Streams common 7. West Florida Pine Hills. Topography mostly wind-formed. Salt marshes scarce 8. West Florida Coast Strip. Salt mar.shes well developed 20. East Coast Strip. Topography pitted. Sand thin, on clay subsoil 2. West Florida Cypress Pond Region. Sand deep and loose. Sand coarse but rich 13. Wakulla Hammock Country. Sand fine and somewhat loamy. Small limestone outcrops frequent. No phosphate 12. Bellair Sand Region. Phosphate beneath the sand in many places 17. Peninsular Lime-sink Region. No rock on uplands. Lakes common. Uplands flattish 6. West Florida Lake Region. Uplands undulating 18. Peninsular Lake Region. Bays common ; no lakes I4Panacea Country. Topography essentially flat. Limestone outcrops abundant iSGulf Hammock Region. No limestone on uplands. Clay scarce. Region bordering Gulf coast 9. Apalachicola Flatzvoods. Region about 20 miles inland 16. Middle Florida Flatzvoods Clay usually within a few feet of surface 19. East Florida Flatzvoods.
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1. .MARIANNA RED LANDS. (figures 12, 41, 42) ReferencesMatson & Clapp (57), Matson & Sanford (^77, 327-329) j E, ,A. Smith 2 (196-197, 218), J. D. Smith, and U. S. soil survey of the "Marianna area" (by Jones, Rowe, Britton, Hardison and Zappone, 1910). This region embraces something Hke 450 square miles in Florida, situated on both sides of the Chipola River in Jackson County, an:! it extends a few miles into Alabama. Its nearest counterpart elsewhere is in the red lands of Dougherty County, Georgia, and the lime hills of southwestern Alabama, which are characterized by the same or similar geological formations. Geology and Soils — The underlying rock is a Lower Oligocene limestone which has been called Vicksburg in Mississippi, St. Stephens or White Limestone in Alabama, and Marianna in Florida. Ii is the oldest formation known to come to the surface in this state. It crops out in many places, especially near the Chipola River,* and is quite pure, an average sample analyzing 94 per cent of calcium carbonate. Where exposed naturally on the uplands it is moderately hard, but a few feet below the surface it is soft enough to be cut with a saw. This rock is used very largely in the red lands and neighboring regions for chimneys and underpinning, and occasionally for the walls of buildings. (It is probably safe to say that at the present time the majority of the chimneys in Jackson County are of this material ; and its use is equally common in the corresponding parts of southwestern Alabama.) On many of the hills the Vicksburg or Marianna formation is overlaid by a more clayey limestone belonging to the Chattahoochee formation (L^pper Oligocene). The prevailing soil on the uplands is a red loam, containing from about 15 per cent to 70 per cent of silt and clay. Some of it is evidently derived from the weathering of the Vicksburg and Chattahoochee limestones, while some may represent newer superficial formations, such as the Lafayette. The sandiest soils are usually on the highest elevations, remote from *In the soil survey of the "Marianna area" it was estimated that there are 384 acres of rock outcrop in the area surveyed, which is mostly west of the river; and there is probably enough rock east of the river to bring the total up to a square mile, or approximately 1-5 of i per cent of the whole area of the region. 193
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194 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Streams. In virgin forests, especially on slopes and in valleys, there is considerable humus. The following mechanical analyses of five typical upland. soils of this region are taken from the soil survey of the "Marianna area," published in the fall of 1910. (The dimensions of the seven classes of soil particles are not given in that publication, but have been taken from other publications of the U. S. Bureau of Soils.) The first is the "Greenville clay," a reddish or brownish clay loam believed to be mostly residual from the underlying limestone. The second is the "Greenville sandy loam," which differs from the first in being more sandy, and is believed to be derived mostly from the Lafayette formation. The third is the "Orangeburg fine sandy loam," a gray, brown, or reddish-brown fine sandy loam with red sandy clay subsoil, both soil and subsoil usually containing many small ferruginous concretions. The fourth is the "Orangeburg coarse sandy loam," somewhat coarser than the preceding, as its name implies. The fifth is the "Norfolk fine sandy loam," a gray or light brown medium fine sandy loam with yellow sandy clay subsoil, presumably derived from the Lafayette formation, like the two preceding. Percentage figures for both soil and subsoil are given in the publication cited, but only those for the top soil are reproduced here. Mechanical Analyses^ of Soils of Marianna Red Lands. 12345 Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) 1 1 0.9 2.8 1.2 2.3 1.0 Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.-) 3.2 15. i 10.4 27.8 12.3 Medium sand (.5-.2S mm.) 2.0 11.6 8.3 16.1 12.4 Fine sand (.25-. i mm.) 13.6 31.4 35.7 24.3 37.8 Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.) ii.o 12.8 25.7 9.1 18.3 Silt (.05-.005 mm.) __10.3 II. 7 lo.o 8.9 10.3 Clay (.005-0 mm.) ^_— 59.0 14.9 8.8 11.7 7.9 Total loo.o 100.3 loo-i icx).2 loo.o Very little, has been done in the way of correlating such figures as these with vegetation, but presumably when other things are equal the soil that has the largest proportion of fine particles has the most available potassium and other minerals. Dr. Eugene A. Smith in the 6th volume of the Tenth Census, page 197, gives the following analysis of red loam soil from the lowlands of Spring Creek near Campbellton, where the principal trees were hickory, sweet gum, post, red and Spanish oaks, and shortleaf pine. The sample represents a depth of ten inches, and the
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1. MAKIAxNNA KED LANDS. I95 land when fresh was said to yield about 1,500 pounds of seed cotton per acre. (The percentages given do not represent the total of each constituent, but the amounts soluble in hydrochlOiic acid.) Water and urganic malter 4-053 per cent Potash (K2O .072 •• Soda (Na20) .019 " Lime (CaO) .266 •• Aiagnesia (MgO; .105 " Phosphoric acid radicle (P2O5) .222 " Sulphuric acid radicle (SO3) .033 " Brown oxide of^manganese (Mn304) .077 "" Peroxide of iron (te203) 1.456 " Alumina (AI2O3) 6.885 ' Soluble silica --_--_ 3.250 '" Insoluble matter 84.240 " This is one of the richest soils in Florida. As compared with the three other northern Florida soils analyzed in the same report, il has the most organic matter,. lime, magnesia, alumina and soluble silica, and the least insoluble matter, and is next to the highest in potash and iron. It is somewhat deficient in potash as compared with soils of regions that have colder winters and drier summers, however. Topography and Hydrography — The topography is undulating to moderately hilly, and diversified in the rocky places by a few sinks, caves, low cliffs, etc. Streams are fairly common, but some of the drainage is subterranean. The Chipola River and one or two of iltributaries run underground for short distances, forming natural bridges. Some of the creeks have sufficient fall to be utilized for Vv-ater-power. There are cjuite a number of small springs, issuing from beneath limestone cliffs, and a few large ones, the best known of which is the Chipola or Long Moss Spring, at the head of Spring Creek, about six miles E. N. E. of Marianna. In dry weather the water in most of the streams is clear and bluish, on account of the limestone dissolved in it. The ground-water in many places lies so deep that force-pumps are required to raise it to the surface for domestic use. Vegetation Types — The most characteristic vegetation types of this region are those of the rock outcrops and of the residual red clay, where deciduous trees predominate, and form rather dense forests. The streams are bordered by swamps whose width is approximately proportional to the volume of water. On the sandy uplands there is considerable long-leaf pine, black-jack oak, and other
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196 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. trees more characteristic of the region to be described next. There are a few shallow ponds which dry up in spring, and these too are more characteristic, of region no. 2. Forest fires are comparatively rare here, as in other regions where hardwood trees predominate, and except in the long-leaf pine forests they are a negligible factor. Plants — The following list is based on observations made on four days in March, one in April, three in May, two in June, three in September, and one in December; total fourteen. (See page 186 for explanation of symbols, figures, etc.). Pinus Taeda Pinus palustrls Pinus echinata Liquidambar Styraciflua Quercus falcata Cornus florida Pinus glabra Juniperus Virginiana Quercus Marylandica Magnolia grandiflora Fagus grandifolia Taxodium distichum Cercis Canadensis Quercus stellata Acer Floridanum Quercus laurifolia + 1.4 Ilex opaca 1-3 Quercus nigra 1.3 Nyssa biflora + 1.2 Quercus alba + I.I Ostrya Virginiana + I.I Carpinus Caroliniana + i.o Nyssa uniflora — i.o Pinus EUiottii + 1.0 Hicoria alba — o.Q Magnolia glauca + .9 Quercus Schneckii +
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I. MARIANNA RED LANDS, 197 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + .9 Celtis occidcntalis .8 Quercus cinerea .7 Quercus Virginiana .7 Ulmus Floridana .7 Melia Azedarach (X) .7 Fraxiniis Caroliniana? .7 Halesia Carolina .6 Acer rubrum .6 Taxodium imbricarium .5 Quercus Michauxii .5 Prunus iserotina (X) •5 Quercus Catesbaei .5 Liriodendron Tulipifera .5 Fraxinus Americana? .4 Quercus Muhlenbergii .4 Ulmus Americana? .4 Quercus lyrata .4 Nyssa sylvatica .3 Populus deltoides .3 Persea Borbonia .3 Morus rubra .3 Quercus Phellos .2 Salix nigra .1 Juglans nigra Hackbcrry (Turkey oak) Live oak Elm Chinaberry Ash Mapi'.e Pond cypress (S'vvamp chestnut oak) Wild cherry Bilack-jack oak Poplar Ash Oak Elm Swamp post oak Black gum Cottonwood Red bay Mulberry Willow oak Willow Walnut l>ottonis Sandy soils Bottoms Along fences, etc. Swamps Rich woods Swamps Ponds Bottoms Along fences, etc. Sandy soils Wet woods Rich woods Rich woods Bottoms Bottoms Dry or rich woods Ditches, etc. Bottoms Bottoms Low grounds Low grounds Rich woods SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS +
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198 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Berchemia scandens Bignonia crucigera Vitis rotundifolia Rattan vine Cross vine Muscadine or buHace Swamps and bottoms Woods Various situations SHRUBS + .02 Sabal glabra Palmetto + .01 Cornus stridta?* + .01 Hypericum galioides pallidum + .01 Aesculus Pavia + .01 Rhamnus Caroliniana + .01 Hydrangea quercifolia .01 Aralia spinosa .01 Cephalanthus occidentalis Rubus cuneifolius (X) Ilex glabra Viburnum obovatum Itea Virginica Asimina parviflora Rhus copallina Callicarpa Americana + Viburnum semitomentosum -Sebastiana ligustrina Amorpha fruticosa — Serenoa serrulata Euonymus Americanus Buckeye Seven-bark Prickly ash Elbow-bush I'.lackberry Gallberry Pawpaw Sumac French mulberry + + + + + + + + + + -f ++ + + + + + Hypericum fasciculatum Ceanothus Americanus Adelia ligustrina Rhapidophyllum Hystrix Saw palmetto (Strawberrj' bush) (Red-shank) (Needle palm) HERBS Spanish moss Milkweed (A fern) .004 Tillandsia usneoides .001 Baptisia alba .001 Asclepias variegata .001 Sanicula gregaria Asplenium resiliens Hartmannia speciosa (X) Dryopteris patens? (A fern) Thaspium barbinode Cha pmani MitcheUa repens (Partridge berry) Juncus repens Nymphaea chartacea Bonnets Solidago amplexicauUs Goldenrod Salvia lyrata Mesadenia diversifolia Bottoms Bottoms Bottoms Dry or rich woods Rock outcrops mostly Rich woods and bluffs Rich woods Ponds and swamps Sandy roadsides, etc. Low pine land Bottoms, etc. Swamps Rich or dry woods Dry woods, etc. Dry woods, etc. Rich woods Bottoms Bottoms Sandy soils Rich woods Around ponds Dry woods Rock outcrops Rich woods On trees Dry woods Dry or rich woods Rich woods C'iffs, etc Roadsides, etc. Rocky places Rocky places Rich woods Shallow ponds Chipola River Rich woods Dry woods Bottoms *Some of this may be C. asperifolia, which was not always distinguished in my field notes.
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I. MARIANNA RED LANDS. 199 + + + + + + + ++ + + + 4++ + • + + + + + + + + + Scrophnlaria Marylandica Pulystichum acrostichoides Aqui'.egia australis Atamosco Atamasco Andropogon scoparins (X?) Sorghum Halepense (X) Smilax purr.ila Viola affinis? Nothoscordum striatum Triadenum petiolatum Conopholis Americana Sanguinaria Canadensis I=or)vrnni biternatum Myriophyllum laxum? Arisaema Dracontium Rudbeckia sp. Dicerandra I'nearifoMa Dryopteris The'ypteris Pachysandra procumbens Urticastrum divaricatinn Senecio obovatus? Carex Harperi Po'ymnia Uvedalia Gratiola Floridana? Gratiola sphaerocarpa? Hymenocallis sp. Tril'ium Hugeri Sarracenia fkiva Sarothra gentianoides (X Epiohegus Virginiana Sagittsria natans lorata? Dasystoma Virffinica Anthemis Cotula (X) Daucus pusir.us (X) Sanicula Marylandica Meibomia laevigata Morongia uncinata Cnidoscolus stimulosus Meibomia ntidiflora Erianthus sp. Eupatorium compositifoHum (X) Collinsonia anisata ("and about 125 others') '
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200 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Oxydendrum. The soil is evidently too rich for some of these, while others prefer alluvial soils or other special conditions not well developed in this region. The species which seem to be more abundant in this region than in other parts of Florida are indicated by double + marks, as explained on page i86. A few of these are confined to rock outcrops and are presumably lime-loving. The tw^o commonest oaks, Quercus falcata and Q. Marylandica, appear to require ferruginous soils, while some other species probably prefer this region on account of the abundance of humus and infrequency of fire. The Aquilegia and Pachysaiidra are not known elsewhere in Florida, or even in the neighboring parts of Georgia and Alabama. The percentages for evergreens add up only 49, which is the lowest figure for any region of equal extent in Florida. Only 1.6 per cent of the shrubs are Ericaceae; a very small proportion for Florida, doubtless correlated with the comparative richness of the soil. The percentage of Leguminosae among the herbs is 10.4, which is about the average. Economic Features. The long-leaf pine, the most important tinv ber tree of the South, is not al>nnclant enough here to invite extensive lumbering and turpentining operations, but it and many of the other trees have been used for fuel, building material, and numerous other purposes on the farms. The cedar is used for fenceposts and pencil-wood. According to the census of 1910 Jackson County had about 30 per cent of its area in improved land. (Allowing 10 per cent for old fields and other unclassified areas, this leaves about 60 per cent forest). There were 31 inhabitants to the square mile, an increase of 27 per cent since 1900, and 52 per cent of them were white. For the fertile red lands under consideration, which cover a little less than half of the county, the proportion of woodland must be considerably less, the density of the population somewhat greater, and the decennial increase and the percentage of whites considerably less, in the rural districts at least. The principal crops in 19 12, in order of value, were as follows : Upland or short-staple cotton, corn, peanuts, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, (grass) hay, oats, watermelons, velvet beans, field peas including hay thereof), peaches and pecans.
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2. WKST KJ.OKIDA LIME-SINK REGION. JO I 2. WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK OR CYPRESS POND REGION. (figures 43-48) ReferencesHarper i (219), Matson & Clapp (57-58, 145), Matson & Sanfnrd (78, 325-329), Sellarcls 1 (67-68), Sellards & Gunter 3 (111-113) Smitli 2 (224, 225), and U. S. soil survey of the "Marianna area." Illustrated in 2nd Ann. Rep-, pi. 2.2; 4th Ann. Rep., pi. 13.2, 15.2, 15.3, 16.1, 16.2. This region embraces about 1,600 square miles in West Florida, and extends northeastward through Alabama into Southwest Georgia, if not all the way across the latter state. The boundary between it and the red lands just described is pretty sharp in some places, but not everywhere. Geology and Soils — This region, like the first, is everywhere underlaid by the Vicksburg limestone, which is exposed in only a few places, mostly along streams and in sinks, though there is no telling how much of the clay that conceals the rocks is residual from the same formation. Over the Vicksburg limited areas of the Chattahoochee formation have been recognized. Rock Hill, about 4 1-2 miles southeast of Chipley,* is capped by a mottled argillaceous sandstone which appears to be identical with the xVltamaha (irit of Georgia, and on its southern slope are large boulder-like masses of blackish ferruginous sandstone, which have been referred to the Lafayette formation. The mottled sandstone is not known to occur elsewhere in Florida, and the blackish rock is much more common a little farther north. The soil is mostly a few inches or feet of grayish sand or sandy loam, passing downward into reddish or mottled sandy clay or clayey loam many feet thick, which may be a comparatively recent formation (Lafayette), though in some places it is evidently derived from the weathering of the underlying Tertiary strata. Where the clay is near the surface the ground is often thickly strewn with ferruginous concretions or nodules an inch or less in diameter, making what is commonly called "pimply"' land, and now considered very desirable for agricultural purposes. There is nearly everywhere enough sand to make plowing easy in any kind of weather, and to keep the roads from getting muddy. No chemical analyses of soils from this region are available; but in that part included in the "Marianna area" the most extensive *For descriptions of this locality see Matson & Clapp (145, pi. 7.1). Harper 2. Matson & Sanford (150, pi. 12..A.)
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202 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. type of soil is the "Norfolk fine sandy loam," of which a mechanical analysis was given under the head of the Marianna red lands, a few pages back. A strip a few miles wide along the ChattahoocheeApalachicola River has certain peculiarities which almost entitle it to be described separately. Much of its soil is a chocolate-colored sandy loam, evidently above the average of this part of the world in fertility. Topography and Hydrography — The prevailing topography is irregularly undulating. There seem to be no extensive flat areas, except in the vicinity of some of the rivers, and these are always lower than the adjoining country, and may represent ancient terraces, though in soil and vegetation they differ little from the more elevated areas. Steep slopes are uncommon except on the immediate banks of streams, but there are quite a number of irregularly shaped and more or less isolated hills standing 50 feet or more above the surrounding country, particularly in Washington County. The occurrence of a few lime-sinks and natural bridges shows the effects of solution on the topography, but in the present state of knowledge it is impossible to say whether solution or erosion has been the principal factor in giving the surface its present form. Much of the drainage is subterranean, and in many places one can go several miles at right angles to tlie general direction of the streams without crossing any running water. The region is pretty well supplied with creeks and rivers, though, and there are several large blue limestone springs. Some of the creeks furnish waterpower. Ponds of all sizes, from a fraction of an acre to a few square miles, abound. Their average size is perhaps two or three acres ; and few of them are deep enough to hold water all the year round. Some are nearly circular, and some are so long and narrow that they can hi.rdly be distinguished from branches; and there may indeed be all gradations between ponds and branches in this region. The amount of seasonal fluctuation of water varies in different ponds from about one to five feet, depending on the area and depth of the basins t:.ey occupy, the sandiness of the soil, etc. Those in which the water fl.uctuates least are known as bays, on account of their vegetation, which will be referred to on the next page. Where the superficial sand and clay are thick enough water for domestic purposes is obtained from shallow dug wells and suction pumps, but where the limestone approaches the surface the ground-
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2, WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION. 203 water level is usually lower, and force-pumps and artesian wells are used. In the river strip above mentioned the ground-water level exhibits some curious irregularities. A few miles south of Sneads, if not elsewhere, can be found places where the water is perpeiually seeping out on gentle slopes, characterized by sandy bog vegetation, and then at the bottom of the same slope, perhaps fifty yards away, may often be found a lime-sink with no water in it; showing that the ground-water surface is more irregular than the surface of the ground in such places. (See Fig. 43.) Vegetation Types — The prevailing type of vegetation is open forests of long-leaf pine, so open that wagons can be driven through them almost anywhere (and consequently the minor roads are illdefined and changeable). The scarcity of underbrush seems to be due primarily to the fires, set originally by lightning, and now mostly by man, either purposely or accidentally. The fires burn ovei every part of the pine woods nearly every year, usually in the latter part of the dry season (early spring), with little injury to the pines, as explained on page 184, The pine forests can be divided according to topography and moisture into three types, namely, high or dry, low or wet, and intermediate. These all intergrade, and have much the same general appearance, but in the low pine land the trees are mostly slash pine instead of long-leaf. Most of the ponds are so full of trees that it would be impossible to use row-boats on them. In those where the water fluctuates three or four feet during the year the pond cypress is almost the only tree; where the annual fluctuation averages about two feet tliere is usually some slash pine mixed with the cypress ; and where it is a foot or less there is a dense undergrowth of evergreen shrubs ar d vines, making a type of vegetation known as bays.* Some of the smaller ponds in the more clayey soils contain black gum or May haw instead of cypress and pine. The streams are bordered by swamps and bottoms, varying in character with the size and fluctuation of the stream and the amount of lime or mud in the water. Strips of hammock vegeta*Where the fluctuation is greatest the proportion of 'evergreens is least, and vice versa; which seems to indicate that a constant water-level limits the availability of the potassium compounds and other mineral plant food, perhaps simply by preventing aeration. (See Wiley, U. S. Dept. Agric. Yearbook 1896:127; Harper, Torreya 11:225-234, 1911-) 13
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204 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. tion are found along most of the creeks and rivers, and especially in the forks of streams, where fire cannot easily penetrate. Plants — The following list is based on observations made in all four seasons, as follows : March, 5 days ; April, 3 ; May, 6 ; June, 5 : July, 3 ; September, 4; December, 2. Total, 28 days. -t-46.0
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WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION. 205 .1 Ulmus alata .1 Morus rubra + .1 Acer saccharinum Ulmus Floridana Celtis occidentalis' Quercus alba + + Tilia Floridana Ostrya Virginiana Acer Floridanum Hicoria sp. Catalpa bignonioides +.27 Cyrilla racemiflora +.25 Ilex myrtifolia +.10 Cliftonia monophylla ++.05 Crataegus aestivalis .04 Myrica cerifera .03 Nyssa Ogeche .03 Diospyros Virginiana (X) .02 Batodendron arboreum .02 Osmanthus Americana .02 Prunus angustifolia .01 Crataegus apiifoHa .01 Ilex decidua .01 Chionanthus Virginica Symplocos tinctoria Prunus umbellata Castanea pumila Viburnum rufidulum Malus angustifolia Crataegus Crus-Galli? Cephalanthus occidentalis Bum^elia lanuginosa Quercus geminata Amelanchier sp. Elm
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206 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. SHRUBS +.021 Hypericum fasciculatum +.016 Quercus pumila .011 Ilex glabra .005 Myrica pumila .005 Phoradendron flavescens .004 Sabal glabra .004 Cephalanthus occidental!? .004 Riibus cuneifolius (X) .004 Gaylussacia dumosa .004 Chrysobalanus oblongifolius .004 Vaccinium nitidum .003 StilHngia aquatica •003 AInus rugosa .002 Pieris nitida .002 Hypericum galioides? .002 Asimina angustifolia .002 Aronia arbutifolia .002 Vaccinium virgatum? .002 Clethra alnifolia .001 Viburnum somitomentosum .001 Viburnum obovatuni .001 Amorpha fruticosa .001 Ceanothus Americanus .001 Rhus Toxicodendron .001 Gaylussacia frondosa* •001 Leucothoe racemosa .001 Sebastiana ligustrina .001 Ceanothus microphyllus .001 Rhus copallina — .001 Serenoa serrulata Ilex coriacea Itea Virginica Myrica inodora Quercus minima , Myrica Carolinensis Ilex vomitoria Kalmia latifolia Styrax Americana Cyrilla parvifolia? H3^ericum myrtifolium Ascyrum stans Aesculus Pavia Oak runner Gallberry Myrtle Mistletoe Palmetto Elbow bush Blackberry Huckleberry Around ponds, etc High pine land Low pine land Intermediate pine land On black gum, etc. Rich swamps Swamps and ponds Roadsides, etc. High pine land High pine land High pine land, etc. Ponds Alder
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2. WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGiOiN. 20/ .001 Tillandsia usneoides .001 Pteridium aquilinum +.001 Dichromena latifolia +.001 Eriocaulon compressum .001 Eriogonum tomentosum .GDI Helianthus Radula +.001 Baptisia lanceolata .001 Eriocaulon decangulare .001 Pontederia cordata .001 Castalia odorata +.001 Andropogon Virginicus +.001 Chondrophora nudata +.001 Po'.ygala cymosa +.001 Berlandiera tomientosa .001 Campulosus aromaticus .001 Helenium tenuifolium (X) .001 Eupatorium compositifolium (X?) .001 Aletris aurea .001 Osmunda cinnamDmea + Pluchea bifrons Trilisa odoratissima + Tofieldia racemosa Stillingia sylvatica Drosera capillaris Facelis apiculata (X) + Drosera filiformis Tracyi Vernonia angustifolia Polygala ramosa Chrysopsis graminifolia Croton argyranthemus + Coreopsis nudata Kuhnistera pinnata Sarracenia psittacina + Aster adnatus Panicum hemitomon + Chrosperma muscaetoxicum Eryngium virgatnm + Pitcheria galactioides Rliynchospora Grayii + Galactia erecta Juncus repens Gaura Michauxii Rhynchospora corniculata Erigeron vernus Chaptalia tomentosa Pentstemon hirsutus Gnaphalium purpureum (X) Verbena carnea Panicum angustifolium? Aletris lutea + Helianthus heterophyllus Spanish moss (A fern) Water-lily Broom-sedge (,A grass) Bitterweed On trees High pine land Low pine land Ponds, etc. Dry sandy ridges Pine lands High pine land Low pine land, etc. Ponds Ponds High pine land Low pine land Ponds High pine land Low pine land Roadsides, etc. Dog-fennel Roadsides, .etcIntermediate pine land (A fern) Low pine land Shallow ponds Deer-tongue Pi"e lands Low pine land High pine land Low pine land Waste places Low pine land High pine land Low pine land High pine land High pine land Around ponds Summer farewell Sandy soils Pitcher-plant Low pine land Intermediate pine land Ponds Loamy uplands Low pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land Shallow ponds High pine land Ponds, etc. Around ponds Low pine land Hiorh pine land Fields and roadsides High pine land (A grass) High pine land Intermediate pine land Intermediate pine laqd Maiden-cane (A sedge) (A sedge)
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208 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPOF'^ + + + + + + + + + Xyris fimbriata Ludwigia suffruticosa Lophiola aurea OxypoHs filiformis Mitchella repens Sorghastrum secundum Dolicholus simplicifolius Centella repanda Polygala nana Saururus cernuus Stylosanthes biflora Chrysopsis oHgantha Solidago odora Eupatorium rotundifolium Eryngiuni synchaetum Pscralea canescens Cracca chrysophylla Polygala hitea Iris versicolor Sericocarpus bifoliatus Rhexia stricta? Muhlenbergia trichopodes* Hymenocallis sp. Morongia uncinata Pogonia ophioglossoides Aster eryngiifolius Nymphaea fluviatilis Ludwigia pilosa (and about 275 others) (Partridge-berry) (Wild oats) (Dollar-weed) Golden-rod Spider-lily (An orchid) Bonnets Ponds Around ponds Low pine land Ponds, etc. Hammocks High pine land High pine land Low pine land Intermediate pine land Swamps, etc. High pine land Intermediate pine land High pine land Low pine land Intermediate pine land High pine land High pine land Low pine land Low pine land. etc. High pine land Around ponds, etc. Pine lands Swamps High pine land Low pine land Low pine land Creeks, etc. Ponds, etc The following trees are much less abundant here than in some of the neigh boring regions, and some of them may be entirely absent: Pinus serotina (black pine), Juniperus (cedar), Cbamaecy pan's (juniper), Hicoria glabra (hickory). Quercus PlieUos (willow oak), Quercus Catesbaei (black-jack oak), Gordonia. and Persea. Some of these prefer rich soils like those of the Marianna red lands, and some sour swamps and sandy ridges, which are much more common in the adjacent pine hill region (no. 7). Most of the species which are more abundant here than in other regions grow in pine lands and cj^press ponds. It is interesting to note that Nyssa Ogeche, Quercus puniila, Viburnum ohovatum, Facelis, and other species not listed above are known in Georgia but not in Alabama, and Myrica inodora, Pitcheria, Chrysopsis oligantha and a few others in Alabama but not in Georgia, while Cyrilla parvifoUa and one or two of the rarer herbs seem to be confined to Florida. About 65% of the trees are evergreen, 12% of the shrubs are Ericaceae, and 6% of the herbs are Leguminosae. All these figures are not far from the average for northern Florida; but the percentage of evergreens would have been somewhat higher before the lumbermen cut out so much of the long-leaf pine. Includes two forms, one in high and one in low pine land, which may some day be treated as distinct species. See Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 77:293-294. 1906.
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2. WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION. 20g Economic h'catures — CoineiUng ilic long-leaf aiul slash pines into lumber and naval stores have been, and still are, among the most important industries of this region. Long-leaf pine, which is now estimated to constitute 46 per cent of the forests here, probably stood as high as 60 per cent originally. The two cypresses are used for poles, piles, cross-ties, shingles, etc., but probably not 5 per cent of the total stand of cypress has been cut out yet. The tupelo giun, tyty, gallberry, and several less familiar species are important honey plants. The wire-grass and other native herbs furnish free pasturage for thousands of cattle here, as in other long-leaf pine regions. In 1910 this region had less than 15 per cent of improved land, and about 22 inhabitants to the square mile, an increase of 41 per cent in ten years. Although the soil is not naturally very rich, and half a century ago was supposed to be fit for little else than raising pine timber and "native" cattle, it is very easily tilled, and responds generously to proper fertilization. Consequently in the last few decades, since practically all the richest land in the eastern United States has been appropriated, this in common with other sandy pine regions has attracted settlers in ever-increasing numbers. The principal crops in 1912, in order of value, were: Upland cotton, corn, peanuts, sweet potatoes, sugar cane, velvet beans, (grass) hay, oats, watermelons, field peas (including pea-vine hay), peaches, sea-island cotton, pecans, Irish potatoes, figs, cabbage, grapes and pears.
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2IO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 3. APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS. (figures 49-51) References. Chapman, Croom, Dall & Stanley-Brown, Gray, Harper i (216, 234-235), Harper 5 (225-226), Matson & Clapp (78-84, 96-97, 145), Matson & Sanford (95-101, 112-113), Nash (96-97, 103) Sellards & Gunter I (261-277, 285-286), and U. S. soil survey of Gadsden Co. (by Fippin and Root, 1904). Illustrated in 2nd Ann. Rep., pi. i, 17; 3d, pi. 19.1; 4th, pi. II. I, fig. II. From its beginning at the southwestern corner of Georgia to about the latitude of Bristol the Apaiachicola River has on its east side some of the highest land in Florida (a part of the pme hill region described farther on), which comes out to the river in several places, making steep bluffs. Between these bluffs are deep rich \alleys, some of which extend several miles back from the river. The bluff region is too narrow for its area to be estimated accurately, but it probably covers less than 50 square miles in this state. It continues northeastward into Georgia, soon diverging from the Flint River and becoming less prominent, but as the boundary between the lime-sink region and the pine hills (Altamaha Grit region) it can be traced nearly across that state, where it forms a typical inland-facing escarpment, or ciicsta."^ Geology and Soils — 'The underlying rocks of this region, well exposed on the river bluffs and along some of the creeks, mostly belong to the Chattahoochee and Alum Bluff formations (Upper Ohgocene). Lithologically the strata vary from argillaceous limestone and marl to fuller's earth, clay and sand. There seems to be no limestone pure enough to form caves, though there are some limesinks near the state line. Much of the soil is derived from the weathering of these Tertiary rocks, and is quite fertile. In the more level places there is also considerable sand and sandy loam, which may represent the Lafayette and other comparatively recent formations. Humus is quite abundant, for reasons which will be evident. Between the hills and the river there are alluvial bottoms of varying width, with very fertile soil, as is usual in such places. Topography and Hydrography — This region occupies a slope from the high pine land on its eastern border, 200 to 300 feet above sea level, to the river, which in this latitude is something like 50 feet above sea level at low water. Aspalaga Bluff, in Gadsden Coun*For notes on this escarpment in Georgia, see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 32:144-145, 190S; Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 17:17-18. 1906. \
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3. APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS. 211 ty, rises about 175 feet in a distance of a. quarter of a mile from the water's edge, and Alum Bluff, in Liberty County, has a very precipitous face about 160 feet high, which is perhaps the most conspicuous topographic feature in all Florida. The topography is everywhere hilly, and dissected by numerous ravines and small valleys, many of which head in amphitheaters or "steep-heads" at the edge of the upland. All the valleys contain streams, and most of the steep-heads have one or more small springs in them. Two or three of the creeks extend back from the river ten or twelve miles. The Apalachicola River, which heads among the mountains of Georgia, and traverses the red hills of the Piedmont region for a long distance, is the only stream in Florida which derives any of its water from outside of the coastal plain. It is always muddy, and where it is formed by the union of the Flint and Chattahoochee it fluctuates at least 30 feet. Its high-water period is usually in spring, because a large part of its drainage basin, unlike Florida, has wet winters and dry summers. Vegetation Types — Next to the river are alluvial swamps (described in the 3d Annual Report), with a heavy growth of deciducus trees, presumably indicating a soil rich in potassium. The rich slopes of bluffs and ravines are covered with short-leaf pines and hardwoods, among which the magnolia and other evergreens are conspicuous. A small pine woods element is found at the upper or eastern edge and in the sandier soils lower down. On account of the broken topography and the presence of the river on one side, fires are not common in this region, which is one reason, perhaps the principal reason, why there is so much humus in the forests. Obviously no fire can approach from the west, on account of the river, and the fires which sweep through the pine woods on the east are not likely to travel down the bluffs very far; so that there is probably no area of equal extent on the mainland of northern Florida that is better protected from fire. Plants — The following list is based on observations made on 16 different days, in the following months : March, 8 ; May, i ; June, 4 : September, i ; December, 2. Most of the herbs were, noted in the first half of March, 1909, when the writer with other members of the Geological Survey camped for several days at Aspalaga. That was just about the season of the year when the number of flowers in rich shady woods in this latitude is at a maximum, for a little later the trees leaf out and cast too dense a shade for many flowers.
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212 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. + 15.7 Pinus Taeda + + 9.5 Magnolia grandiflora — 6.4 Pinus palustris + + 5.6 Pinus glabra + 4.3 Liquidambar Styraciflua + + 4.1 Fagns grandifoHa + + 4.0 Tumion taxifolium ,3.7 Magnolia glauca + + 3.5 Ilex cpaca + 2.8 Liriodendron Tulipifera + 2.4 Taxodium distichum + 2.4 Pinus echinata + + 2.0 Quercus Michauxii + 1.9 Quercus nigra H — h 1.9 Platanus occidentalis + 1.8 Carpinus Caroliniana 1.7 Cornus florida + 1.5 Salix nigra ++ i.S Ostrya Virginiana 1.3 Quercus falcata + 1.3 Juniperus Virginiana + + 1.3 Populus deltoides + 1.3 Quercus laurifolia + 1.3 Acer Floridanum + 1.2 Betula nigra I.I Acer rubrum + + .9 Oxydendrum arboreum + .8 Quercus alba + .8 Halesia diptera — .8 Quercus Catesbaei + .8 Quercus Schneckii? + .7 Planera aquatica + .6 Cercis Canadensis + .5 Quercus lyrata + .4 Melia .\zpdarach (X) •4 Ulmus Americana .4 Hicoria sp. + .4 Morus rubra — .4 Quercus cinerea + .4 Malus angustifolia + + .4 Prunus Americana + .3 T?lia sp. H — h .3 Ulmus fulva .3 Fraxinus sp. 4.3 Celtis occidentalis + .2 Prunus Caroliniana + .1 Fraxinus Americana + .1 Acer saccharinum TREES Short-leaf pine Magnolia Long-leaf pine Spruce pine Sweet gum Beech Stinking cedar Bay. Holly Poplar Cypress Short-leaf pine (Swamp chestnut oak) Water oak Sycamore Ironwood Dogwood Willow Red oak Cedar Cottonwood Sugar maple Birch Maple Sourwood White oak Black-jack oak (Red oak) Redbud Swamp post oak Chinaberry Elm Hickory Mulberry (Turkey oak) Crab-apple Wild plum Lin Slippery elm Ash Hackberry (Mock orange) Ash Maple Various situations Bluffs and ravines Sandiest soils Bluffs and ravines Various situations Ravines, etc. Bluffs and ravines Wet ravines Bluffs and ravines Wet ravines Swamps and bottoms Uplands Bottoms Bottoms, etc. River banks and bottoms Bottoms Uplands River banks, etc. Ravines and bluffs Uplands Rocky bluffs, etc. River-bottoms Uplands Ravines and bluffs River banks Along branches, etc. LTplands Ravines and bluffs Ravines and bluffs Sandiest soils Rich woods River banks, etc. Rich woods Bottoms Waste places River banks, etc. Rich woods Bottoms, etc. Sandy uplands Uplands Rich woods Bluffs, etc. Rich woods Bottoms Ravines, etc Rich woods River-banks
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3. APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS. 213 + .1 Quercus pagodaefolia + .1 Juglans nigra + .1 Acer Negundo + .1 Quercus Muhlenbergit + + .1 Taxus Floridana + .1 Hicoria aquatica .1 Nyssa sylvatica Red oak Bottoms Walnut Rich woods Box elder River-banks Oak Bluffs, etc. Alum Bluff (Swamp) hickoryBottoms Black gum Uplands SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS + .24 Myrica cerifera .10 Cyrilla racemiflora +.c8 Osmanthus Americana •08 Batodendron arboreum +.06 Ilex decidua +•04 Symplocos tinctoria .04 Cliftonia monophylla +.03 Bumelia lycioides .03 Viburnum rufidulum +.03 Adelia acuminata .03 Prunus urabellata + .02 Crataegus spathulata +.01 S
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214 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. +.008 Rhapidophyllum Hystrix .007 Euonymus Americanus +.005 lUicium Floridanum +.004 Ptelea trifoliata +.004 Pinckneya pubens .004 Ilex glabra ++.004 Ciinopodium dentatum ++.004 Kalmia latifolia +.004 Hamamelis Virginiana .003 Ilex coriacea .003 Aralia spinosa .003 Cephalanthus occidentalis .003 Azalea nudiflora .002 Aronia arbutifolia .002 Leucothoe axillaris ++.001 Hypericum aureum ++.001 Xanthorrhiza apiifolia +.001 Adelia ligustrina .001 Viburi.r.m obovatum (Needle palm) Strawberry bush (Stink-bush) Gallberry Ivy Witch-hazel Prickly ash Elbow-bush Honeysuckle Ravines and bottoms Ravines and bottoms Ravines Bluffs Branch-swamps Near Bristol Ravines, etc. Ravines, etc. Wet ravines Ravines and bluffs Swamps, etc. Bluffs, etc. Along branches Ravines, etc. Bluffs Wet ravines Bluffs Bottoms HERBS .0025 Tillandsia usneoides ++.0015 Adiantum CapillusVeneris -| — f--ooi Croomia pauciflora +.001 Smilax pumila +.001 Conopholis Americana +.001 Dryopteris patens? + Mitchella repens + OpHsmenus setarius + Polystichum acrostichoides + Trillium Hugeri? + Lithospermum tuberosum + Senecio lobatus + Epiphegus Virginiana -i — |Syndesmon thal
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APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFFS AND BOTTOMS. 215 +
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2l6 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. average for northern Florida, presumably indicating more potassium and more humus in the soil than in most of the other regions. Economic Feakires — This region contains a large amount of hardwood timber, which has not been utilized much yet, but will doubtless be more appreciated in the future. The area is so narrow and irregularly shaped that it is impracticable to work out any statistics of its population and agricultural features. Although the soil is rich enough, the broken topography interferes with cultivation to a considerable extent.
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4KNOx lilLL COUNTRY. 21/ 4. KNOX HILL COUNTRY. (figure 52) References. Matson & Clapp (106-117), Matson & Sanford (iii, 121, 129), Sellards 3 (291 or 45), Sellards & Gunter 3 (107), Smith 2 (224), Williams. This region is confined to the eastern part of Wahuu Count), where it covers about 50 square miles, lying between the lime-sink region and the pine hills somewhat like the Apalachicola River bluff region, of which it is in some respects a counterpart. There is a shiall and ill-defined area of similar country a few miles farther west, near Alaqua Creek, but otherwise there is nothing exactly like it elsewhere. It bears a considerable resemblance, however, to parts of the central short-leaf pine belt of Alabama,* which is quite different geologically. Geology and Soils — Outcrops of rock or fossiliferous sfjita are rare, but it would appear from available geological maps that the region is underlaid by Upper Oligocene and Miocene strata, belonging to the Alum Bluff and Choctawhatchee formations. Exposures of the former have been reported from ravines near Knox Hill and Eucheeanna and of the latter from near Red Bay, by Matson and his associates on the pages above cited. The prevailing soil is a reddish to brownish clay or loam, largely if not chiefly derived from the weathering of the underlying Tertiary strata. Some of the hills are rather sandy, but on the whole this region probably contains the most clayey soil in the State. In hardly any other part of Florida does it seem necessary to overcome tlie stickiness of the clay in the roads by covering the worst spots v/ith small poles ("corduroy") or sand. No analyses are available, but in the parts of Alabama and Mississippi that have similar vegetation the percentage of magnesium in the soil is rather high, and of phosphorus rather low. Humus is quite abundant, on account of the density of the forests. Topography and Hydrography — This region is rather hilly foi Florida, there being in some places as much as 100 feet difference in elevation between hills and adjacent valleys. There are few or no evidences of solution, the topography being of the kind produced by normal erosion. The larger valleys contain creeks, bordered by more or less swamp, but in many of the smaller ones the branches *For description of that part of Alabama, including a quantitative list of trees, see Geol. Surv. Ala. Monog. 8:72-76. 1913.
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2l8 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Stop running in dry weather, as is the case in many other clayey regions. Some of the ravines have small springs at their heads. Vegetation Types — On the sandier uplands there is a good deal of long-leaf pine and its common associates, while on the more extensive clayey uplands and valley slopes the usual vegetation is a mixture of short-leaf pines and various hardwoods (mostly second growth, for the reason given under Economic features). Some oi the valleys are a little sandier than others, and in such places the proportion of evergreens seems to be above the average for the region. The swamps present no striking features. Fire is infrequent here, as in most other places where the forests are dense and the ground covered with humus, which is usually too damp or too thoroughly decomposed to burn readily. Plants — This region is so small and remote from railroads that I have been through it only twice, and consequently my vegetation statistics for it cannot be very accurate. But by combining the list of plants with that for Holmes Valley, another small region (to be described next) with very similar flora, the chances of error are decreased, and considerable repetition is avoided. The following list is based on observations made in the Knox Hill country on March 7, 1910, and May 6 and 7, 1914, and in Holmes Valley on May 8, 9 and 10, 1914. Percentage figures are omitted, because they cannot be depended upon in this case. The names of plants seen only in the Knox Hill country are preceded by K, and those seen only in Holmes Valley by H. TREES ++
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KNOx HILL COUNTRY. 219 Qucrcus nigra + K Qucrcus Marylandica + + Nyssa sylvatica + Hicoria alba + Ostri'a Virginiana — Qucrcus Catesbaei + Carpinus Caroliniana + Quercus laurifolia Acer rubrum — Quercus cinerea + Nyssa uniflora Diospyros Virginiana (X) +K Castauea pumila + Taxodium distichum Liriodendron Tulipifera Quercus Michauxii +K Cercis Canadensis + Acer Floridanum K Juniperus Virginiana K Betula nigra K Quercus Margaretta +U Melia Azedarach (X) — K Pinus Elliottii — K Pinus serotina Water oak Black-jack oak Black gum Hickory Black-jack oak Ironvvood MapTe (Turkey oak) Tupelo gum Persimmon Chinquapin Cypress Poplar (Swamp chestnut oak) Kedbud Sugar maple Cedar Birch Post oak Chinaberry (S.ash pino) (Black pine) Low grounds Sandy uplands Loamy uplands Loamy uplands Val'.eys Sandy uplands Bottoms Valleys Swamps Sandy uplands Swamps Old fields, etc. Dry woods Swamps Branch-swamps Bottoms Rich woods Valleys Creek-banks Sandy uplands Roadsides, etc. Sandy low grounds Sandy low grounds SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS -I — H Magnolia macrophylla -|Batodendron arboreum Myrica cerifera + Symplocos tinctoria K Cyrilla racemiflora Osmanthus Americana -1 — fMagnolia pyramidata -fK Amelanchier sp. Sali.K nigra Prunus angustifolia (X) Prunus umbellata Cucumber tree Sparkleberry Myrtle Tyty Valleys Dry woods Val'eys Var.eys Swamps f' i ' I Valleys Cucumber tree Valleys (Service berrjO Valleys V\''iIlow Swamps Wild plum Old fields Hog plum Dry woods WOODY VINES -Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jessamine Various situations Muscadine (bullace) Various situations (Cow-itch) Various situations Cross-vine Woods Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia creeper Valleys Decumaria barbara Swamps K Smilax lanceolata (Wild smilax) Valleys, etc. Gelsemium sempervirens Vitis rotundifolia Tecoma radicans Bignonia crucigera 14
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220 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY — -SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT, SHRUBS + + K Vaccinium virgatuni?
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4KNOx IHLL CUUiXTRY. 221 Asplenium Fi'ix-foemina (A fern) VVet woods + Epiphegus Virginiana On roots of beech K Pentstcmon hirsutus Rich woods +K Triliium Hugeri Sandy viplands H Carex debi'.is (A sedge) Wet woods ^-K Tipularia discolor (An orchid) Rich woods K Phlox amoena Dry woods K Polygala nana Open woods The common short-leaf pine {Piiiiis Taeda, the "loblolly pine'' of the books and of the Marianna red lands, here called "black pine"), the two little cucumber trees {Magnolia macropliylla and pyramidata), the tall huckleberry (Vaccinium virgatuni) , the handsome shrub Stuartia, with flowers looking like those of the dogwood at a little distance, and the grass Danthonia, all seem to be more abundant in one or both of these regions than anywhere else in Florida; but they are all commoner in Alabama. They evidently prefer rather rich soil, but just what element or combination of elements it is that determines their abundance cannot be stated, in the absence of analyses. The pond cypress, cedar, all hickories, live oak, mulberry, elm, hackberry, poplar, crab-apple, haws, plums and saw palmetto are scarce or absent in the Knox Hill country, though more or less common in neighboring regions. In the two regions together about 56% of the trees are evergreens, 25% of the shrubs are Ericaceae, and about 1% of the herbs are Leguminosae. This is a high proportion of Ericaceae and low of Leguminosae for such clayey soils; but the shrubs form a comparatively small part of the vegetation, so that the proportion of Ericaceae to total vegetation is not very high. And if notes could be made in this region in summer and fall the proportion of Leguminosae would doubtless be increased, though such plants are not usually very abundant where there is plenty of humus. Economic Feahires — The Knox Hill country, on account of its clayey soils and large proportion of deciduous trees, attracted settlers early in the history of Florida, when sandy pine lands were considered almost worthless. A colony of Scotchmen settled there n 1823, and Scotch names still predominate in that region and for a considerable distance around it. Up to 1883, when a railroad was huilt through Walton County, this small area probably contained rrost of the inhabitants of the county, and Eucheeanna was the county-seat. It is said that most of the land was under cultivation before the Civil War; but with the drift of population toward more sandy lands, that has been going on throughout the South for the bst few decades, many farms have reverted to forest, and the proportion of cleared land at present is probably not over 25 per cent. As nearly as can be estimated from the census returns for the precincts lying in this region, there were about 26 inhabitants to the S(|U3re mile in 19 10. The proportion of white people appears to be larger than in most other parts of northern Florida with equally rich soil, though no statistics on this point are available.
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222 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. The principal use made of the native vegetation other than for fuel and other common farm purposes is the extraction of naval stores from the pines. A large part of the turpentine, curiouslyenough, comes from the short-leaf pine, P. cchinata, which is rarely turpentined elsewhere. The woods furnish considerable pasturage for cattle and hogs, as usual. The leading crops are cotton and corn.
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5HOLMES VALLEY. 223 * 5. HOLMES VALLEY. (figure 53) References. Sellards j (291-292, or 45-46), Sellards & Gunter 3 (113115), Smith 2 (225), Williams. This is a narrow strip, perhaps 25 square miles in extent, lying between the lime-sink or cypress pond region and the lake region, in Washington County, It has no counterpart elsewhere, but is similar in vegetation to the Knox Hill country, and in some other respects to the Tallahassee red hills, described farther on. Geology and Soils — No rocks or fossils seem to have yet been discovered in this region, and therefore nothing definite is known about its geology; but it lies wholly within a belt mapped by Matson ns Choctawhatchee marl (Miocene).* The soil seems to be mostly residual from the Tertiary formations, and is clayey in some places and sandy in others; the sand being rather coarse. It is evidently above the average of Florida soils in fertility, as indicated by the density of the native vegetation, and the large proportion of the land that is under cultivation. Dr. Smith, on the page above cited, mentions a case in this region where in 1880, 13 acres of land that had been cultivated 35 years without fertilization produced 12 bales of cotton. The vegetation seems to indicate a little more phosphorus in the soil than in the case of the Knox Hill country. Topography and Hydrography — In the longitude of Vernon the edge of the lake region south of Holmes Valley is at least 100 feet higher than the lime-sink region north of it, and the "valley" is not much more than a mile wide, so that in that neighborhood it might be regarded as nothing but an inland-facing escarpment, or cnesta (a characteristic feature of some parts of the coastal plain, particularly in Alabama). But in the longitude of Wausau the "valley" is about four miles wide, and not much higher or lower than the country on either side of it, and is a belt of low hills rather than a valley. Most of the depressions between the hills have miry ponds or stagnant sloughs in them instead of streams. But there are a few small branches that start near the high southern ^dgo. of the region south of Vernon, flow in a general northerly direction for a short distance, *In sonie cuts on the B. C & StA. R. R. a few miles south of Wausau can be seen several fe^t of clayey and shaley strata with pronounced folds, but apparently devoid of lossils.
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224 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. and then soak into the ground. Some of the eastern part of the "valley" may be drained by Pine Log Creek. Vegetation Types — 'The original forest that remains, mostly on steep slopes, consists of hardwoods and short-leaf pines, and is rather "dense. In the second-growth woods the pine is relatively more abundant, and dogwood is very common. The sloughs and ponds have the vegetation usually found in such places where the soil is pretty rich. Fire is a negligible factor, as in other fertile regions with dense forests and a large proportion of cleared land. Plants — These have already been listed in connection with those of the Knox Hill country, as above explained. Most of the remarks about the plant list of that region will apply also to this. One shrub in the list. Viburnum densiflorum, has not been seen by the writer outside of Holmes Valley, but it differs very little from V. acerifolium, a species characteristic of rich woods in the Piedmont region of Georgia and Alabama. It is noteworthy tl:^at less than 2 per cent of the shrubs observed in Holmes Valley are Ericaceae, which is quite a different state of affairs from that in the Knox Hill country. No Leguminosae whatever were noticed here, but a visit to the region in late summer or fall would doubtless reveal a few members of that family. Short-leaf pine (P. echinata) , birch, black-jack oak (both kinds) and ashes are perceptibly scarcer here than in the Knox Hill country. Economic Features — Although this region is mostly under cultivation, it seems to be an illustration of the general principle that in the southeastern United States, if not elsewhere, the most fertile regions are not the most salubrious.* For this reason, and probably also on account of the scarcity of running water, most of the farmery who till its fields (the majority of them negroes, apparently) live just outside of the "valley," either north or south of it. Cotton and corn are the prevailing crops, as usual. No important use seems to be made of the remaining native vegetation. *This correlation seems never to have been satisfactorily explained. The mosquito theory of malaria, perfected in lyoo, explams it partly, but not entirely.
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6. WEST FLORIDA LAKE REGION. 225 6. WEST FLORIDA LAKE REGION. (figure 54) References. Sellards 2 {^i, one sentence near bottom of page), Sellards & Gunter 3 (113, 114, 115), and U. S. soil survey of the "Marianna area" Two photographs of lakes in this region have been published; one by C.lapp in the 2nd Annual Report of this Survey, plate 2. fier. r (reproduced herewith), and again in U. S. GS. Water Supply Paper 3ig, plate 3 B. entitled "Sink hole containing pond, 10 miles southeast of Vernon, Washington County," and the other bv Sellards and Gunter in the 4th Annual Report of the Florida Survey, plate 15, fig. i, entitled "Porter's Pond, twenty miles south of Chipley, in Washington County.'' The boundaries of this region have not been determined except at a few points, but it probably covers between 300 and 400 square miles. There is nothing like it in any other state, but it bears considerable resemblance to the peninsular lake region, described farther en. Geology and Soils — Nothing definite is known about the geology, as no rock outcrops have been observed. The prevailing soil is a loamy sand, or very sandy loam, probably underlaid by clay, though none of the railroad cuts seem to be deep enough to reach the bottom of the sand. In that part of the region lying within the "Marianna area" of the government soil survey the greater part of the soil is classed as "Norfolk sand" (named for Norfolk, Va.) The following mechanical analysis, representing the average of two localities, is taken from that publication. (The localities are not specified, and may or may not be in the lake region. ) The first column of percentages represents the soil and the second the subsoil (depths not specified). Mechanical Analysis of "Norfolk Sand/' Jackson County. Soil Subsoil Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) — 4.5 3.1 Coarse sand (i-.S mm.) — 26.4 23.7 Medium sand (.S-.25 mm.) 16.4 15.9 Fine sand (.25-. i mm.) --__ 31.2 34.5 Very fine sand (.i-.os mm). — __ 10.9 11.4 Silt (.os-.oos mm.) 7.4 6.3 Clay (.005-0 mm.) 33.9 5.2 Total 100.7 loo.i It will be observed that the differences between the soil and subsoil are slight; and the same is true also of the "Norfolk coarse
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226 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. sand,*' a much less extensive soil of the same region. This may be due in part to the abundance of salamanders, which keep the soil within a foot or two of the surface pretty well stirred up. Topography and Hydrography — This region seems to be a little higher than most of the surrounding country, but no measuremenrs of altitudes are available. It might be described as a comparatively level upland, pitted with many approximately circular depressions varying from several acres to a few hundred acres in extent and 30 Ic 50 feet deep, and containing lakes. The number of lakes averages perhaps one to a square mile, though in some places two or three can be seen at once. Streams are comparatively scarce, but the soil map of the "Marianna area" shows several branches in the northeastern portion, and Pine Log Creek traverses the region near its center. As in most other very sandy regions, the seasonal fluctuation of the water is comparatively small. Vegetation Types — The uplands are covered with open forests of long-leaf pine, plentifully interspersed with black-jack and turkey oaks, and carpeted with wire-grass and other herbs. Some of the lakes are bordered by cypress, tyty, and other water-loving trees ai'd shrubs, and some of the smaller depressions are completely filled with vegetation of the "bay" type. Fires are frequent in the pine forests, but where a steep slope going down to water gives sufficient protection there is likely to be hammock vegetation. Plants — The following list is based on two round trips across the region by rail, one on the A. & St. A. B. Ry. on June 25 and 26, J909, and one on the B. C. & St. A. R. R. on May 10, 1914; and a brief examination of its northern edge about three miles south of Vernon on May 8, 19 14. As it represents only about three hours of field work, it is doubtless far from complete; and the percentage figures are omitted. TREES +
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6. WEST FLORIDA LAKE REGION. 22/
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228 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Economic Features — This region is very thinly settled as yet, because its deep sandy soil does not invite extensive agricultural operations. The principal industry is converting the long-leaf pine into lumber and naval stores, a good deal of which must have been hauled to St. Andrew's Bay and shipped from there before the present railroads were built. (Neither of them is more than ten years old).
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7WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 229 7. WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS. (figures 55-57) References. Harper i (218-219, 248-250, 252-254, 295-297), Matson & Sanford (301-304, 401-403, 422-425), Sellards 3 (290 or 44), Sellards & Gunter 3 (90-110, etc.). Smith 2 (199, 219, 223-224), and U. Ssoil surveys of Escambia and Gadsden Cos. Illustrated 'in 3d Ann. Rep. pi. 22, figs. 18 & 30; 4th Ann. Rep., ligs. 6 & 8. This region is in two parts, with the lake region between them. The eastern part covers about 750 square miles in Florida, and extends northeastward through Georgia (where it has been called the Altamaha Grit region*) nearly to the Savannah River, and is everywhere separated from the coast by flat pine lands of varying width, as well as several other kinds of country. The western part covers about 3,200 square miles in Florida and extends westward across Alabamaf and Mississippi. Only a narrow strip of islands, dunes, etc. (described next) lies between it and the coast. Geology and Soils — Toward its inland edge this region is underlaid by various Upper Oligocene and Miocene formations, which are exposed along some of the streams, but have little effect on soil oi topography. Over the greater part of the area, however, the material within 100 feet of the surface is Pleistocene (or perhaps in part Pliocene) sand and clay, interstratified, cross-bedded, mottled, or mixed in various proportions, but all essentially non-calcareous and devoid of fossils. Wells penetrating these strata, and springs flowing from them, yield water that is scarcely surpassed anywhere for purity. j Rock outcrops are limited to a few ledges and boulders of sandstone formed by local induration, and are found usually on hills. The soil is much like that of the lime-sink or cypress pond region already described, being prevailingly sandy at the surface, and passing into reddish sandy clay at a depth of a few inches or feet. Near the coast the subsoil seems to be more sandy than it is in the interior. The surface sand may be derived from the underlying loamy material (Lafayette?) by weathering, or it may be a later *For description of the Altamaha Grit region and its vegetation, see Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. vol. 17, pari i. 1906. tSee Geol. Surv. Ala. Monog. 8:113-123. 1913. JThe city water of Pensacola, which comes from wells averaging 130 feet deep, is said to contain from 22 to 35 parts per million of dissolved solids. (Sellards & Gunter 3, p. 99). The water of springs and shaliov! wells in the same region is probably even purer.
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230 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. formation, or both conditions may occur. Where the red loam approaches the surface small ferruginous concretions are common, as already noted in the lime-sink region. A brick-red loam, commonly referred to the Lafayette formation, and more characteristic of localities farther inland, where the summers are a little drier, iscommon at and near the surface in the northern part of Escambia County, and perhaps elsewhere. Around the head-waters of Alaqua Creek in Walton County there is a few square miles of reddish clayey soil muCh like that in the Knox Hill country, and with similar vegetation, but apparently completely isolated, and too small to be treated separately. Running east and west througli the middle of Walton County is a broad sandy ridge (followed by the L. & N. R. R.) whose origin has not been explained. On this ridge, as in deep dry sand in other parts of the region, salamanders are abundant and gophers common. The following chemical analysis from Dr. Eugene A. Smith's report on Florida in the 6th volume of the Tenth Census (page 199) represents nine inches of soil near Mt. Pleasant, Gadsden County, where the vegetation was long-leaf pine, narrow-leaf black-jack {Qncrcus cincrea), round-leaf black-jack {Qucrcns Marylandka), red oak {Qucrcns falcata), post oak, hickory, oak runners {Qucrcns pnmila?), huckleberries, wire-grass, devil's shoestring, {Cracca Virginiana), wild oats {Sorghastrum secundum?) , vanilla ( Trilisa odoratissima?) , etc. Water and organic matter 2.422% Potash -045% Soda -018% Lime -064% Magnesia -OOS^o Brown oxide of manganese .220% Phosphoric acid -— .066% Sulphuric acid .091% Peroxide of iron -941% Ahimina 1-339% Sohible siHca ^ -• 1.721% InsoUible matter 93-362% As compared with other northern Florida soils analyzed in the sp.me report, this has the lowest percentages of potash, magnesia and phosphoric acid, next to the lowest of lime, and the highest of manganese and sulphur. (Little is known about the relations of the two last-named constituents to vegetation.) Mechanical analyses of several typical upland soils of the same
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7WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 23 1 region have been taken from the government soil surveys of Gadsden and Escambia Counties, pubhshed in 1904 and 1907 respectively. In the case of the Escambia soils each represents the average of two localities, but the localities are not specified, and the depths are not given. The soils are as follows : 1. "Norfolk sandy loam" from two miles southwest of 'J.It. Pleasant, Gadsden Co.; depth 10 inches. This is the most extensive soil of t^ie Gadsaen County plateau, and is described as a light grayish sandy soi' resting on a yellow sandy loam. Ferruginous pebbles are common, the vc,!.;L-la tion is mostly open forests of long-leaf pine, with practical'.y the same undergrowth as that mentioned above in connection with the chemical analysis; the location being nearly the same. 2. Subsoil of same, 10 to 36 inches. 3. "Norfolk sand," Escambia Co. This is described as an incoherent light-gray or yellowish medium sand about 5 inches deep, underlaid by 3'ellowish or reddish sand of the same texture to a depth of 36 inches or more. It is said to cover nearly half of Escambia County, and to be characterized by salamander hills, lo^ng-leaf pine, and some "scrub oak" (doubtless Quercus Catesbaei) and dogwood. Very little of it is in cultivation. 4. "Norfolk fine sandy loam," Escambia Co. This is a fine sandy loam or loamy fine sand from 8 to 18 inches deep," 'becoming gradually j'ellowish and clayey with increasing depth, with numerous ferruginous concretions. The vegetation is long-leaf pine and wire-grass. 5. "Norfolk loam," Escambia Co. "A loam from 6 to 10 inches deep It is usually brown or grayish in color for the first 4 or 5 inches, but below this it changes to a light yellow." The subsoil is said to be clayey and impervious. The vegetation is a very heavy growth of long-leaf pine and wire-grass. 6. "Orangeburg sandy loam" (named for Orangeburg, SC). This differs from the "Norfolk" soils in being redder and more clayey, and is most common in the northern half of Escambia County. "The native vegetation is quite generally a strong and vigorous growth of long-leaf pine." The soil is said to be so productive in its natural state that very little fertilizer has been used on it in the short time it has been under cultivation. "A general appearance of prosperity is noticed where this type forms the principal farming land."* *This soil is found in the part of Florida where the summers are driest (see climatological data for Flomaton, on page 183), and a chemical analysis would doubtless show it to be .above the state average in potash and some other minerals. The prevalence of long-leaf pine on it may be due to the fact that it occurs in comparatively small bodies which have no protection from fire, and long-leaf pine resists fire better than any other upland tree in that part of the state.
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2^2 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Mechanical Analyses of Soils of West Florida Pine Hills. I 2 3456 Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) .78 .64 2.1 0.9 0.6 2.3 Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 10.64 9.24 20.9 5.1 4.5 13.6 Medium sand (.5.25 mm.) 21.52 22.84 25.5 5.1 4.4 11.5 Fine sand (.25-.! mm.) 43.10 44.34 32.5 29.7 19.7 27.9 Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.) __ 12.78 14.98 6.7 25.4 17.4 17.0 Silt (.OS-.G05 mm.) 6.50 5.18 7.8 21.9 28.5 17.7 Clay (.005-0 mm.) _____ __ 4.68 2.70 4.4 11.6 23.8 9.3 Total 100.00 99.92 99.9 99.7 98.9 99.3 Organic matter .54 .15 ?. ? ? ? If the texture of a soil was a reliable indication of its fertility the "Norfolk loam" should be much richer than the "Orangeburg sandy loam," as it contains nearly twice as much silt and clay; but a chemical analysis might tell a different story. Topography and Hydrography — This region includes the highest land in Florida; about 275 feet above sea-level along the east and west ridge in Walton County and 300 feet at the inland edge of the uplands in Gadsden County. Escambia Bay is bordered on the west by bluffs which rise steeply from near the water's edge to a height of 50 or 75 feet, and altitudes of over 100 feet can be found within half a mile of the bay. Alum Bluff, on the Apalachicola River, 160 feet high (mentioned on page 211, and illustrated in 2nd Annual Report, pi. 17. i), is another example of the high land of this region. There are some shallow cypress ponds, mostly in the part east, of the lake region ; and on the sandy ridge, in the neighborhood of DeFuniak Springs, there are a few lakes much like those in the lake region previously described. With these exceptions the topography is due almost entirely to normal erosion processes. Valleys containing small branches are numerous, there being few areas more than a mile square without running water. The smallest valleys vary from broadly V-shaped, with almost no swamp, to flattish and savanna-like, with acres of boggy wet pine land. Some of them, particularly on both sides of the DeFuniak ridge, head in amphitheaters or steepheads,* 50 feet deep or more. Many of the smaller branches are so swift that the sound of nmning water is audible several yards away — which is rather exceptional in Florida. A few of the branches and creeks have been dammed up to furnish power forsmall mills. There are many small *The stations of Bear Head and Mossy Head, on the L. & N. R. R., evidently derive their names from such features.
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J. WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 233 sjjrings, discharging a few gallons a minute, and there are said to be a few rather large ones tributary to Alaqua Creek. Except for the Apalachicola, Yellow and Escambia Rivers, the streams are practiQTcAXy free from mineral sediment. The smallest branches are almost perfectly clear, and the creeks usually coffee-colored from dissolved and suspended vegetable matter.* Vegetation Types — The prevailing type of vegetation is open forests of long-leaf pine. On the driest uplands or where the sand is deepest there is a considerable admixture of small black-jack oaks and a few other deciduous trees with small or thick leaves. The v/et slopes of the broader branch-valleys have a characteristic bog or wet pine-barren flora, more richly developed in this region than anywhere else in Florida. There are all gradations between dry aiid wet pine land, as in the neighboring cypress pond region. At the heads of some of the streams are dense tyty bays (one of which was figured in the Third Annual Report, p. 253). Swamps are common, and vary in character with the size of the stream traversing,them, and the distance from the coast; the largest streams, which fluctuate the most, being bordered by vegetation indicating richer soil than that of the non-alluvial and the estuarine swamps. Shallow ponds with cypress, slash pine or black gum occur in tluflatter places, but much less frequently than in region no. 2. Fire is f rec[uent in the pine forests and rare in the swamps. Small areas of upland protected from fire by being partly surrounded by swamps are characterized by hammock vegetation, here as in other long-leaf pine regions. Plants — iThe following list of plants is based on observations made on 34 different days, distributed as follows : Mar;:h, 5 ; April, I ; May, i ; June, IQ; July, 2; September, 6; October, i ; December, 8. It ought to be reasonably complete as far. as it goes; but a fewtrees and shrubs seen only once or twice, and all herbs noted less than seven times, are omitted for the reasons given on page 185. In order to bring out certain local irregularities in distribution, which are more or less significant, the percentages for the two parts of the region are given separately. !The first column is for the part west of the lake region, and the sepond for the smaller eastern part. • r *For a discussion of the classification of these and other Florida streams see 3d Annual Report, pp. 230-231.
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234 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. +51 — 58 Pinus palustris +8.7 — 2."/ Qucrcus Catesbaei — 7.5 — 4.2 Pinus Elliottii +5.2 — 4.7 Magnolia glauca TREES Long-leaf pine Black-jack oak Slash pine Bay —2-9—5
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7WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 235 •.06 Crataegus aestivalis May haw Castanea puniila Chinquapin Chionanthus Virginica Graybear'l Nyssa Ogeche Tupelo gum Salix nigra Willow WOODY VINES +.023 — ..002 Smilax laurifolia .005 — o Smilax W?ilteri -H.002 — o Pieris phillyreifolla Gelsemium sempervirens Vitis rotujidifolia Rhus radicans Bamboo vine Shallow ponds Hammocks Hammocks Swamps River-banks, etc. Non-alluvial swamps Swamps Swamps and ponds Yellow jessam.ineHammocks Muscadine or bullace Hammocks, etcP'oison ivy Swamps SHRUBS +.025 — .006 Chrysobalanus oblong ifoliua +.015 — .022 Ilex glabra GaHherry — .017 — .011 Serenoa serrulata Saw-pahnetto .010 — .024 Hypericum fasciculat um + — .038 Quercus pumi'.a Oak runner +.010 — o Chrysoma paucifloscu losa (Hurrah bush) Myrtle Myrtle (Stink-bush) Myrtle •008 — .003 Pieris nitida .005 — .011 Myrica pumila +.007 — .005 Myrica Carolinensis +.008 — o Viburnum nudum .007 — .003 Gaylussacia dumosa + .003 — .oil Illicium Floridanum +.006 — .001 Myrica inodora +.005 — 001 Ilex coriacea +.005 — Clinopcdium coccineum .003 — .003 Phoradendiron flavescens Mistletoe .003 — .002 Ceanothus Americanus (Red-shank) .003 — .001 C!ethra alnifoHa .004 — o Rhus Vernix Aronia arbutifolia Pinckneya pubcns Arundinaria tecta Gaylussacia hirtella Azalea viscosa Alnus rugosa Vaccinium nitidum Kalmia Jatifolia Gaylussacia trondosa* Rhus copallina Hypericum galioides? Rubus cuneifolius (X) Blackberry Poison sumac Reed Honeysuckle Alder Huckleberry Ivy Huckleberry Sumac High pine land Low pine land Pine lands Around ponds, etc. High pine land Sand near coast Sour swamps and bays Intermediate pine land Wet pine land Branch-swamps High pine land Edges of swamps Branch-swamps, etc. Non-alluvial swamps Sand near coast On trees High pine land Edges of swamps Non-alluvial swamps Branch-swamps, etc. Branch-swamps A^ong branches Non-alluvial swamps Non-alluvial swamps Along creeks, etcPine lands Hammocks Low pine land, etc. Loamy uplands Creek-banks, etc. Roadsides, etc. *Including the var. nana. 15
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236 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Sabal glabra Palmetto Fraxinus Caroliniana Ash Ascyrum stans Ceanothus microphyllus Rhus Toxicodendron Poison oak Ceratiola ericoides Rosemary (and about 30 others). Richer swamps Estuarine swamps Low pine land High pine land High pine land Sterile sand near coast HERBS +.oog — .012 Aristida stricta +.003 — .002 Eriogonum tomento +.003 — o Pitcheria galactioide ^-.002 — .001 Pteridium aquilinum +.001 — .003 Sarracenia flava +.001 — Kuhnistera pinnata +.001 — .001 Eriocaulon decangu H — f-.ooi — .001 Sarraccenia Drummondii ++.001 — o Mesadenia sulcata +.001 — 001 Rhexia Alifanus +.001 — .001 Baptisia lanceolata H — h.coi — Drosera filiformis T .001 — o Juncus Roemerianus -r.ooi — o Cladium effusum +.001 — o Chondrophora nuda — .COT — • Tillandsia usneoides + Rhynchospora Grayii + Croton argyranthemus + Lophiola aurea -r 'Baptisia hirsuta Eupatorium compositifolium -i — iPleea tenuifolia Chamaecrista fasciculata Hclianthus Radnla Dolicho'us simplicifolius Berlandiera tomcntosa + Gaura Michauxii -f Eupliorbia Floridana ++ Sorghastrum secundum Eriocaulon compressum Chrysopsis graminifolia Oxypolis filiformis + Batschia Carolinensis + Baldwin;a uniflora Wire-grass sum s (A fern) Pitcher-plant (Summer farewell) lare Pitcher-plant racyi (Rush) Saw-grass ta Spanish moss (A sedge) Dog-fennel Partridge-pea Dollar-weed Wild oats High pine land Sandy ridges High pine land High pine land Wet pine land High pine land Low pine land Wet pine land, etc. Non-alluvial swamps Intermediate pine land High pine land Wet pine land Brackish marshes Marshes near coast Low pine land On trees High pine land High pine land Low pine land Sandy ridges Roadsides, etc., in high pine land Low pine land High pine land Intermediate pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land Sandy ridges High pine land Ponds and wet pine land High pine land Ponds, wet pine land, etc. Sandy ridges. Low pine land, etc *Occurs as a shrub in the estuaries of the Escambia and Yellow Rivers. See Third Ann. Rep. pp. 249, 322.
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7WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 237 + + + ' + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Chrysopsis aspera Lycopodium alopecuroides Mayaca Aubleti Actinospermiim angustifolium Osmiinda cinnamomea Aster eryngiifolius Polygala ramosa Campulosus 'aromaticus Eryngium virgatum Vernonia angustifolia Andropogon Virginicus Dichromena latifolia Sporobolus gracilis Tofieldia racemosa Trilisa odoratissima Pentstemon hirsutus Tuncns trigonocarpus Chaptalia tomentosa Sarracenia psittacina Verbena carnea* Castalia odcrata Pontederia cordata Orontium aquaticum Laciniaria tenuifoHa Psora^ea canescens Sarracenia purpurea Chrysopsis argentea? Rhyiichospora alba Salvia azurea Lycopodium Carolinianum Rliynchospora Chapmani Leptopoda Helenium Chrysopsis oligantha Panicum angustifolium? + Cracca Virginiana + + Rliynchospora Tracyi Xyris sp. Aletris aurea ++ Arenaria Caroliniana Doellingeria reticulata + Polygala hitea + Stillingia sylvatica + Rliexia ciliosa + Aster adnatns Sagittaria lancifolia Bidens coronata? + Cracca chrysophylla + Rbynchospora axillaris + Scleria glabra? High pine land Low pine land Branch-swamps, etc. Sandy ridges Low pine land, etc. Low pine land Low pine land Low pine land Wet pine land High pine land High pine land Low pine land High pine land Low pine land Intermediate pine land High pine land Wet pine land Low pine land Low pine land High pine land Water-lily Estuaries, etc Ponds and marshes Swamps High pine land High pine land Pitcher-plant Low pine land (A fern) (A grass) Broom-sedgie (A sedge) (A grass) Deer-tongue (A sedge) (Sage) (A sedge) (A grass) Devil's shoestring (A sedge) 'High pine land Low pine land High pine land Low pine land Low pine land Low pin^e land Intermediate pine High pine land land (A sedge) ( .\ sedge) High pine land Marshes, etcLow pine land, etc. Intermediate pine land Sandy ridges Low pine land Low pine land High pine land Low pine land Intermediate pine land Estuarine marshes Swamips Sandy ridges Low pine land High pine land *See BulJ. Torrey Bot. Club 33:242. 1906.
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238 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. + + + + + + + + + + (A fern) (A sedge) Drosera capillaris? Eupatorium rotundifolium Osmunda rega'.is Macranthera fuchsioides Sabbatia macrophylla Onosmodiiim spRhynchospora Baldvvinii Carphephorus Pseudo-Liatris Polygala cymosa Rhynchospora rariflora (A sedge) Polygala cruciata Linum Floridannni + Muhlenbergia trichopodes* (A grass) Lachnccaulon anceps (and about 250 others). Low pine land Low pine land Swanrps Branch-swamps, etc. Low pine land High pine land Low pine land Lowpine land Ponds and mar,shes Low pine land Low pine land Intermediate pine land Pine lands Intermediate pine land The following trees which are more or less common in near-by or similar regions are notable for their scarcity or absence in this region: Cypress {Taxodiuiii distichum), cabbage palmetto, hickories, willow, ironwood (Carpiiius), white oak, post oak (Quercus stellata), live oak, elms, hackberry, sycamore, plums, redbud, lin (Tilia), Gordonia, tupelo gums (Nyssa uniflora and N. Ogeche), sassafras, and ashes {Fraxinus). Most of these prefer soils richer in potash or humus, or both, than those of the pine hills. On the other hand, Chaniaecyparis,\ Crataegus lacrimata, and several of the herbs are in Florida confined to ihis region or nearly so. Finns clausa, Illicium, Myrica inodora, Conradina, Baptisia hirsuta and Fitclieria are not known in Georgia, and Nyssa Ogeche, Querciis pumila, Baptisia hirsuta and Doellingeria reticulata are not known in Alabama. About 75% of the vegetation in the western part and 77% in the eastern is evergreen. (Although the difference between the two parts in this respect is slight, it is reasonable to assume that it is correlated with the wetter summers eastward). About 15% of the shrubs are Ericaceae and 9.6% of the herbs Leguminosae. The high percentage of evergreens and Ericaceae is doubtless correlated with soils below the average in potassium content ; but the percentage of Leguminosae is about the average. The latter seem to prefer soils rich in calcium and potassium and poor in nitrogen or humus ; and here the soils are somewhat deficient in all these constituents. Weeds are comparatively scarce. Economic Features — As in the case of the neighboring cypress pond region (No. 2), the advantages of this kind of country may be said to have been appreciated only recently. Grazing, lumbering and turpentining have hitherto overshadowed all other industries, (but agriculture is now rapidly forging to the front. As late as 1910 *See footnote on page 208. tThis tree, commonly called white cedar in the North and juniper in the South, seems to be confined to swamps in which the water is exceptionally free from mineral matter in solution or suspension. Both in Liberty and in Santa Rosa County it grows along small creeks which are noted locally for their clearness.
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7. WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 239 only 3.6% of the area was cleared; so there is still ample room for "development." Excluding the city of Pensacola, which has a splendid harbor and has been built up mostly by foreign trade, and is therefore to a considerable extent independent of the natural resources of the country near it, this region had in 1910 about 13.3 inhabitants to the square mile; which was an increase of 51% in ten years, a rate far above the average. About 62^ of the inhabitants are white. The lumber industry of this region reached large proportions early in the state's history. From an article by Hon. P. K. Yonge, of Pensacola, in "Makers of America, Florida edition" (Atlan.a, 1909), we learn that there v/ere a few sawmills near Pensacola in the i8th century, and that in 1835 Pensacola exported nearly four million feet of lumber, and in 1855 about eighteen million feet. This was of course nearly all long-leaf pine. (Some of it may have been rafted down the rivers from Alabama, but even sa, it could have come from the same kind of country.) By 1884 the to;al exports were over ten times as much as in 1855, to say nothmg of coastwise raid rail shipments. About this time some apprehension for the permanence of the supply began to be felt. Dr. Charles Mohr, of Mobile, in his day the greatest authority on the forests of the Gulf states, wrote as follows in the 9th volume of the Tenth Census (pp. 522, 523), published in 1884: The district between the Choctawhatchee and the Perdido is the seat of the oldest and most active lumbering industry of the whole Gu^f. coast * * * The better class of the somewhat elevated and undulating timberlands which surround Escambia, Blackwater, and Saint Mary de Ga'.ves bay were long since stripped of their valuable timber. These forests, having been culled time after time during the last quarter of a century, are now completely exhausted. The low, wet pine barrens, with their soil of almost pure sand, which trend eastward along the shores of Santa Rosa sound and Choctawhatchee bay, have never borne a growth of pine sufficiet'y large to furnish more than a small supplj^ of timber of very inferior quality. The ridges between the Choctawhatchee river and the Yellow river are also, for the most part, arid, sandy wastes, never yielding more than a few hundred feet of lumber per acre. The wel'-timbered portion of west Florida commences with the southern border of Holmes county. This region is now, however, near'y exhausted ailong water-courses large enough for rafting, while of late years canals and ditches dug into the forest afford facilities for floating timber growing remote from streams to the mills. According to those best informed regarding the amount of timber still standing in this section, there is scarcely enough left between the Escambia and Choctawhatchee riv.-r?:. in western Florida, to keep the mills on the coast supplied for another ha'.f-do/.en years, even if the whole of the pine standing could be made available.
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240 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. The peninsula between the junction of the Escambia and the bay of Saint Mary de Galves is low, and along the shore-line, bordered \vi^h marshes. The timber needed to supply the mi'.Is located upon the short-s of these waters has during the past forty years been drawn from this region, and when new forests have replaced the original growth they have 'been cut over and over again, and stilil furnish a small amount of timber, as the turpentine distiller has not followed the log-getter in these regions, the supply of timber here, however, at present is too small to be taken into account in view of the enormously increased demands of the mills. There are three large mills on Blackwater bay producing 40,000,000 feet of lumber a year. Three-fourths of this lumber is produced in the estabUshment of Messrs. Simpson & Co., near the mouth of the Blackwater river, at Bagdad, about half a mile below Milton. Mills sawing square timber are situated 20 or 30 miles above the Blackwater and use mostly water-power. * * * The exhaustion of the timber-lands through the whole breadth of western Florida, as far as the banks of the Choctawhatchee river, will certainly be accomplished before the end of the next five years. In Spite of these gloomy predictions, the lumber industry of the West Florida pine hills is still in a flourishing condition; though of course it has its little ups and downs, like most other industries. Although no statistics for single regions are available, the annual production of lumber in this region at the present time is probably nearly as great, if not as great, as it ever was. At the time Dr. Mohr wrote the words quoted above, there were no railroads in West Florida east of Pensacola, and millions of magnificent pine tiees remote from the coast and waterways were inaccessible and practically unknown. Even yet lumbering operations have not extended more than a few miles from the railroads and rivers and the coast, and there is an enormous amount of timber still standing, the existence of which a traveler following the regular transportation routes would hardly suspect. In September, 19 10, the writer v/alked for several hours through virgin pine forests that had not even been turpentined, on the west side of Alaqua Creek between Portland and DeFuniak Springs; and just a little farther west, in the same region, the government established in 1909 the "Choctawhatchee National Forest," an area of several hundred square miles very sparsely settled and well timbered. Ten months later a great deal of fine "round timber" (i. e., pines not turpentined) was seen between DeFuniak Springs and the Alabama line, and in May, 19 14, the forests between Vernon and the Choctawhatchee River, in Washington County, were found to be scarcely lumbered, thougli nearly all turpentined.
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7WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS. 24 1 The increasing use of substitutes for wood in the arts and trades, especially in the construction of buildings, tends to diminish the drain on our forests ; but even if the per capita consumption of wood did not diminish, the exhaustion of the forests of West Florida would be postponed for a long time, for the simple reason that there are not enough people in those parts yet to keep the long-leaf pine cut down as fast as it grows. For the greatest inroads on the forest, in the eastern United States, have been made not by the lumberman, but by the farmer; for in cultivated areas the forest is completely destroyed, and the amount of cultivated land is steadily increasmg, and the total forest area correspondingly diminishing. But until the population in these parts is two or three times as dense as it is now, no fear need be felt for the exhaustion of the timber supply in the West Florida pine hills. The leading crops in this region in 1912, in order of value, were as follows : Corn, upland cotton, velvet beans (including hay thereof), sweet potatoes, sugar cane, peanuts, field peas (including hay), (grass) hay, oats, peaches, pecans, oranges, watermelons, sea-island 2Ctton, Irish potatoes, pears, cabbage, figs, grapes, onions, tomatoes.
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242 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 8. WEST FLORIDA COAST STRIP. (figures 58-61) References. Harper i (218, 265), McAtee, Sellards 3 (290-291, or 44-45), and U. S. soil survey of Escambia Co., (by Griffen, Drake, Belden & Kolbe, 1907). This region extends from the mouth of the Ocklocknee River west to Mississippi, in streaks and patches which are difficult to map and measure accurately. Its area in Florida is probably not over 400 square miles. It includes most of the islands* and narrow peninsulas along the coast, and on the edge of the mainland some salt and brackish marshes, and elongated belts of dry sand which seems to have been heaped up by the wind long ago. Some of these old dunes are almost completely surrounded by flatwoods belonging to the region to be described next, but they do not seem to occur more than a mile or so from tide-water (which may indicate that the position of the coast line has not changed much for thousands of years). Geology and Soils — Except for a few marsh and estuarine deposits, shell mounds, and some ancient and modern peat, there is nothing but Pleistocene and Recent sand near enough to the surface to have any effect on soil or topography. No chemical analyses of the soils seem to have been made ; but in the immediate vicinity of tlie coast, say within 100 yards of the beach, the sand of the beach and active dunes must contain considerable calcareous matter in the form of pulverized sea-shells. Mechanical analyses of two types of soil from this region have been taken from the government soil survey of Escambia County. The first is "Galveston sand," corresponding to the beaches and moving dunes, and the second is "Sandhiir't corresponding to the older dunes which are no longer moving. The former is not cultivated at all, and the latter very little. The depth to which the samples were taken is not indicated, but *St. James Island, in Franklin County, is an island only by accident, as it were, for it is separated from the mainland only by a narrow freshwater channel (Crooked River), and the greater part of it is flatwoods, indistinguishable from those of the adjacent mainland. That part of it belonging to the coast strip apparently does not average more than half a mile wide. The other islands are separated from the mainland by a mile or more of salt water (the sounds), and are much more typical. tTypical sand-hills of the coastal plain occur along the fall-line and along rivers and creeks, and are scarcely represented in Florida.
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8. WEST FLORIDA COAST STRIP. 243 there is said to be little difference between soil and subsoil in either case. Mechanical Analyses of Soils of the Coast Strip, Escambia County. "Galveston sand" "Sandhill" Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) 0.0 o.i Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 15.5 14.2 Medium sand (.5 — .25 mm.) 56.1 45.1 Fine sand (.25— .1 mm.) 28.3 35.2 Very fine sand (-i-.os mm.) . o.i 0.4 Silt (.05-.005 mm.) 0.0 2.9 Clay (.005-0 mm.) . — 0.0 1.9 Total loo.o 99.9 Both soils have remarkably low percentages of very fine sand, silt and clay, which is doubtless correlated with their lack of fertility. The localities are not given, but the "Sandhill" sample may have been taken far enough back from the coast to be influenced by ants and other subterranean animals. The vegetation of beaches and drifting sands, though sparse, consists mostly of grasses and other plants belonging to families supposed to prefer soils well supplied with lime or potash, or both ; while on the ancient dunes a little farther back, which perhaps have not moved noticeably in hundreds of years, the vegetation is quite different, consisting mostly of pines and evergreen shrubs, with practically no grasses, indicating an extremely sterile soil. It seems very probable that the lime and potash (derived from shells, seaweeds, etc.) that were in the latter soil when it was first thrown up by waves and wind have long ago been almost entirely leached out by the copious summer rains. Salamanders, which have no known way of crossing water, seem to be entirely absent from the islands, and thus one important agent that helps maintain the fertility of some Florida soils is lacking. None have been observed on the old dunes of the mainland either, though the reason for their absence there is less obvious. Gophers and ants inhabit the soil of the oldest dunes near Lanark (and probably elsewhere), and the vegetation there is very similar to that on sandy ridges farther inland, indicating a better soil than that of the stationary dunes on the outer islands. Topography and Hydrography — The topographic forms are those common to many sandy coasts ; namely, beaches, dunes, marshes, etc. The dunes are not as extensively developed as on the
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244 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Atlantic coast, probably because the prevailing winds do not blow toward the land. Few of the moving dunes are more than ten feet high ; but some of the ancient dunes on the mainland and St. James Island are 40 or 50 feet above sea-level. Among these high old dunes are some approximately circular depressions apparently identical in form with some in Middle and peninsular Florida which are supposed to have been formed by the solution of underlying limestone; but here there is no limestone anywhere near the surface, and wind seems to be the only agent which could have formed the hollows, though the details of the process are not fully understood. Ponds, springs and streams are scarce, on account of the narrowness of the coast strip and the porosity of the sand ; but in some of the dune hollows, as in similar hollows in the flatwoods close by, there are tyty bays (described in the 3d Annual Report, p. 265). Vegetation Types — Some of these have been briefly indicated above in the discussions of geology and topography. Typical salt marshes, such as are common on the Atlantic coast, are scarce and small in West Florida, but there is a good deal of brackish marsh around the mouths of rivers and creeks. The marshes are treeless, and the moving dunes likewise. The stationary dunes nearest the coast have a sparse growth of slash pine and a few other trees, and evergreen shrubs. A little farther back there is a good deal of spruce pine (Piniis claiisa), which thrives in the poorest sand, while on the highest old dunes on the mainland, where the leaching is counteracted to some extent by the soil fauna, long-leaf pine and blackjack oak prevail. Among or near the old dunes are areas of flat pine land with tyty bays, which may belong to the flatwoods region, but they are so intimately mixed with the dunes that it was difficult to separate *"hem in making up the plant lists. Fire is a negligible factor in the coast region, partly because the islands and peninsulas are well protected by water, and partly because most of the vegetation is too sparse to carry fire. In some hollows and on slopes near waterways, where there is sufficient protection from wind and sun for humus to accumulate, there is hammock vegetation. Plants — The following list is based on observations made on 12 different days, distributed through the year as follows: April, I ; May, 2; June, 4; July, i ; August, I ; September, i ; December. 2. It cannot be very complete, though, for my opportunities for visiting the outer islands have been very limited. And it probably in-
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8. WEST FLORIDA COAST STRIP. 245 eludes a small admixture of flatwoods plants, as explained above. For these reasons the percentage figures are omitted. — Pinus palustris ++Pinus clausa Pinus Elliotlii + Quercus geminata + Quercus Catcsbaei + Quercus cinerea — Magnolia glauca Magnolia grandiflora +Hicoria glabra? — Taxodium imbricarium Nyssa biflora Oxydendrum arboreum Pinus Caribaea? TREES Long leaf pine Oldest dunes Spruce pine White dunes (Slash pinej Islands, low grounds (Smaller) live oak Old dunes, etc. Black-jack oak Oldest dunes Oldest dunes Bays, etc. Hammocks Hammocks Bays, etcSwamps Hammocks (Turkey oak) Bay Magnolia Hickory Cypress Black gum Sourwood SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS +Quercus myrtifolia +Cliftonia monophylla +Cyrilla parvifolia Myrica cerifera Batodendron arboreum +Smilax laurifolia 4Smilax auriculata Oak Tyty Tyty Myrtle Sparkleberry WOODY VINES Bamboo vine Old dunes Bays Bays Hammocks, etc. Hammocks Bays, etc. Old dunes +Serenoa serrulata + + Ceratiola ericoides ++Chrysoma pauciflosculosa ++Conradina canescens H — hClinopodium coccineum Pieris nitida Hypericum fasciculatum Hypericum aspalathoides — Chrysobalanus oblongifolius Ilex vomitoria ChoHsma ferruginea Iva frutescens Crookea microsepala Baccharis halimifolia Polygonella sp. Callicarpa Americana, Ha.mamelis Virginiana (and 18 others). SHRUBS Saw-palmetto Rosemary (Hurrah bush) Dry sand White dunes Old dunes Old dunes Old dunes Bays Edges of bays Dune hollows Oldest dunes Hammocks Hammocks Edges of marshes Around bays Old dunes French mulberry Hvimmocks Witch-hazel Hammocks
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246 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. + +Juncus Roemerianus + Pitcheria galactioides + Syngonanthus flavidulus + Euphorbia gracilis + Lophiola aurea 4-+Rhynchospora dodecandra Polygala Uitea Anchistea Virginica +Ambrosia hispida? Rhynchospora Chapmani? Centella repanda Cladium effusum Rhexia Alifanus Baptisia LeContei? Siphonychia sp. Saururus cernuus Fuirena scirpoidea Sarracenia psittacina Panicum erecti folium? Utricularia cornuta + Rhynchospora leptorhyncha Spartina gracilis +Unio!a paniculata + Stenophyl]ns Warei Fimbristylis spadicea Kuhnistera pinnata (Summer farewell) Oldest dunes + Laciiiiaria Chapmani Oldest dunes (and about 100 others). Nearly all trees characteristic of rich soil, and even the short-leaf pines, cypress (Taxodiuin distichum), cabbage palmetto, willows, beech, most of the oaks, elms, poplar, sweet gum, haws, plums, maples, black gum, dogwood, persimmon and ashes, are rare or absent. Piiiiis clausa, Quercus myrtifoUa and Seroioa are in West Florida chiefly confined to this region, though they are more widely distributed in the peninsula. Chrysoma, Conradiiio, and Cliuopodiuni coccineum do not grow much farther south, and the Conradiiia is almost confined to this region. The proportion of evergreens (about 80%) is probab'y higher than in any other region described in this volume, except the East coast strip; which presumably indicates soils very deficient in potash. The percentage of Leguminosae is low, for the same reason. There are almost no weeds. Economic Features — On account of the narrowness of this strip no statistics of population and crops can be obtained. But there is practically no agriculture, and the principal occupations of the inhabitants seem to be fishing-, lumbering and commerce. There is considerable summer resort business, particularly on St. James Island, around St. Andrew's Bay, and near Pensacola, and some HERBS
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9APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS. 247 winter resort business also. The large sawmills in and near the coast strip get their timber almost entirely from farther inland. In the first half of the 19th century the government reserved a strip on the coa^t of West Florida for the sake of the live oak timber, which was then highly valued for ship-building. Roads and wheeled vehicles are scarce in this region, and communication is mostly by boat and rail. 9. APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS. (figures 62, 63) References. Bush, Harper i (221, 235-238, 294-295), Harper 5, Matson & Sanford (305-306), Sellards 3 (293 or 47, — first use of name), Smith 2 (226), and U. S. soil survey of Leon Co., 1906. Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep., pi. 19.2, fig. 17 (two views of estuarine swamps), and in Pop. Sci. Monthly 85: 3531914This kind of country is confined to Florida, between the Choctawhatchee and Wakulla Rivers, and has an area of about 2,600 square miles. Geology and Soils — No rocks or fossils are known in this region, except on the banks of the Sopchoppy River, and the area is usually nearly all mapped as Pleistocene. The soil is mostly sand, of several different degrees of fineness. In some places there is "hardpan"* within two or three feet of the surface, but over the greater part of the area there are no cuts or excavations deep enough to indicate what underlies the sand. In a few places in Wakulla and Franklin Counties the vegetation seems to indicate marl near the surface; and there is said to be a belt of fairly rich soil on the west side of the Sopchoppy River. Along the Apalachicola River there is of course considerable alluvium, which near the mouth of the river seems to be at least 170 feet deep.f One of the most characteristic soils of this region has been called "Leon sand" in the soil survey above cited. It is described as a gray or white medium sand 6 to 10 inches deep, usually moist and often compact, underlaid by a pure white or light brown compact medium sand, which is saturated with water or nearly so. The vegetation is said to be mostly long-leaf pine, saw-palmetto, and wiregrass ; and very little of the land is under cultivation. The following mechanical analysis of such a soil from somewhere in the south*See Third Ann. Rep. 96-97, 222, 225, 294, 295; 4th Ann. Rep. 37-38; 5th Ann. Rep. 127-128. tSee Third Ann. Rep., p. 235.
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248 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. western part of Leon County (locality not specified) is taken from the publication referred to. The first column of percentages is for soil and the second for subsoil; but the respective depths are not indicated. Mechanical Analyses of "Leon Sand," Leon County. Soil Subsoil Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) .8 .8 Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 18.3 15.0 Medium sand (.5--25 mm.) 16.5 16.2 Fine sand (.25-.1 mm.) 37.5 37.8 Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.) 19.7 21.3 Silt (.05-.00S mm.) 5.2 5.6 Clay (.005-0 mm.) 1.5 3.1 Total 99.5 99.8 These figures indicate that there is little difference between soil and subsoil, and that the proportion of silt and clay is rather low. Much of the soil is too damp for ants, gophers and salamanders, but crawfish are common in some places, if one may judge from their "chimneys," which are usually closed at the top, instead of open like the more familiar ones in more clayey soils farther inland. Topograph^! and Hydrography — The surface is essentially flat, except for shallow stream-channels and innumerable shallow ponds and bays, and a strip of rolling country along the Sopchoppy River (which has not yet been visited by the writer). It rises gradually from the coast to an elevation of 75 or possibly 100 feet at its inland edge. The ground-water stands nearly everywhere within a few feet or inches of the surface. The streams are mostly sluggish, and all coffee-colored except the Apalachicola and Choctawhatchee Rivers, which are muddy. These rivers fluctuate more than the smaller streams, but of course not as much as they do farther inland, for near their mouths they cannot rise much above sea-level. Dead Lake, or Lake Chipola, in Calhoun County, seems to be a widening of the Chipola River, but little is known about it, as few if any scientists have ever seen it. Vegetation Types — The greater part of the area is flat pine woods, long-leaf pine being the most abundant tree, in spite of the rather damp soil. The numerous shallow depressions contain either cypress pond vegetation or bay* vegetation, or some intermediate *A phytogeographical term occasionally heard in this region is "baygall"; but I have never ascertained just what difference, if any, there is between a bay-gall and a bay.
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APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS. 249 stage, depending on the amount of seasonal lluctuation of the water, as in the hme-sink region ah'eady described (No. 2). The streams are all bordered by swamps of varying width and character. Plants — The following list is based on observations made mostly in Franklin and Wakulla Counties, and on only 12 different days, distributed as follows : April, 5 ; May, i ; June, 4 ; August, i ; October, i. The estuarine swamps at the mouth of the Choctawhatchee River (described in the 3d Annual Report, p. 238) may belong to this region, but their plants have not been incorporated into the following list. There are probably few or no species there v.'hich are not in the Apalachicola River swamps, however. TREES 40.0
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250 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS +.48 Cyri'la parvifolia +.45 C'.iftonia monophylla +.07 Ilex myrtifolia .06 Myrica cerifera .05 Salix longipes? .02 Quercus geminata .01 Cyrilla racemiflora Tyty
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APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS. 251 .001 Viburnum nudum (Possum haw) Branch-swamps .001 Cornus stricta? .001 Gaylussacia dumosa •001 Hypericum opacum .001 Chrysobalanus oblongifolius .001 Amorpha fruticosa j .001 Rosa Carolina WiM rose .001 Cholisma ligustrina ++.001 Leitneria Floridana (and 12 others). HERBS ++.006 ++.004 +.003 +.003 +.002 +.002 .002 +.002 +.002 +.002 +.001 +.001 +.001 +.001 +.001 +.001 +.001 +.001 + + + + + + Rhexia AHfanus Lcphiola aurea Aristida stricta Sarracenia flava Eriocaulon compressum Cladium effusum Tillandsia usneoides Eriocaulon decangulare Aster eryngiifolius Campulosus aromaticus Aletris lutea Eryngium synchaetum Polygala cymosa Trilisa odoratissima Drosera filiformis Tracyi Helianthella grandiflora? Coreopsis nudata Dichromena latifolia Sagittaria lancifolia Baldwinia uniflora Syngonanthus flavidulus Pterocaulon undulatum Anchistea Virginica Eupatorium rotundifolium Xyris flexuosa* Chondrophora nudata Lachnocaulon anceps Pontederia cordata Tracyanthus angustifolius Euphorbia inundata? Sabbatia macrophyMa Sarracenia psittacina Leptopoda Helenium . Rhexia lutea Gyrotheca tinctoria Wire-grass Pitcher-plant Saw-grass Spanish moss (A grass) Deer-tongue (A sedge) (Black-root) (A fern) Pitcher-plant Rich damp places Flatwoods Edges of bays Drier flatwoods River-banks Swamips Bays Swamps ne'ar Apalachicoia Flatwoods Damp flatwoods Flatwoods Damp flatwoods Ponds and bavs Estuarine marshes Swamps, etc. Bays, etc. Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Ponds and bays Flatwoods Damp flatwoods Drier flatwoods Damp flatwoods Damp flatwoods Estuarine marshes Flatwoods Flatwoods and bays Flatwoods Bays and pond,s Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Ponds and marshes Flatwoods Flatwoods Damp flatwoods Around bays Around ponds Flatwoods Bays, etc *X torta of many authors. 16
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252 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY— SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. + + + + + + +. + + + + + + + Pteridium aqui'-inum Rhynchospora Chapmani Trilisa paniculata Saururus cernuus Diodia teres (X) Sericocarpus bifoliatus Chrysopsis oligantha Panicum sp. Drosera capillaris Juncus scirpoides composi Rhynchospora corniculata Osmunda regalis Sarracenia Drummondii Centella repanda Polygala liitea Eleocharijs Baldwin ii (X?) Nymphaea fluviatilis Zizania aquatica? Scirpus validus Chrysopsis graminifolia Erigeron vernus Rhynchospora semiplumosa Baptisia LeContei? Osmunda cinnamomea Senecio lobatns Ludwigia virgata Carphephorus PseudoLiatris Afzelia cassioides Dianthera crassifolia Phragmites communis Sabbatia campanulata Fuirena scirpoidea Chaptalia tomentosa Typha latifolia Kuhnistera pinnata(A fern) (A sedge) (A grass) (Sundew) tus (A sedge) (A fern) Pitcher-plant (A sedge) Bonnets (Wild rice) (Bulrush) (A sedge) (A fern) (Reed-grass) (A sedge) Cat-tail (Summer 'farewell) Juncus Roemerianus Juncus bifiorus Iris versicolor Xyris pallescens Lycopodium CaroHnianum Aristida spiciformis (A grass) (and about i8o others). Flatwoods Damp flatwoods Flatwoods Swamps, etc. Along rai'.roads, etc. Drier flatwoods Flatwoods Damp flatwoods Around bays Flatwoods Ponds, etc Swamps Damp flatwoods Flatwoods and bays Flatwoods and bays Damp grassy roads Rivers Estuarine swamps Estuarine marshes Drier flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Drier places Around bays, etc. Swamps Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Estuarine marshes Flatwoods Flatwoods Damp flatwoods Estuarine marshes Drier spots Brackish marshes Flatwoods Ponds, etc Flatwoods Around bays Flatwoods and bays
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9ApALACmCOLA FLATWOODS. 253 The following trees which are more or less common in neighboring regions are rare or absent in this one: — Short-leaf pine (riiiiis eclnnala), juniper, cedar, hickories, beech, chinquapin, most of the oaks, haws, plums, holly, dogwood and sourwood. One of the cottonwoods, Fopulus heteroly/iylla, seems to be found in Florida only in the swamps of the lower Apalachicola,* and the same might be said of a few shrubs and herbs which are almost too rare to be listed. Only one or two weeds seem to be abundant enough to be ranked among the first 50 herbs. About 68% of the vegetation is evergreen, 15.6% of tlie shrubs (.or about .04% of the total vegetation) are Ericaceae, and only i.y/o of tiie herbs are Leguminosae. Economic Features — In 1910 less than 3% of this region was under cultivation. There were less than 8 inhabitants to the square mile, on the average, and nearly all of those lived in towns. But tJie population increased about 28% between 1900 and 1910, and perhaps inventive genius will devise means for making this a flourishing agricultural region before many decades. (At the present time the expenditures for fertilizers per acre of improved land in this region seem to be below the state average.) At least 58% of the inhabitants are white. Lumbering and turpentining and grazing are naturally the dominant industries; but bee-keeping is relatively more important here than in any other part of the State. Calhoun County, the "banner" honey county of Florida, produced in 1911-12 233,247 pounds of honey and 2,176 pounds of beeswax. The principal honey plants are the two kinds of tupelo gum, which are common in the swamps of the lower Apalachicola River; but the three kinds of tyty and the gallberry and saw-palmetto are also important. The leading crops, in order of value, seem to be corn, sugarcane, sweet potatoes, peanuts, Irish potatoes, cabbage, oranges, upland cotton, tomatoes, beans, grapes, peaches, field peas (including hay), pears, onions, figs, plums, velvet beans, cantaloupes, oats, pecans, and (grass) hay. *Most books dealing with southern trees do not m^ention the occurrence of this species in Florida at all. Although nearly every botanist who has been to Apalachicola by way of the river (the usual route previous to 1907) must have seen it, those who took no notes had no record of it, for the trees are rather inacoessible.
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254 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. lo. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. (FIGURES 31, 33, 35, 36, 64-68) References. Garber 2, Harper i (219-220, 254-255, 276-277), Matson & Clapp (98, 99, 121, 279, 287-288), Matson & Sanford (27, 113-114, 128, 263, pi3A, 4B), Sellards i (58-67), Sellards 3 (293 or 47), Sellards & Gunter 1 (263, 279-284), Sellards & Gunter 3 (143-149), Smith 2 (221, 222), and U. S soil surveys of Gadsden, Leon and Jefferson Cos. and the "Gainesville area." Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep. p!. 7.2, 8.2, 8.3, 27.2, fig. 19; 4th Ann. Rep., pi. 12.2, !"g. 15. This is a complex and diversified region, extending in an arc approximately parallel to the Gulf coast from Liberty County up through some of the southernmost counties in Georgia and then southeastward near the axis of the Florida peninsula to Marion County. It embraces about 1,900 square miles iji the area covered by this report. Within the region there are many small areas of red hills, flatwods, and other variations, which might be entitled to rank as distinct regions if they were large enough; but it is our of the question to show them at all on the map here used. The Tallahassee red hills, which were included in the hammock belt in the Third Annual Report (though separated on the map by a dotted line) are here ranked as a distinct region, however (No. 11). Geology and Soils — Rock outcrops are chiefly confined to riverbanks and sink-holes, and those that have been identified are mostly Upper Oligocene. The rocks are nearly everywhere covered by reddish sandy clay, and often also by a few feet of more or less loamy sand. The clay is most conspicuous in the western part, and gradually diminishes eastward and southward. The soils are mostly rather sandy, but vary from red loam hills much like those of the next region to damp sour sandy flatwoods like those of region 9, gray h'gh hammock lands, and sihy second-bottom deposits; and most of these types occur in nearly every county. No chemical analyses of soils from this region seem to be available, but the government soil surveys above cited contain many mechanical analyses and descriptions which are of considerable interest. From this source eight types have been selected, as follows : I. "Gadsden sand," from % mile northeast of Quincy, Gadsden Co. Depth ID inches. This is described as a dark gray fine sand, or medium sandy loam, resting on a gray or yellow or brownish sandy loam slightly lighter in texture. There are some ferruginous pebbles in the soil. This soil is mostly on slopes near streams, and may be partly colluvial. Its vegetation is of the hammock type, and it is regarded as a very productive soil, for a sand.
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lO. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. 255 2. "Ocklocknee clay," from 3V2 miles northeast of Midway, Gadsden Co. Depth 8 inches. This is described as a heavy dark sandy loam of variable texture, resting on a stiflf dark yellow or mottled red c'ay. (The subsoil is used for brick-making at two places in Gadsden County and at at least one place on the same side of the same river in Thomas County, Georgia.) The soil lies in the bottoms of the Ocklocknee River, and although it is occasionally overflowed, the vegetation is mostly long-leaf pine, saw-palmetto, gallberry, etc., much like that of some flatwoods, and very different from that in the flood-plains of muddy rivers. (It is doubtless low in available pot^ish, notwithstanding its clayey character.) It is hardly ever cultivated. 3. "Norfolk sand." Jefferson Co.; average of two samples, (localities and depths not given). This is a gray, light brown, or yellow sand, medium to tine in texture, with enough organic matter to make it loamy, underlaid at a depth of 10 to 24 inches by yellowish or light gray sand of more open structure. It is tlie commonest upland soil in Jefferson County, and has a native vegetation of long-leaf and short-leaf pines, oaks, hickories, and many other species. A good deal of it is under cultivation, and it is evidently richer than the "Norfolk sand'' of Escam,bia County, described on page 231, although it contains less silt and clay. 4. "Orangeburg fine sandy loam," Jefferson Co.; average of two samples (localities and depths not given). This is a "gray, brown, or reddish-brown medium to fine sandy loam, 8 to 15 inches deep." with ferruginous pebb'es, and a subsoil of "very red clay containing from 40 to 60 per cent of medium to fine grades of sand with very little silt." It occurs on rolling uplands, is a fairly productive soil (making about a third of a bale of cotton to the acre without fertilizer), and is largely under cultivation. 5. "Gainesville sand," one-fourth mile w^est of Rutledge, Alachua Co.* Depth 6 inches. This is "a gray loamy sand 8 inches deep, containing much organic matter, underlain by a brown loamy sand of looser structure." Weathered rock fragments are common in both soil and subsoil, and usually there is calcareous c'ay or part'y weathered limestone within three feet of the surface. It is on high uplands with subterranean drainage, and the native vegetation is large long-leaf pines and various hardwoods. It is one of the most popular soils in the "Gainesville area," and nearly lialf of it is under cultivation, the principal crops being corn and sea-island cotton. 6. "Portsmouth sandy loam,''t one mi'e northwest of Rocky Point, Alachua Co. Depth 25 inches. This name is applied to soils varying *See footnote on next page. tMost other soils of the "Portsmouth" series (named for Portsmouth, Va., and confined to the coastal plain from Delaware to Mississippi) are flatwoods soils of low agricultural valre. ("These soils are developed in flat to slightly depressed, poorly drained situations, and require ditching before they can be used for agriculture." — H. H. Bennett, USBureau of Soi's. Bull. 96:248. 1913.) If the "Gainesville area" were reexamined, this fertile residual high hammock soil, which resembles the "Portsmouth" soils cnly in h:iving a 'arge proportion of sand and organic matter, and must be very different chemically, would probably be classified differently.
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256 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. somewhat in texture, but all rather sandy, with fragments of limestone, and enough organic matter to give a very dark color. It ranges from a few inches to five feet m depth, and has a stifif gray calcareous clay subsoil. The whole s«ems to be derived from the weathering of Tertiary rocks in' place. It occurs in rather hilly areas bordering lakes and prairies, and is dotted with lime-sinks. It has a hammock vegetation, and the trees are nearly all hardwoods. It is said to be "the strongest and most productive soil of the area, and for the purposes for which it is utilized it is probably the most valuable land in the State. The crops most generally grown, to which the soil seems best adapted, are lettuce, cabbage, peas, beans, and cantaloupes. This is the only soil [in the 'Gainesvi.le area'] on which the production of citrus fruits has been attempted since the great freeze" [of 1895]. 7. Subsoil of the precedmg. Depth 25 to 36 inches. A gray heavy clay. / 8. -"Portsmouth fine sand," one-fourth mile southwest of Micanopy, Alachua Co.* Depth 12 inches. This is a fine to medium sand, usually dark gray or black from the presence of organic matter, and about 16 inches deep, with a chocolate brown sandy subsoil, sometimes making a sort of hardpan. This is a typical "poorly drained" flatwoods soil, presumably of sedimentary origin. Within the hammock belt the flatwoods are often, if not usually, at a lower elevation than the more loamy soils adjoining, but similar soils in the same "Gainesville area" which belong to the East Florida flatwoods (region 19) are distinctly upland soils. The prevailing vegetation is long-leaf pine, saw-palmetto, gallberry, oak runners, and other characteristic flatwoods plants. Mechanical Analyses of Middle Florida Hammock Belt Soils I 2345678 Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) 0.90 1.06 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 2.8 Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 6.40 5.48 lo.i 12.2 3.1 8.1 8-8 14.6 Medium sand (.5-.2S mm.) — 11. 70 7.70 14.5 13.3 9.5 20.9 18.8 29.5 Fine sand (.25-. i mm.) 56.80 30.84 51. i 38.2 63.5 44.7 34.7 39.5 Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.).16.90 17.10 14.2 11.8 5.6 16.9 8.0 9.7 Silt (.05-.005 mm.) 2.80 1444 5.7 1 1.9 6.7 5.6 2.6 2.3 Clay (.005-0 mm.) 4.24 23.38 3.4 9.4 11. i 3.1 26.7 i.i Total 99-74 100.00 99.9 97.4 loo.o 99.8 loo.o 99.5 Organic matter 0.67 2.76 ?????? Any one examining this table (excluding No. 7, which is a subsoil), without knowing a^iything else about the soils, might suppose that No. 2 was the richest, on account of having the largest percentages of the three finest grades of particles, and that No. 6 was about on a par with No. 3, the comparatively poor "Norfolk sand." The facts of the case are decidedly otherwise, however, and chemical analyses would probably correlate much better with the vegetation and cropsIt is significant, however, that No. 8, which contains the least silt and clay, is the poorest of all. *ln the soil survey of the "Gainesville area" the mechanical analyses of the "Gainesville sand" and the "Portsmouth fine sand" seem to havt been inadvertently transposed.
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lO. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. 257 Salamanders are common in the sandiest soils ("Norfolk sand," etc.), ants are ubiquitous, and no doubt other subterranean animals abound in certain places. Topography and Hydrography — The topography of this belt varies from decidedly hilly, for Florida, to practically flat. The elevations range from over 250 feet in Gadsden County and about 200 in Columbia to about 50 feet at the coastward edge. In Gadsden County, where the steepest hills are found, the topography has been produced almost entirely by erosion, and there are many ravines containing swift branches, much as in the Apalachicola bluff region (No. 3) on the other side of the county; but farther east there are many evidences of solution, and streams are scarcer. There are a few caves, sinks, and big springs, mostly east of the Withlacoochee River (of Georgia). Most of the streams are of the coffee-colored type, but there are also a few short clear calcareous runs issuing from large springs. There are no muddy rivers, except that the Ocklocknee becomes somewhat turbid after prolonged rains (and that probably did not occur before the farmers began to clear up the country around its tributaries). Several streams which rise near the inland edge of this belt flow across it and disappear into the ground near its coastward edge. Flat-bottomed lakes which drain into sinks and are dry a good deal of the time are characteristic of this region, but not wholly confined to it. (See paper by Dr. Sellards on pages 1 15-159 of this volume.) Vegetation Types — These are as varied as the soil and topography; embracing upland oak woods, high and low pine lands, hammocks of several kinds, swamps, bays, ponds, marshes, prairies, etc. Fire is frequent in the pine lands and rare in the hammocks and swamps, as usual. Plants — In order to bring out certain local irregularities of distribution the region is divided for statistical purposes somewhat arbitrarily into three parts by means of rivers ; namely : ( i ) that part west of the Ocklocknee River, which as far as Florida is concerned is practically the same as the part west of the Tallahassee red hills; (2) the part betw^een the Ocklocknee and the Withlacoochee River (of Georgia) ; (3) the part southeast of the Withlacoochee. There are three columns of percentages, to correspond with these three divisions. The + and — marks, however, refer only to the average for the whole region (which is not necessarily
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258 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. the average of the three percentages, on account of the difference in size of the three divisions. For the same reason the order of abundance is not exactly the same as that of the sums of the percentages). Thus in the case of a species preceded by a + mark some one, or occasionally even two, of the percentages may fall below the average of that species for northern Florida ; and vice versa. Where two + marks are used the highest figure of course indicates the division in which the species is more abundant than it is anywhere else; and in the other two divisions it may possibly be below the northern Florida average. My field work has been distributed as follows : Western division, March, 6 days; April, i ; May, i ; June, 4; August, September, October, November and December, i each; total 17. Middle division, January, 3 ; February, 3 ; March, 7 ; April, 4 ; May, 3 ; June I ; July, 2 ; August, i ; September, 2 ; November, 5 ; December, 6 ; total 2)7Eastern division, January, i ; February, 5 ; March, 3 ; April, 2; May, 3; July, 3; August, i ; December, 2; total, 20. ' TREES — 27 — 18 — 34 Pinus palustris + 15 — 11 — II Pinus Taeda -f6.i — 13.5 — 6.2 Pinus EUiottii o — 12.3 — 4.8 Taxodium imbricarium ++6.5 — 7.0 — 1. 1 Magnolia g'auca +2.5 — 6.5 — 2.;^ Pinus serotina +6.5 — 3.8 — 4.2 Magnolia grandiflora +44 — 3-^ — 5-7 Liquidambar Styraciflua -f 1.9 — 4.4 — 0.2 Pinus echinata + T.2 — 4.1 — 0.6 Nyssa biflora +2.1 — 2.0 — 3.1 Querciis falcata +3-3— I -I— 0.8 Pinus glabra + 1.4 — 1.8 — 0.7 Cornus florida + f.4 — 1-5 — i-i Quercus nigra — 1.2 — 0.5 — 4.0 Qnercus Catesbaei i.o — I.I — i.o Acer rubrum +2.2 — 0.9 — Liriodcndron Tulipifera -F2.4 — 0.2 — 0.1 Fagrns grandifo'ia 0.4 — 0.7 — 0.8 Quercus laurifolia Long-leaf pine Short-leaf pine Slash pine (Pond) cypress Bay (Black) pine Magnolia Sweet gum Short-leaf pine r.lack glim Red oak Spruce pine Dogwood Water oak R'ack-jack oak Maple Poplar Beech Sandy soils Various situations Shallow swamips, etc. Ponds and bays Non-alluvial swamps Wet flatwoods Hammocks Richer soils Richer uplands Swamps and ponds Richer uplands Hnmmocks Richer uplands Various situations Sandy uplands Swamps Wet woods Rnvines and hammocks Hammocks, etc.
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lO. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. ^39 O.I — 0-4-^0.7—0.3 + 1.1 — 0.1 + 1.3— 0.1 I.O — 0.2 +0.6 — 0.2 — 0.2 — 0.2 + 0.4—0.3 +0.2 — 0.4 — 1.2 -l.I -0.7 -0.6 -0.8 -0.8 +0.1 — — 0.4 0.2— — o.r — o.i+0 — — 0.4 — — +0.4 — 0.2— +0.1 — 0.1— 0.3—0.1O.I — O.I — +0 — — — 0.2 — O.I — 0.2 — — — 0. O.I — O.I — O.I — — 01 O — O.I — -0.3—0 —0 O — — 0.3 — -2.1 Quercus Virginiana Taxodium distichum Carpinus Caroliniana Quercus Michauxii Ilex opaca Ostrya Virginiana Quercus cinerea Quercus alba — Oxj'dendrum arboreum Hicoria glabra? Salix nigra Hicoria alba? Tilia pubescens Betula nigra Mains ang-ustifolia Hicoria sp. Nyssa uniflor.i Melia Azedarach (X) Celtis occidentalis? Sabal Palmetto Cercis Candensis Fraxinus Caroliniana Quercus geminata Prunus serotina (X) 0.1 Quercus stellata 0.4 Persea Borbonia • 3 Quercus ]\Iargaretta Quercus Marylandica Diospyros Virginiana (X) 0.3 Morus rubra 3 Acer Nceunflo (and about 20 -I.I -0.1 -0.8 -I.I -0.4 -0.6 -0 -0-3 -0.8 -0.7 •3 0.1 Live oak Cypress Iron wood Swamp chestnut Oak Ho'.ly Turkey oak White oak Sourwood Hickory Willow Hickory (Lin, basswood) Birch Crab-apple Hickory Tupelo gum Chinaberry Hackberry Cabbage palmetto Redbud Ash (Smaller) Ijve oak Wild cherry Post oak Red bay Post oak Black-jack oak Persimmon Mulberry (pox elder) others). Various situations Richer swamps Low grounds Low grounds Ravines and hammocks Hammocks, etc. Sandy up.ands Ravines and hammocks Ravines and hammocks Hammocks Along streams Loamy uplands Hammocks River-banks Dry woods Hammocks, etc. Swamps Borders of fields, etc. Hammocks Hammocks Rich uplands Swamps Sandy soils Roadsides, etc. Loamy uplands Hammocks Dry sandy soils Red clay u ••lands Old fields, etc. Hammocks Hammockr,
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26o FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. +.23— .17— .25 +.09 — .24 — .02 +.08 — .01 — .04 + .08 .02 — O +.05— 05— .03 + .02 — .03 .03 .01 .02 .06 .c6 O .03 — .01 -02 .02 .02 O — .02 .01 .01 — .01 O .01 — '.01 — 03 o — .02 O .02 O — o — 03 .01 — o — .02 o — o —.03 SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS Hanimocks Myrtle Tyty May haw Tyty Myrica cerifera Cyrilla racemiflora Crataegus aestivalis Cliftonia monophylla Osmanthus Americana Batodcndron arboreum Prunus angustifolia (X) Wild plr.m Nyssa Ogeche Tupelo gum Ilex myrtifolia Yaupon Cholisma ferruginea Prunus umbellata? Symplocos tinctoria Chionanthus Virginica Graybeard Diospyros Virginiana (X) Persimmon Persea pubescens Red bay Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis (X?) Planera aquatica Bumelia lanuginosa (and about 12 others). Swamps Shallow ponds Sour swamps Hammocks Sparkleberry 'Sandy hammock-; Old fields, etc Swamps, 'etc. Shallow ponds Hammocks Hog plum Hammocks Hammocks Haimmocks Old fields, etc. Swamps Hammocks ^•^•erbanks Hammocks WOODY VINES 4-.001 .020 — .003 Smilax laurifolia Bamboo vine Sour swamps and bays +.005 — .004 — .005 Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jes.samine Hammocks, etc. +.001 — .003 — .004 Smilax lanceolata (Wild Smilax) Hammocks, etc. o — .005 — Smiliax Walteri Swamps — .005 — o Pieris phillyreifolia Cypress ponds and l)avs +.001 — .001 — .007 Vitis rotundifolia Muscadine Various situations 4-.003 — .001 — .003 Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia creeper Hammocks, etc .003 — .002 — Bignonia crucigera Cross-vine Hammocks, etc
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lO. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. 261 .003 — .001 — o Decumaria barbara .001 — -.001 — -.ooi Rhus radicans Poison ivy .001 — o — .003 Vitis aestivalis Wild grape o — o — .003 Tecoma radicans (Cow-itch) o — o — .002 Berchemia scandens Rattan vine SHRUBS +.023 — .05 1 — 062 +.019 — .013 — .012 +.003 — .0 1 2 — .0 1 .006 — .004 — -016 .002 — -.oc8 — .003 +.006 — .004 — .009 +.016 — o — .001 .001 — 005 — .008 .001 — COS — o — .003 — .013 +.001 — .006 — .002 +.003 Saw-palmetto Gallberry (Hurrah bush) Sumac Mistletoe Prickly ash -.005.001 -f ,005 — .004 — o — .006-ro 4.001 — .005 — o — .005 — Serenoa serrulata Ilex glabra Pieris nilida Rhus copal'.ina Phcradendron flavescens Aralia spinosa Rhapidophyllum Hystrix Cephalanthus occidcntalis Hypericum fasciculatum Myrica pumila Azalea nudiflora Honeysuckle Arundinaria tecta Reed Pinckneya pubens Cyrilla parvifolia Tyty Crookea microsepala Clethra alnifolia Wet woods Swamps, etc. Hammocks Various situations Low hammocks, etc. Flatwoods, etc. I'Oatwoods, etc. Swamps and bays Hammocks, etc. On trees Hammocks (Needle palm) Ravines and hammocks Elbow-bush Mvrtle .002 — .002 — .003 Ca Hi car pa Americana — .004 — o Leucothoe racemosa .001 — .001 — .005 Sambucus Canadensis (X) Elder .004 — .001 — .002 Saba! glabra Palmetto +.004 — .001 — Leucothoe axillaris — .003 — 001 Itea Virginica .002 — .001 — .003 Viburnum obovatum .002 — .002 — .0 Quercns pumila Oak runnfer +.004 — o — .001 Aesculus Pavia Buckeye — .002 — .002 Rubus cuneifolins (X) Blackberry — .002 — .002 Vaccinium nitidum Huckleberry Swamps and ponds Around ponds and bay? Pine lands Hammocks, etc. Branch swamps, etc. Branch-swamps Bays Flatwoods Edges of swamps and bays French mulberry Hammocks Bays, etc. Swamps Swamps Ravines, etc. Swamps I-ow hammocks Pine lands Hammocks, etc Roadsides Flatwoods
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262 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Pawpaw Chinquapin (Poor grub) Witch-hazel I'.uckleberry (Poison sumac) .001 — — .005 Asimina angustifoHa o — — .007 Castanea alnifolia + o — .001 — .002 Viburnum nudum .001 — .001 — .001 Aronia arbutifolia .001 — 001 — .001 Cholisma fruticosa o — .001 — .001 Hamamelis Virginiana o — .001 — .001 Vaccinuim virgatum? .001 — .001 — Rhus Vernix o — .001 — .002 Sebastiana ligustrina .002 — — .001 Hypericum galioides? o —.001 — Cholisma ligustrina o — .001 — .001 Decodon verticillatus o — — .002 Cornus stricta? — .001 — .002 Rosa Carolina Wild rose o — .001 — .001 Gay'ussacia frondosa* .001 — — .002 Eucnymus Americanus o — — .002 Baccharis halimifolia — .001 — Ilex coriacea (and about 25 others). HERBS +.002 — .008 — .014 Tillandsia usneoides Spanish moss .002 — .OCT — .003 Aristida stricta Wire-grasj 4-.00I — .001 — .003 Eupatorium compositifolium Dog-fennol + +.001 — o Anchistea Virginica + — .001 — o Osmunda cinnamomea + — .001 — Panicum hemitomon + — .001 — o Eupatorium rotundifo'ium + — .001 — Castalia odorata Water-lily Pine lands Pine lands (Possum haw") Branch-swamps Edges of swamps FIjatwoods Hammocks' Hammocks Swamps Swam'ps, etc. Swamps Edges of swamps Swamps Low hammocks Swamps Huckleberry Flatwoods, etc. Hammocks Low grounds Sour swamps (A fern) (\ fern) Maiden cane On trees Pine lands Pine lands, etc. Bays and ponds Low pine land Ponds, etc. P"l*atwoods Ponds *lncluding the var. nana.
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lO. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT. 263 Pteridium aquilinum + Pontederia cordata Helenium tenuifolium (X) Eriogonurii tomentosum Saiirurns cernuus Mitchella repens Andropogon scoparius Cassia Tora (X) Smilax pumila Kuhni^tera pinnata (X?) (A fern) Bitter-weed (Partridge-berry) Broom-sedge Cofifee-vveed (Summer farewell) Psoralea canescens Trilisa odoratissima Nymphaea macrcphylla Eleocharis interstincta Eupatorium capillifolium Lorinseria areolata Doeilingeria reticulata Isopappus divaricatus (X) Stcnophyllus Floridanus (X) Ludwigia pilosa Rumex hastatulus (X) Osmunda regalis Rliexia Alifanus Baptisia leucantha Pterocaulon undulatum Heteropogon m.elanocarpus (X) (A grass) G'ottidium vesicarium (X) Chrysopsis graminifolia (and about 200 others). Deer-tongue Bonnets (A sedge) Dog-fennel (A fern) (A sedge) (Sorrel) (A fern) Black-root Pine lands Ponds Roadsides, etc. Iligli pine land Swamps Hammocks Old fields Fie'ds and waste places Mammocks High pine land High pine land Flatwoods Ponds Ponds Prairies, etc. Swamps Flatwoods, etc. Fields and roadsides Fie'ds, roadsides, etc. Ponds and ditches Fields Swamps Flatwoods Open woods Flntwoods Old fie'ds, etc. Low grounds Pine lands There are so many different trees in this heterogeneous region that the one that heads the list is less abundant here than it is in northern Florida as a whole, and the same might be said of many others. The only tree that reaches its maximum abundance here seems to be the bay, Magnolia glauca, and that is true only in the western and middle divisions. A phytogeographer could draw many interesting conclusions from a comparison of the three columns of percentages, but only a few will be pointed out here. It seems that Pinus Taeda, Magnolia glauca, M. grandiflora, Pinus glabra, Cornus florida, Pinus echinata, Liriodendron, Fagus, Quercus Michauxii, Ilex opaca, Quercus alba, Oxydendrum, Salix, Mains, Nyssa uniflora, Quercus Marylandica, Cyrilla racemiflora, Cliftonia, Nyssa Ogeche, Symplocos, Bignonia, Decumaria, Ilex glabra, Rhapidophyllum, Arundinaria tecta, Pinckneya, Crookea, Sabal glabra, Leucothoe axillaris, Quercus pumila, and Aesculus are decidedly more abundant in the western half than in the southeastern, while the reverse is true of Pinus palustris, Liqiddamber, Quercus falcata, Q. Catesbaei, Q. Virginiana, Taxodium disticlnwi, Quercus laurifolia, Q. cinerea, Hicoria (all species), Tilia, Sabal Palmetto, Celfis, Persea Borbonia, Acer Negundo, Morus, Quercus Margaretta, Cholisma ferruginea, Xanthoxylum, Bumelia, Smilax lanceolata. Vitis rofundifolia, Berchemia, Tecoma, Serenoa, Rhus copallina, Cephalanthus, Myrica pumila, Sambucus. Asimina angustifolia, Castanea alnifo-
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264 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Ha, Tilllandsia, Eupatoriuni compositif ilium, Pteridium, Kuhnistera, Psoralea, Eupatorium capillifolium, and several others. No one explanation will fit all these cases, but some of those in the former category are simply species of more northern distribution, which hardly extend down into the Florida peninsula at all, and many of the latter prefer dry soils (swamps and flatwoods being comparatively scarce in the southeastern portion of this belt). It is quite likely also that the chemical composition of the soils has something to do with the problem. Although no definite statements can be made in the absence of chemical analyses, what is known of the geology and the relations of the same species of plants to soils elsewhere leads to the belief that phosphorus is relatively more abundant southeastward; and some of the trees in the second category seem to like phosphorus, as wi'.l be pointed out in the discussion of other regions. The percentage of evergreens is 74.5 in the virestern division, 69.3 in the middle, and 66.1 in the southeastern. The percentages of Ericaceae among the shrubs are 7-7, 20.5 and 8.7, and of Leguminosae among the herbs 8.4, 1.8 and 8.2 respectively. Although these figures are not perfectly consistent, and may not be very accurate, the high percentage of Ericaceae and 'low percentage of Leguminosae in the middle division must have some significance. It is probably correlated with the greater development of sour flatwoods and bays in that division. Economic Features — On account of the large amount of fertile soil in this belt it attracted settlers at an early date. Several of the old Spanish grants shown on large maps of Florida include parts of it, and the comparatively old and important cities and towns of Quincy, Monticello, Madison, Jasper, Live Oak, Lake City, Alachua, Gainesville and Micanopy (all but two of them county seats) are located in it or on its edges.* In 1910 at least 28% of the land was cleared, and there were about 28 inhabitants to the square mile, an increase of 16% in ten years. Negroes are in the majority, as in most other old agriculturjal regions in the South. There is considerable lumbering and turpentining on the sandier soils, and the hardwood forests on the richer soils are of considerable importance. At Gainesville there has been for many years a hardwood sawmill which ships a great deal cfi lumber to foreign countries. The 19TI-12 crop statistics in the last report of the Commissioner of Agriculture are very incomplete for Gadsden and Jefferson Counties, and not much better for Madison. Some of the deRciencies have been supplied from the State census figures for 1905, but that method is not very satisfactory, for the production of each crop varies from year to year, and some must have increased consider*In the southern tier of counties in Georgia, Cairo, Thomasville, Quitman and Valdosta are similarly situated.
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lO. MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK Bl-XT. 265 ably between 1905 and 1912. With this Hmitation, or source of error, the leading crops seem to be as follows : Corn, sea-island cotton, tobacco (mostly in Gadsden Co.), upland cotton, peanuts, sweel potatoes, sugar cane, lettuce (Alachua Co.), oats, (grass) hay, field peas (including hay thereof), cabbage (mostly in Alachua Co.), velvet beans, cucumbers (Alachua Co.), watermelons, beans (mostly in Alachua Co.), oranges (mostly in Alachua Co.), pecans, peaches, English peas (Alachua Co.), tomatoes (Alachua Co.), squashes (Alachua Co.), cantaloupes (mostly in Alachua Co.), grapes, beets (Alachua Co.), Irish potatoes, peppers (Alachua Co.), figs, onions (Alachua Co.), and grapefruit (Alachua Co.). It is evident from this list that the middle division is mostly devoted to general farming, while in the eastern division, particularly in Alachua County, tliere is much specialization in vegetables and citrous fruits, which are mostly marketed in the North.
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266 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 1 1 . TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. (FIGURES 32, 34, 69-73) References. Harper i (282-283), Matson & Clapp (99, 144), Matson & Sanford (149, 350-353), Sel'.ards i (47-49, 53-58), SeHards & Gunter 3 (133136, 138), Smith 2, Thompson, Torrey, and U. S. soil survey of Leon County (by Wilder, Drake, Jones and Geib), 1906. Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep., pi. 6, 7.1, 8.1 (all lake scenes), and in Pop. Sci. Monthly 85:349I9i4This region bears much the same relation to the adjoining hammock belt that the Marianna red lands do to the West Florida cypress pond region already described. Each is similar geologically to the country bordering it on the west, north and east, but is cnaracterized by richer, redder soils, more hilly topography, a scarcity of long-leaf pine, and other characters correlated with the soil and topography. Furthermore, they do not differ much in area, and each is almost confined to a single county, and barely crosses the northern boundary of the State. The Tallahassee red hills are estimated to cover 340 square miles, all in Leon County or possibly extending a little beyond its borders on the north and east. There is nothing exactly like it in any other part of Florida, or the world, except that there are limited areas very similar to parts of it in the Middle Florida hammock belt, in Jefferson and Madison Counties. Many persons have compared this hill country to the red hills of South Georgia, but the two regions are entirely disconnected, and the resemblance is only superficial, for there are fundamental differences in geology, soil, topography and vegetation. Geology and Soils — Rock outcrops are scarce and poor in fossils, but from what is known of the surrounding country, and the records of a few wells, the underlying rocks have been mapped as Upper Oligocene. Most of the material exposed in railroad cuts and other excavations is a reddish brown sandy clay. Several feet below the surface it is sometimes purer, and mottled somewhat as in the pine regions of West and East Florida. Nodules or fragments of a gritty yellowish rock containing over 15% of phosphorus pentoxide (equivalent to over 30% of tri-calcium phosphate, or nearly half as much as in some of the phosphate rock that is mined in peninsular Florida) are common in many places, either close to the surface or a few feet down; while in many other places ferruginous concretions an inch or less in diameter are scattered over the surface, as in the "pimply lands" of South Georgia and West
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II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. 267 Florida. Where the phosphatic rock approaches the surface the soil is browner than usual. The prevailing surface loam looks much like the Lafayette (?) red loam of the older parts of the coastal plain, but it is not quite such a brilliant red, and it is evidently different in chemical composition. On shaded banks along roads the earth is commonly encrusted with a minute gray-green lichen, rarely seen elsewhere, and the sides of railroad cuts become clothed with grass and other vegetation much more quickly than in other parts of the South; all of which seems to point to some special element of fertility in the soil. The surface loam is usually over three-fourths sand, and very pervious to water, and yet there is enough clay in the red soils to make vertical banks retain their shape for years. The proportion of sand is greatest in level areas, both uplands and lowlands. Gullies are almost unknown, except alongside of roads on steep grades, and furrows in the fields usually run pretty straight in almost any direction regardless of the topography, instead of being carefully leveled and terraced as they are in the superficially similar red hills of South Georgia. Most of this soil has just about the right proportions of sand and clay to make good roads, and there is probably no part of Florida where the natural or unimproved roads are better in both wet and dry weather than they are here. The following mechanical analyses of three characteristic upland soils of this region, with their subsoils, have been taken from the government soil survey of Leon County, published in 1906. Each represents the average of two or more samples from different localities, but neither the localities nor the depths are given in the report. I. "Orangeburg* fine sandy loam." This is a "brown, reddish, or yellow medium to fine sandy loam, from 4 to 15 inches deep," with a subsoil of "red sandy clay to a depth of 36 inches and usually (much deeper;" but both soil and subsoil vary considerably from the averageThis soil *The name "Orangeburg" for a series of soils seems to have been first used by the U. S. Bureau of Soils in connection with Darlington County, South Carolina, and Perry County, Alabama, surveyed in 1902, though it is probably derived from Orangeburg (city and county), S. C, surveyed two years later. Most of the soi's thus designated are red loams of the Lafayette formation, widely distributed in the more elevated parts of the coastal plain from North Carolina to Texas. The red soil around Tallahassee differs notably from the typical "Orangeburg" in not being easily gullied, as above stated, and in the high percentage of phosphorus, indicated below, if not in other ways. 17
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268 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. covers about one-third of the whole region, and most of it is or has been under cultivation. 2. Subsoiil of same. 3. "Norfolk fine sandy loam." Typically this is said to be a grayish or light-brown fine sandy loam about 8 inches deep, underlaid by a few inches of yellow sandy loam and then yellow sandy clay or clay loam. It is almost as extensive as the "Orangeburg fine sandy loam," from which it seems to differ chiefly in being paler and therefore presumably containing less iron. Much if not most of it is under 'cultivation. 4. Subsoil of same. 5. "Gadsden sandy loam." This is a "brown sandy loam from 8 to 14 inches deep, underlain by grayish-yellow or yellow sand or light sandy loam to a depth of 3 feet or more." "The surface soil is very similar to some of the Norfolk fine sandy loam, but the subsoil is dissimilar in that the underlying sandy clay of that type is entirely wanting or is found only in spots at a depth of nearly 3 feet below the surface." This is said to cover 5,952 acres in Leon County, and is mostly under cultivation. 6. Subsoil of same. , Mechanical Analyses of Soils and Subsoils of Tallahassee Red Hills. I 2 3~ 4 5 6 Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.9 0.7 Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 8.9 4.3 5.0 3.1 13. i 12.1 Medium sand (.5-. 25 mm.) 12.3 7.6 10.5 5.8 14.1 15. i Fine sand (.25-.1 mm.) 42.5 33.1 52.6 38.6 40.9 42.1 Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.) 17.3 13.2 14.3 15.3 11.4 10.7 Silt (.05-.005 mm.) 5.5 5.7 7.4 4-6 5,6 4-8 Clay (.005-0 mm.) 12.6 35.4 9.8 32.2 13.8 14.3 Total 99.5 99.6 99-9 99-8 99-8 99-8 In addition to these there is considerable "Norfolk sand" in this region, but as it occurs also in other parts of Leon County, and the localities are not specified, it would not be safe to quote the analyses in the soil survey report as pertaining to the Tallahassee red hills. We are fortunate in having a few chemical analyses of soils from; this region. The first is from the 6th volume of the Tenth Census, p. 198. It represents 9 inches of brown loam upland soil from 6 miles northeast of Tallahassee, where the vegetation was post, red and Spanish oaks, short-leaf pine, hickory and sweet gum," collected in 1880 by Dr. Eugene A. Smith, and analyzed under his direction at the University of Alabama by Chappell Cory, Like other analyses published in the same volume, this was made by Peter's acid digestion method (described by Hilgard in Tenth Census, 5:72; Soils 340-343; and elsewhere). The percentages of the various constituents represent what is dissolved by hot hydrochloric acid in five days, and in some cases may be much less than the total ; <'
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II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. 269 but this method is beheved to give results more compatible with the observed productivity of soils than any other. The analysis is as follows : Water and organic matter i-9^2 per cent Potash (K2O) .065 " " Soda (Na20) .013 " " Lime (CaO) .243 " " Magnesia (MgO) .023 " Phosphoric acid anhydride (P2O5) .323 " " Sulphuric acid anhydride (SO3) .011 " '" Brown oxide of manganese (Mn304) .024 " " Peroxide of iron (Fe203) 1.491 " " Alumina (AI2O3) 3.977 " Soluble sihca 2.640 " '" Insoluble matter 86.460 " As compared with other northern Florida soils analyzed in the same report, this is the highest in iron and phosphorus, and the lowest in soda, manganese, and sulphur. It is considerably above the world's average in phosphorus, but, like most other Florida soils, rather low in potassium. Two samples of soils with corresponding subsoils were collected by the writer near Tallahassee in the summer of 1914 and partially analyzed by L. Heimburger, Assistant State Chemist. The methods used* are somewhat different from those used in the Tenth Census, but the results seem similar enough, as far as thev go. The samples are as follows : 1. Rich dense woods near top of hill on St. Augustine road about a mile east of Tallahassee. Gray sandy loam with considerable humus. o — 6 inches. 2. Subsoil of same, a little more yellow in color, 6 — 12 inches. 3. Open short-leaf pine woods on north side of railroad about 2 miles east of Tallahassee. Similar to No. i, but with less humus. A few earthworms were encountered in digging this sample, strange to say. — 6 inches. 4. Subsoil of same. 6 — 12 inches. Both localities seem to be in areas mapped as '"Orangeburg fine sandy loam" on the government soil map, but the second is most like the '"Orangeburg" soils of other states. *See appendix.
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270 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ANALYSES 1234 Moisture (H2O) 1.07 .67 .60 .35 Volatile matter 7.30 4.59 4.74 3.01 Nitrogen .219 .142 .167 .121 Potash (K2O) .045 .060 .050 .050 Lime (CaO) .505 -335 -ZJ -29 Phosphoric acid (P2O5) .272 .276 .138 .108 Iron and alumina (AI2O3, Fe203) 5.10 7.21 4.30 4.86 Insoluble matter 87.36 88.45 Qi-i? 92-43 In both cases the moisture, volatile matter and nitrogen (which come from the humus) are of course more abundant in the soil than in the subsoil, and the same is true of the lime ; while the potash, iron and alumina, and insoluble matter are more abundant in the subsoil (except that in the short-leaf pine soil the potash seems to be the same in both soil and subsoil). The phosphoric acid does not seem to vary much with the depth. In the rich woods it is above the world's average, though not as high as in the sample collected by Dr. Smith; whether on account of an actual difference in the soil or merely the different method of analysis it is impossible to say. In the short-leaf pine woods the phosphorus content is only fair, however ; and the significance of this fact will be pointed out farther on in discussing the vegetation. The short-leaf pine soil is poorer in all volatile and soluble constituents (except potash) than the other, as might have been expected. Salamander-hills are occasionally seen within three or four miles of the southern edge of this region, the animals probably wandering in from the very sandy region bordering it on the south (which will be described next). Moles and earthworms occur here also ; perhaps more commonly than in other parts of Florida, Topography and Hydrography — The topography is everywhere hilly, probably more so on the average than in any equal area in Florida. Differences of elevation of 100 feet in less than half a mile are not uncommon, especially near the southern edge of the region, where the highest hills are a little over 200 feet above sealevel. A mile or so east of Tallahassee is a railroad cut about 40 feet deep, which seems to be the deepest one in the State. But there are almost no bluffs, ravines, or hills too steep for wagons to climb, and some of the roads run nearly straight for several miles, regardless of the hills. The valleys are mostly broad and more or less flat-bottomed, and probably were not formed altogether by surface erosion, for running water is scarce. There are no caves or natural
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II. TALLAHASSEE RED JilLLS. 2/1 bridges, however, such as are characteristic of some regions of solution topography. No rivers traverse the region, but there are a few sluggish creeks and branches, running into lakes or ponds, where the water sinks into the ground or evaporates, or both. The low grounds around Tallahassee are said to be lower than the nearest point on the Ocklocknee River, seven or eight miles away; and all the drainage from Tallahassee, that does not evaporate or soak into the ground first, goes through Munson's Pond or Lake, about five miles south (Fig. 75), and then to a sink a few miles farther south. The most characteristic hydrographic feature of this region, distinguishing it from most other red hill regions, is its large lakes, three or four in number. These are several square miles in area, irregularly shaped, all shallow and flat-bottomed, with sink-holes at their edges or elsewhere, and are often nearly di"y for several years at a time. (See Sellards i in bibliogaphy. ) They were at their lowest stage about 1910, and at their highest (perhaps eight or ten feet above low water) about 1912. In addition to the large lakes there are several smaller ones, from a few hundred acres down to mere ponds an acre or so in extent. All are essentially treeless, except that there is a good deal of cypress in the eastern half of Lake Lafayette. Except in the immediate vicinity of lakes and streams, the ground-water lies at a considerable distance below the surface. Consequently wells are less numerous than houses, and good ones are scarce. Springs are almost wanting, too, so that one walking any considerable distance through this region in warm dry weather is likely to get rather thirsty. The city of Tallahassee gets an unfailing supply of good water from artesian wells, in which the water stands nearly 100 feet below the surface (or not very far from sealevel). Vegetation Types — The drier uplands seem to have been covered originally with comparatively open forests of short-leaf pine (Pinus echinata), red oak, hickory, dogwood, etc. Considerable areas of this forest still remain, though a good deal of it may be second growth. On sandier soils near the center of the region there are limited areas (perhaps several hundred acres) of long-leaf pine forest, differing from the typical piney woods of other regions in the scarcity or absence of saw-palmetto and wire-grass among the undergrowth. Both the short-leaf and the long-leaf pine forests are subject to occasional fires. On some of the hillsides and richer uplands
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2^2. FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. dense hardwood forests with considerable humus can be seen, and the branches and creeks are bordered by wet woods or swamps. The lakes and ponds of course have their characteristic vegetation. Finally, the old fields, roadsides, railroad rights-of-way, etc., which cover a large part of the area, have a characteristic weed vegetation, probably more conspicuous here than in any other part of Florida. Plants — The following list is based on obsei-vations made in every month in the year except January and February, and it ought to be fairly accurate as far as it goes. TREES -J--I-24 Pinus echinata +8.8 Pinus Taeda -F-t-7.6 Liquidambar Stj^raciflua +6.8 Cornus florida +4.5 Quercus falcata — ^4.2 Pinus palustris — 4.2 Taxodium imbricarium ++4.2 Quercus Virginiana ++2.8 Quercus nigra +2.5 Magnolia grandiflora +2.2 Prunus serotina (X) +2.1 Hicoria alba ++2.0 Melia Azedarach (X) + + 1.8 Quercus stellata — 1.7 Magnolia glauca — 1.7 Nyssa biflora —1.5 Pinus Elliottii + 1.2 Quercus laurifolia + 1.0 Salix nigra +0.9 Fagus grandifolia 0.9 Pinus glabra +0.9 Malus angustifolia 0.8 Acer rubrum +0.8 Nyssa uniflora +0.8 Diospyros Virginiana (X) +0.7 Quercus Marylandica ++0.7 Quercus velutina +0.7 Ostrya Virginiana +0.6 Quercus alba +0.6 Hicoria glabra? +0.6 Quercus Alichauxii 0.6 Ilex opaca +0.5 Tilia pubescens +0.5 Morus rubra +0.5 Cercis Canadensis Short-leaf pine Short-leaf pine Sweet gum Dogwood Red oak Long-leaf pine (Pond) cypress Live oak Water oak Magnolia Wild cherry Hickory Chinaberry Post oak Bay Black gum Slash pine Willow Beech Spruce pine Crab-apple Maple Tupelo gum Persimmon Black-jack oak (Black oak) White oak Hickory (Swamp chestnut oak) Holly (Lin. basswood) Mulberry Redbud Uplands Low grounds mostly Various situations Dry woods Uplands Poorer soils Lake Lafayette Various situations Various situations Rich woods Roadsides, etc. Uplands Roadsides, etc. Uplands Wet woods Swamps Near Centerville Rich woods, etc. Low grounds Rich woods Rich woods Dry woods Wet woods Swamps and sloughsOld fields, etc Dry uplands Dry uplands Rich woods Rich woods Uplands Low grounds Rich woods Rich woods Rich woods Rich woods
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II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. 273 i.2 Liriodendron 'TuHpifera Poplar +0.2 Nyssa sylvatica Black gum 0.2 Acer rubrum tridens? Maple +0.2 Oxydendrum arboreuin Sourwood 0.2 Taxodium distichmm Cypress 0.2 Carpinus Caroliniana Ironwood +0.2 Halesia diptera (and 8 or 10 others). Wet wDods Dry woods Swamps Uplands Swamps Low grounds ,. Rich woods SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS ++.17 Sassafras variifolium (X) .14 Cyrilla racemiflora +•12 Viburnum rufidulum +.09 Batodendron arboreum ++.09 Prunus angustifolia (X) +.04 Crataegus sp. .04 Myrica cerifera +.03 Prunus sp.* (X) +.03 Symplocos tinctoria +.03 Osmanthus Americana .02 Bumelia lanuginosa .02 Celtis pumila .02 Crataegus aestivalis .02 Chionanthus Virginica (and 6 others). Sassafras Tyty Black haw Sparkleberry Wild plum Red haw Myrtle (Plum) ++.027 Parthenocissus quinquefolia +.020 Smilax lanceolata +.015 Rhus radicans +.015 Rubus trivialis (X) +.011 Lonicera Japonica (X) +.010 Tecoma radicans +.010 Vitis rotundifolia +.0T0 Gelsemium sempervirens +.009 Lonicera sempervirens ++.008 Rosa laevigata (X) +.007 Smilax glauca +.006 Vitis aestivalis? .004 Bignonia crucigera .002 Decumaria barbara Hackberry May haw Graybeard VINES Virginia creeper (Wild smilax) Poison ivy Dewberry Japanese honeysuckle (Cow-itch) Bullace or muscadine Yellow jessamine Honeysuckle Cherokee rose Wild' grape Cross-vine Old fields, etc. Swamps Rich woods Dry woods Old fields Dry woods Rich woods Roadsides, etc. Rich woods Rich woods Woods Dry woods, etc. Smiall ponds Rich woods. Woods Various situations Low grounds, etc. Old fields, etc. Roadsides, etc. Various situations Places exempt from fire Places 'exempt from fire Roadsides, etc. Roadsides Dry woods and old fields Woods, etc. Woods, etc. Wet woods *A small tree resembling P. umhellata, the hog plum, but with red fruit, more or less edible, and ripening any time between May and October.
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274 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. .002 Smilax rotundifolia? .002 Ampelopsis arborea (and a few others). Woods Low grounds mostly SHRUBS +.028 +.022 +.021 +.020 +.014 +.011 ++.011 +.011 +.010 ++.008 +.008 .007 +.007 .006 +.005 +.005 .004 +.004 +.004 .003 +.003 .003 .003 +•003 .003 .002 .002 Rubus cuneifolius (X) CeanothujS Americanus Rhus copallina Cephalanthus occidentalis Callicarpa Americana Aralia spinosa Lantana Sellowiana (X) Castanea alnifolia Sambucus Canadensis (X) Lantana Camara (X) Polycodium stamineum? Quercus pumila Styrax Americana Rhus Toxicodendron Baccharis halimifolia (X) Salix humilis? Arundinaria tecta Crataegus unillora Rhus radicans (?)* Itea Virginica Asimina parviflora Azalea nudiflora Phorandendron flavescens Euonymus Americanus Rhus Vernix Cornus sp. Aesculus Pavia (and about 14 others) Blackberry
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II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. 275 +.003 Pontederia cordata ++.003 Lepidium Virginicum (X) ++.002 Heteropogon melanocarpus (X) ++.002 Cassia Tora (X) +.002 Helenium tenuifolium (X) +.002 Eriantlius sp. ++.002 Chaerophyllum sp. (X) +.002 Pteridium aquilinum +.002 Syntherisma sanguinale (X) +.002 Capriola Dactylon (X) +.002 Sida rhombifolia (X) ++.002 Cyperus rotundus (X) +.002 Castalia odorata +.001 Mitchella repens ++.001 Apium Ammi (X) H — h'OOi Specularia perfoliata (X) +.001 Eupatorium compositifolium (X) +.001 Juncus effusus (X?) ++.001 Oxalis stricta? (X) +.001 Eupatorium capillifolium (X?) +.001 Spermolepis divaricatus (X) +.001 Chamaecrista fasciculata (X?) -\ — h-ooi Geranium Carolinianum (X) +.001 Rumex hastatulus (X) ++.001 Asplenium platyneuron (X?) +.001 Diodia teres (X) .001 Chrysopsis graminifolia +.001 Sitilias Caroliniana (X) +.001 Gnaphalium purpureum (X) +.001 Richardia scabra (X) +.001 Linaria Canadensis (X) +.001 Oenothera biennis (X) +.001 Leptilon Canadense (X) +•001 Cnidoscolus stimulosus + Erigeron ramosus (X) + Elephantopus tomerttosus? + Angelica hirsuta + Solanum Carolinense (X) + Lespedeza striata (X) Peppergrass (A grass) Coffee-weed Bitter-weed (A tall grass) (A fern) Crab grass Bermuda grass (Tea-weed) Nut-grass Water-lily Lakes and ponds Waste places Old fields Waste places Roadsides, etc. Dry woods, etc Waste pilaces Dry woods, etc Fields and roadsides Fields and roadsides Waste places Cultivated fields, etc. Lakes and ponds (Partridge-berry) Rich woods, etc. Waste places Roadsides, etc. Dog-fennel (Rush) Dog-fennel Old fields, etc Low grounds Waste places Low grounds Waste places (Partridge pea) Old fields, etc. (Sorrel) (A fern) (Evening primrose) (Nettle) Japan clover Waste places Fields, etc. Shaded roadsides, etc. Railroads, etc. Pine woods Waste places Waste places Fields, etc. Fields and roadsides Old fields, etc. Fields Dry woods, etc. Old fieWs. etc. Dry woods Dry woods Waste places Waste places, .etc.
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276 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. + Salvia lyrata Lorinseria areolata + + Medicago Arabica (X) + Meiboimia purpurea (X) + Anthemis Cotula (X) + Paspalum sp. (X) + Baptisia leucantha Sericocarpus bifoliatus + + Sonchus asper (X) H — H Mesosphaerum sp.* (X) + Isopappus divaricatus (X) + Boehmeria cylindrica ++ Cenchrus echinatus (X) + Chaetochloa sp. (X) + Erythrina herbacea + Sanicula Marylandica + Eupatorium perfoliatum Smilax pumila Solidago odora Dasystoma Virginica + Bidens bipinnata (X) + Brasenia purpurea + Eleusine Indica (X) + + Utricularia inflata + Helianthemiim Carolinianum + Polymnia Uvedalia + Lespedeza hirta + Polygonum hydropiperoides + Sagittaria latifolia + Sida acuta (X) + + Heliotropium anchusaefolium (X) + Panicum gibbum (X?) Osmunda cinnamomca Saururus cernuus Phaseolus polystachyus -\ — h Nelumbo lutea • + Daucus pusillus (X) + Kneiffia sp. + Panicum comimutatum? + Dioscorea villosa? + Morongia uncinata A fern Bur-clover Beggar-weed (Dog-fennel) (A grass) Sand-spur (A grass) Boneset Goldenrod Spanish needles (A grass) (Bear-foot) (Smart-weed) (A grass) (A fern) (Wild bean) (Winkapin, yankapin) (A grass) (Wild yam) Dry woods, etc. Wet woods Waste places Fields, etcWaste places Roadsides, etc. Dry woods, etc. Pine woods Waste places Roadsides, etc. Fields, etc. Low grounds Fieldsi and roadsides Waste places Woods, etc. Dry woods Low grounds Rich woods Pine woods Dry woods Waste places Lakes and ponds Waste places Lakes Dry woods Rich woods, etc. Dry woods Miry places Miry places Roadsid'cs, etc. Roadsides, etc. Miry places Sandy low grounds Swamps, etcRich woods Lakes and ponds Roadsides, etc. Dr3' woods Rich woods Rich woods Drv woods *A tall much-branched weed apparently not described in any work on plants of the southeastern states. It is common in the streets of Tallahassee and some old towns in other parts of the state.
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II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. 277 + + + + + + + + + + + Polypodium polypodioides (A fern) Hymenopappus Carolinensis (X) Argemone Mexicana (X) Chrysopsis Mariana Amaranthus spinosus (X) Careless Gerardia fasciculata (X) Phytolacca rigida (X) I'okebcrry Bidens coronata Croton glandulosus (X) Aeschynomene Virginica (X) Euphorbia heterophylla (X) Sorghastrum. nutans* (A grass) Panicum proliferum (X) (A grass) Cenchrus tribuloides Sand-spur (and about 300 others.) On trees Sandy roadsides, etc. Waste places Dry woods Waste places Old fields, etc Waste places Miry places Waste places Ditches, etc. Waste places Old fields, etc. Ditches Railroads, pastures, etc In a region so unique in soil and topography it seems strange that there are no species peculiar to it, and very few rare plants. In this respect it contrasts strongly with the Apalachicola blufif region (No. 3). Although that is much smalller than the Tallahassee red hills, and does not diflfer much from many places in Georgia and Alabama, it has two trees confined to, it, and several species which are rare elsewhere. There are indeed many species more abundant in the Tallahassee region than elsewhere in Florida, but nearly all of these are pretty widely distributed in other states.t They may be divided into several categories, according to the reasons for their abundance here. From what is known of their distribution elsewhere it seems probable that the sweet gum, live oak and water oak are most abundant here because they like phosphorus. It is noteworthy that they all three grow in the rich woods a mile east of Tallahassee, where the soil is above the world's average in phosphorus, but not in the short-leaf pine woods two miles east, where the percentage of phosphorus is only about half as much (nor in central Illinois, where the soil is rich in almost everything except phosphorus). In like manner it is inferred that the short-leaf pine (Pinus' echiiiafa). dogwood, red oak, hickory {Hicoria alba), post oak, black-jack oak {Quercus Marylandica) and black oak are partial to iron or alumina, or both, and that Pinus Taeda, Magnolia grandiflora, Quercus lanrifolia, Fagus, Ostrya, Hicoria glabra, Parthenocissus, and many shrubs and herbs are common here on account of the abundance of humus. *Formerly called Chrysopogon avenaceus. Our plant is mostly the glaucous form. S. Linneanum and 6". stcundum also occur in this region, but less abundantly. tAt least 70% of the species above listed grow also in the southeastern corner of Virginia and neighboring parts of North Carolina, a region differing considerably from this in soil, topography and climate. (See Torreya 9:223-224, 1909; Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 34:366. 1907; 37:420-422. 1910.)
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278 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. The abundance of wild cherry, chinaberry, persimtaon, sassafras, wild plum, Cherokee rose, lantanas, and the multitude of herbaceous weeds is easily explained by the fact that this region has been longer and more extensively cultivated than any other area of the same size in Florida. This is the only region in the state in which weeds predominate (in bulk, not necessarily in species) over native herbs. Some of the weeds doubtless have their soil preferences too, and might not thrive in the more sandy parts of Florida. It is significant that almost none of the weeds are evergreen. In the case of some of the species whose names are followed by (X) in_ the foregoing plant list, one finds no intimiation in current botanical manuals that they are not indigenous in Florida, and some of them are probably here branded as weeds for the first time. But they grow only in artificial or unnatural habitats, such as fields and roadsides, and could hardly have existed here before the country was inhabited (though some of them were probably here with the Indians several centuries ago). Whether or not they are native anywhere else in the United States is a question that does not need to be considered here. The following trees, which are more or less common not far away, or in other red hill regions, are rare or wanting here : — Piniis serotina, P. clausa, Taxodium distichum, Juniperus, Sabal Palmetto, Juglans, Hicoria aquatica, Populus, Salix longipes, Betula, Quercus geminata, Q. Pliellos, Q. cinerea, Q. Cateshaei, Ulnius (all species), Magnolia macrophylla, Liriodendron, Platanus, Gleditschia, Persea, and Fraxinus. Some of fhese prefer poor sandy soils and some alluvial soils, both of v\rhich are almost v^^anting here; while the reasons for the absence of a few of them are less evident. The proportions of evergreens and Ericaceae are rather low, 53-1% and 8% respectively, while that of Leguminosae is above the average; all of which indicates fertile soils. (It is hardl}'worth while to figure out the exact percentage of Leguminosae for this region, as most of them are weeds.) Grasses are quite abundant here too, a fact of interest to the stockman and dairyman. The evergreens generally keep their leaves about two years, and the deciduous trees seven or eight months. Economic Feaimres — For the whole of Leon County in 19 10 the proportion of improved land was estimated at 24%, the density of population 27 per square mile (a little less than in 1900), and the proportion of whites 24%. For the red hill portion of the county the proportion of improved land is considerably higher, probably at least 40% (and adding abandoned fields to this doubtless makes the forests less than half the area), the density of population is greater, perhaps as much as 40 inhabitants to the square mile, and the percentage of whites, outside of Tallahassee, even less. This region was cultivated by the Indians long before the white man came, and until within the last few decades it was the leading agricultural section of the State in proportion to its size, with the
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II. TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. 279 possible exception of the Marianna red lands. Even yet, after threequarters of a century of cultivation by v^hites and negroes, most of the farmers do not consider it necessary to use commercial fertilizers. According to the last census there were in Leon County 109,349 acres of improved land, and the expenditure for fertilizer in 1909 was $31,510, or about 29 cents per acre (as compared with $2 per acre for the whole State). And no doubt most of the fertilizer was used in the more sandy parts of the county, leaving the amount used in the red hills much smaller than the figures would indicate. This seems to be the only part of northern Florida, outside of cities, where cattle and hogs are not allowed to run at large. (The stock law, or no-fence law, is pretty closely correlated with the amount of woodland, for wherever cultivated fields occupy only a small part of the area, as is the case in most parts of Florida, the fields are fenced and cattle are allowed to graze in the woods ; while where fields predominate it is more economical to put fences around the pastures and leave the fields unfenced.) Other interesting features of this region, not so easily explained, are that the ox is the favorite beast of burden among the negro farmers ; and that here, more than anywhere else in northern Florida, large areas are owned and presei;ved for hunting and other purposes by persons who usually spend only the winter months in the South. The leading crops in 1912, in order of value, were approximately as follows : Corn, upland cotton, sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, field peas (and hay thereof), peanuts, (grass) hay, velvet beans, oats, pecans, pears, watermelons, tobacco, peaches and figs. Long-leaf pine being scarce, there is hardly any lumbering or turpentining, and little use is made of the forests except for fuel and other common farm purposes. Some wild smilax {Smilax lanceolata) and other evergreens are gathered for Christmas decorations, but there seems to be no large trade in them as there is in southern Alabama. Some Spanish moss is used for mattress-making, and probably shipped away to some extent. This industry would seem to be capable of great development, for the supply of moss is practically inexhaustible.
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28o FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 12. BELLAIR SAND REGION. (FIGURES 74, 75) References — Nash (101,107) and U. S. soil survey of Leon Co. This embraces about 250 square miles in Leon and Wakulla Counties. In the Third Annual Report it was treated as a part of the peninsular lime-sink region (described farther on) ; but as it is entirely disconnected from that, and differs somewhat in vegetation and other characters, it is now described separately. Geology and Soils — The whole area seems to be underlaid by II limestone of Oligocene age, which crops out occasionally through the surface sands in boulder-like patches a few square feet in area and a few inches high, usually too small to have any vegetation on them. This type of rock outcrop (namely, calcareous rocks surrounded by sand) is not found in any of the regions previously described, but it is rather common in some parts of the Florida peninsula. Such outcrops are not found on every square mile, however, and they constitute only an infinitesimal fraction of the whole area. Some excavations in the neighborhood of ponds and streams have disclosed a pale reddish sandy clay, similar to that in various other long-leaf pine regions, but it seems never to approach the surface nearer than a foot or two, and at present there is no way of knowing just how extensive it is. The prevailing surface material is a pale buff loamy sand from one to several feet deep,* remarkably homogeneous throughout except that the uppermost few inches, influenced by the vegetation, are of course a little grayer. It is of rather fine texture in Leon County, but a little coarser in Wakulla. In some places where the ground-water is nearer the surface the sand is firmer, and the vegetation considerably different. The deep dry sand is called "Sandhiir'f in the government soil survey of Leon County, and the mechanical analyses of it in *Some railroad cuts ten feet deep do not reach the bottom of the sand. On account of the character of the soil, this region, like other very sandy regions (the northern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan, for example) is traversed by a maze of ill-defmed, "heavy" and changeable roads. But in a few places the underlying clay has been dug out and used for surfacing the roads, with very satisfactory results. tNearly all the other areas hitherto dressed as "Sandhill" by the U. S. Bureau of Soils are along the fall-line in North and South Carolina (the same type is also extensively developed in Georgia, but not yet mapped by
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12. BELLAIR SAND REGION. 281 that publication are reproduced herewith. The locahty from which the samples were taken is not specified, nor are the respective depths. The first column is for soil and the second for subsoil. Mechanical Analyses of "Sandhill," Leon County. Soil Subsoil Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) 0.2 (Trace; Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 8.6 9.3 Medium sand (.5-.25 mm.) ^24.5 25.8 Fine sand (.25-. i mm.) 51.9 49.7 Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.) 11. i 11.4 Silt (.OS-.005 mm.^ 1. 1 i.o Clay (.005-0 mm.) 2.3 2.4 Total 99.7 99.6 There is comparatively little difference between soil and subsoil; a fact brought out also by the chemical analysis given below. Samples of soil and subsoil were collected by the writer on dry sandy uplands about 3^ miles south of Tallahassee, July 22, 19 1 4, and analyzed by L. Heimburger, Assistant State Chemist, in the manner described in the appendix. The first column of figures represents the first six inches from the surface, and the second, six to twelve inches. Partial Chemical Analyses of "Sandhill," Leon County. Soil Subsoil Moisture .12 .04 Volatile matter 1.67 .99 Nitrogen (N) .089 .085 Potash (K2O) .030 .035 Lime (CaO) .185 .195 Phosphoric acid (P2OS) .032 .022 Iron and alumina (Fe203, AI2O3) 1.15 1.51 Insoluble matter 97.38 97.69 Although this soil is of course poorer than that of the neighboring red hills in humus and all soluble constituents, it is not the poorest soil there is by any means, and there are many small farms scattered over it. them as such), along creeks and rivers in the coastal plain of the Carolinas and Georgia, and near the Gulf coast of Florida. The area under consideration belongs to neither of these classes, but in soil and vegetation it is very similar to typical sand-hills. (For descriptions of the vegetation of the fallline sand-hills of the Carolinas see Bui. Torrey Bot. Club 37:413. 1910; 38:225: 1911 ; and for that of the fluvial sand-hills of Georgia see Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 17 :82-89. 1906.)
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282 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Ants and salamanders are common in this soil, and gophers, moles, doodle-bugs and other subterranean animals occasional. Topography and Hydrography — The topography is mostly gently undulating, a little hilly in some places and nearly flat in others, and pitted with numerous basin-like depressions.* The records of the G., F. & A. Ry. give the altitude of Spring Hill as 169 feet and Hilliardville (Benhaden P. O.) as 142; but whether these figures refer to sea-level or some assumed datum is not known. Springs are unknown, or at least very scarce, and streams are not common, but there are a few sluggish sloughs and drains, and many ponds and lakes. These bodies of water vary in size from an acre or so to several hundred acres. Some of the smaller ponds are shallow enough to be diy a large part of the time, while others are permanent. The seasonal fluctuation of the water in different ponds seems to vary from about two to ten feet; and some of those which fluctuate the most are connected with sink-holes. As the slopes are usually very gentle, some of the ponds have considerable areas around them which are sometimes inundated and sometimes exposed. The water in both ponds and streams is neither muddy nor calcareous, but coffeecolored from dissolved and suspended vegetable matter. Vegetation Types — The prevailing upland vegetation is very open forests of rather small long-leaf pines, with a comparatively dense "lower story" of small black-jack and turkey oaks, usually not over 15 feet tall and often shrub-like, and a herbaceous undergrowth which does not cover the ground completely, but exposes some of the sand to the sun. There are, however, few bare spaces large enough to afiford much protection from the fires which sweep through this as other long-leaf pine regions, so that plants (such as annual herbs and thin-barked shrubs) which cannot stand frequent fires are chiefly coniined to railroads, fields and other clearings, or to hammocks and swamps. Within a few miles of the county line, where the ground-water is nearer the surface than the average, the oaks are almost wanting and the pines and herbage grow more densely. The areas between high and low water marks around the *This sort of topography is commonly supposed to indicate solution rather than erosion, but it is possible that the wind has had something to do with it too, for circular basins occur among the old dunejs of the West Florida coast, where solution seems to be out of the question, as already pointed out.
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12. BELLAIR SAND REGION. 283 ponds which fluctuate several feet are usually treeless, with a characteristic vegetation of herbs and scattered shrubs, which in the case of ponds which dry up completely covers the whole basin. Such areas usually pass abruptly into the surrounding pine forests, without any intervening fringe of hammock vegetation ; which presumably indicates that the pond-margin vegetation is no barrier to fire in the dry season. The ponds which fluctuate least usually contain cypress, at least around their edges, where the water is not too deep. Just outside of the cypress there is commonly a narrow belt of bay vegetation, and next to that more or less hammock, which is protected from fire on one side by the pond. The streams are bordered by narrow swamps which seem to present no peculiar features, and some of them have hammocks besides. Near some of the streams and ponds, especially within a mile or two of the adjacent flat woods (regions 9 and 16), there are small areas of low pine land. Plants — The following list is based on observations made on 17 days in eight different months, as follows: January, i; March, 2 ; April, 5 ; June, 3 ; July, i ; September, 2 ; October, 2 ; December, i. TREES +53-0 Pinus palustris + + I4-5 Quercus Catesbaei "f" 5-3 Quercus cinerea — 4.4 Taxodiiim imbricariuni — T.6 Pinus Elliottii — 1.2 Pinus Taeda — i.o Nyssa biflora + 1.0 Quercus geminata 0.7 Quercus Virginiana — 0.6 Liquidambar Styraciflua +0.6 Quercus Margaretta — 0.5 Magnolia glauca 0.5 Quercus laurifolia 0.4 Hicoria alba — 0.3 Pinus serotina — 0.2 Quercus falcata — 0.2 Quercus nigra — 0.2 Magnolia grandiflora ).2 Acer rubrum* -0.2 Taxodium distichum Q.i Hicoria glabra .1 Ostrya Virginiana Long-leaf pine Black-jack oak Turkey oak (Pond) cypress (Slash pine) Short-leaf pine Black gum Live oak Live oak Sweet gum Post oak Bay Oak Hickory (Black pine) Red oak Water oak Magnolia Afaple Cypress Hickory Uplands Uplands Uplands Ponds, etc. Low pine land Richer soils Swamps Around ponds, etc. Hammocks, etc. Richer soils Uplands Swamps Hammocks Richer soils Low pine land Richer soils Richer soils Hammocks Swamps Sloughs, etc. Hammocks Hammocks *Probably including the var. tridens. 18
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284 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS -I-.I4 Cyrilla racfmiflora Tyty +.07 Ilex myrtifolia Yaupon -r.o6 Cyrilla parvifolia Tyty .05 Diospyros Virginiana (X) Persimmon .03 Nyssa Ogeche Tupelo gum +.02 Crataegus Michauxii? Haw .02 Osmanthus Americana — .01 Myrica cerifera Myrtle Swamps, etc. .\round pondis Around ponds Old fields, etc Along creeks Uplands Hammocks Hammocks WOODY VINES Bamboo vine BuUace or musSwamps Swampis .004 Smilax laurifolia +.002 Smilax Walteri .002 Vitis rotundifolia cadine Hammocks .002 Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jessamine Hammocks .001 Vitis aestivalis Wild grape Hammocks .001 Ampelopsis arborea Creek swamps .001 Berchemia scanden« Rattan vine Creek swamps SHRUBS H — ^"-035 Quercus Catesbaei* Black-jack oak +.030 Hypericum fasciculatum ++.027 Gaylussacia dumosa +.025 Chrysobalanue oblongifolius +.020 Vaccinium nitidum Huckleberry +.013 Ceplialanthiiys occidentalis Elbow-bush — .013 Serenoa serrulata ++.oro Pieris Mariana .008 Rubus cuneifolius (X) +.008 Hypericum myrtifolium .007 Rhus copallina .007 Asimina angustifolia .004 Leucothoe racemosa .004 Quercus minima — .004 Ilex glabra .003 Polycodium caesium? .003 Styrax Americana .003 Batodendron arboreum .003 Myrica pumila .003 Pieris nitida •002 Rhus Toxicodendron .002 Cholisma ferruginea .001 Viburnum obovatum ++.001 Quercus cinerea +.001 Quercus Margaretta Saw-palmietto Blackberry Sumac Pawpaw Oak runner Gallberry Gooseberry Sparkleberry Myrtle Poison oak Turkey oak Post oak Sandy uplands .\round ponds Uplands Uplands Mastly near ponds Ponds Mostly near ponds Margins of ponds Clearings, etc. Around ponds Clearings, etc. L'plands Bays. etc. LTiplands Mostly near ponds Hammocks, etc. Swamps Hammocks, etc. Uplands Bays, etc Uplands Hammocks Uplands Uplands Specimens of this oak about knee-high are the most conspicuous feature of the woody undergrowth, so that it is classed as a shrub as well as as a tree. Two other normally arborescent oaks are treated the same way in this list.
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12. BELLAIK SAND REGION. -'85 .001 Quercus pumila .001 Clethra ainifolia .001 Ceanothus Americanus .001 Ceanothus microphyllus .001 Crookea microsepala (>;ik runner Uplands Edges of swamps Uplands Upland.s Flatwoods, etc. HERBS +.012 Aristida stricta
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286 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. (A sedge) Broom-sedge (Lupine) (A grass) .001 Centella repanda +.001 Stenophyllus Floridanus (X) (Water grass) .001 StiUingia sylvatica (Queen's delight) -f+.ooi Psoralea Lupinellus .001 Caistalia odorata Water-lily ++.00I Dicerandra linearifolia (X?)* + Brasenia purpurea -1Eleocharis melanocarpa (A sedge) + Dolicholus simplicifolius (DoHar-weed) Chamaecrista fasciculata (Partridge pea) Crotalaria rotundifolia + Calophanes oblongifolia H — h Polygonella gracilis Rhynchospora Grayii + Andropogon Virginicus ++ Lupinus villosus + Anastrcphus paspaloides (X?) + Lygodesmia aphylla Morongia uncinata Stylosanthes biflora + Aster concolor + Po'.ypremum procumbens (X) + Juncus repens + Ludwigia pilosa Drosera capillaris Erigeron vernus Cracca chrysophylla Lycopus sp. + Lechea sp. + Chrysopsis aspera + Crotonopsis spinosa (X) Sorghastrum secundum + Eragrostis simplex (X) ++ Polypteris integrifolia — Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue + Scleria glabra (A sedge) + Mayaca Aubleti Afzelia pectinata + Breweria humistrata — Pterocaulon undulatum (Black-root) -\ — h Scutellaria multiglandulosa + Asclepias humistrata Milkweed (Wild oats) (A gra^ss) Around ponds, etc. Fields, railroads, etc. Uplands Uplands Ponds Along railroads Ponds Pond margins Upland^s Uplands Uplands Uplands Along railroads, etc. Uplands Uplands Uplands Pond margins Uplands Upland^s Upland^s Uplands Around ponds, etc. Dried-up ponds, etc. Swami3|S Pond margins Pond margins Uplands Around ponds, swamps Uplands Uplands Clearings Uplands Railroads Uplands Low pine land Uplands Around ponds Uplands Uplands Near ponds, etc. Upland's Uplands *This handsome and fragrant annual is native on some sand-hills in South Georgia, but here it seems to be confined to railroads, perhaps because those are the only dry sunny places in this region that are sufficiently protected from fire. Pentstemon miutiflorus and a few other species behave in a similar manner.
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12. BELLAIR SAND REGION. 287 (A grass) (Partridge pea) Dog-fennel + Laciniaria elegans Rhexia Mariana — Pluchea bifrons — Acanthospermum australe (X) — Helenium tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed — Eriogonum tomentosum + + Juncus abortivus Aristida ^piciformis + Euphorbia cordifolia + RuelHa humilis -t" Chamaecrista nictitans — Eupatorium capillifolium (X?) -r Laciniaria gracilis Galactia regularis Eupatoriurm album Xyris sp. Verbena carnea Asclepias tuberosa — Pontederia cordata — Mesosphaerum radiatum + C5''perus speciosns? Lachnocaulon sp. + Indigofera Caroliniana + Pctalostemon albidii,s + + Psilocarya corymibiformis (A sedge) + + Eleocharis acicularis? (A sedge) Juncus scirpoides compositus + Ludwigiantha arcuata (A sedge) Ricber uplands Around ponds Around ponds Along railroads, etc. Roads and clearings Uplands Pond margins Low pine land .Along railroads Uplands Uplands Low grounds Uplands Uplands Uplands Around ponds Uplands Uplands Around ponds Near swamps Pond margins Pond margins Uplands Uplands Pond margins Pond margins Pond margins Pond margins (and about 125 others seen less than 4 times). The following plants which are common either in near-by regions or in regions with similar soil are rare or absent here: Finns serotina, P. echiiiata (the common short-leaf pine of the Tallahassee red hills), Salix (wi'.low), Carpinus (ironwood), Fagus (beech), Ostrya, Quercus Michauxii, Q. falcata (red oak), Q. Marylandica (round-leaf black-jack oak), Ulinus (elms), Magnolia grandiflora, Liriodendron (poplar), .liahs ( cral)-apple), Crataegus (haws), Fruniis (plums and cherries), Ilex opaca (holly), Cornus florida (dogwood), Fersea (red bays), Fraxinus (ashes), Cliftonia (tyty), Serenoa (saw-palmetto), Ilex glabra (gallberry), Eriogonum, Fitcheria, and Helenium tenuifolium (bitterweed). Some of these prefer richer and some wetter soils than are prevalent here; but the scarcity of Eriogonum and Fitcheria, which abound in similar soils in the same latitude (in the West Florida lake region, for instance), is hard to explain. Neither is there any apparent reason for the scarcity of bitterweed, which is too common in most other parts of northern Florida. Vines are comparatively rare, doubtless because there are few areas sufficiently protected from fire for them to flourish. On the other hand, this region contrasts with those just north and south of it in the number of rare plants. Cyrilla parvifolia and Juncus abortivus
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288 . FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. seem to be confined to Florida, and Laciniaria Chapniani nearly so. Pieris Mariana and Eriocaulon septangulare are rare elsewhere in the South, but common enough here. Chrysopsis flexuosa, discovered first by Mr. Nash near Bellair in 1895, was not known outside of this region, or outside of Leon County, until the past summer, when the writer found it in the Panacea country (region 14).* The Eupatorium (dog-fennel), that grows on the treeless margins of ponds that fluctuate several feet, is not common elsewhere. Psilocarya corymb if or mis is another rare plant. The genera Chrysopsis and Laciniaria, each with four or five representatives, seem to make up a larger proportion of the vegetation here than in any other part of Florida, and are very conspicuous in the fall, when they bloom. About 60% of the trees are evergreen, and 30% of the shrubs (or .07% of the total vegetation) are Ericaceae, while 17.4% of the herbs are Leguminosae. The figures for both Ericaceae and Leguminosae are considerably above the average, which is rather remarkable, and not easy to explain. Economic Features — The deep sand is not well adapted to agricultiire, and probably not over 5% of the area is under cultivation. There has been considerable lumbering, but the pines were never as large in this region as in some others, and the best ones have been cut out. Turpentining seems to be the leading industry at present. Much if not most of the fuel used in Tallahassee is long-leaf pine and black-jack oak, from this region. The wire-grass affords pasturage to many cattle. The bulbs of Laciniaria tenuifolia a few years ago were made the basis of a patent medicine by a doctor in Tallahassee. No statistics of .population are available, but there are probably not over ten inhabitants to the square mile, and negroes' appear to be in the majority. Bellair, in the northern edge of the region, about four miles south of Tallahassee, was in ante-bellum clays a favorite summer resort for the aristocracy of the capital, who went there mostly to escape malaria, apparently.! The place is now almost extinct, probably partly because improved transportation facilities now enable Tallahasseeans to reach more attractive summer resorts quickly, and partly because we now know better ways to avoid malaria than running away from it (and that disease is much less prevalent now than formerly). *The genus Chrysopsis is remarkable for the limited range of some of its species. One species. C. pinifolia, discovered by Stephen Elliott about 100 years ago on the fall-line sand-hills of what is now Taylor County, Georgia, is still known only from that county, though it is a^s comimon there as C. flexuosa is around Bellair. tThis is one more illustration of the correlation between soil and health that has never been fully explained. Just why malarial mosquitoes should have been more numerous in the red hills than in the sand country with its numerous ponds and sloughs is not obvious ; unless possibly the water in sandy regions is lacking in some nutriment that they require.
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13. WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY. 289 13. WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY. (figures 76-78) References — Smith 2, p. 227 (a few notes on vegetation, evidently derived from Eagan's pamphlet). Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep. pi. 21. i; 4th, Fig. 13. Confined to the central part of Wakulla County, or nearly so, this little region has an area of perhaps 150 square miles. There seems to be nothing exactly like it elsewhere. Geology and Soils — This region, like the preceding, seems to be underlaid by Oligocene limestone, which pcotrpdes through the soil in a few places in much the same way, and crops out around a few sinks. At a deep sink containing water, a mile or two south of Wakulla Spring, there is a little reddish clay overlying the limestone, but no other exposures of clay are known to the writer. The prevailing soil is an exceptionally coarse sandy loam, with not enough clay to make it coherent. Samples were taken by the writer on Oct. 8, 1914, from the same spot shown in Fig. 77, representing the first and third foot from the surface, and there is no perceptible difference between the two except a small amount of organic matter in the surface soil. Both are light brown or buff in color. A partial mechanical analysis has been made by the writer, with a series of sieves having apertures I, ^, and % millimeters in diameter, respectively, with the following results : Soil Subsoil Fine gravel (above i mm.) 12.3 10.7 Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 35.7 37.9 Medium sand (.5-. 25 mm.) 40.0 40.3 Fine sand, silt and clay (.25-0 mm.) 12.0 11. i Total loo.o loo.o Unfortunately it was not feasible to separate the silt and clay, but these figures at least show the remarkably high proportion of gravel and coarse sand. This coarseness is not strictly confined to the region under consideration, though, for neighboring portions of regions 9 and 12 seem to have coarser soils than the average for those regions. (No explanation for this state of affairs can be suggested at the present writing.) Although this is one of the coarsest soils in Florida, it is also one of the richest. The sample was selected from a patch of apparently virgin forest in which the trees are nearly all deciduous; and if the same correlations between soils and deciduous trees
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2gO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. that have been observed elsewhere in the South hold true here the soil should be rather high in potassium, if nothing else. (A chemical analysis will be inserted near the end of this report if it is obtained in time.) Within a stone's throw of where the photograph and samples were taken a part of the same forest had been deadened a few months before (some of the trees were not quite dead at the time) and planted in cotton, which in October was about five feet tall, and was expected to produce about a bale to the acre. Similar soils which have been cultivated for a generation or more without fertilizer are still producing about half a bale of cotton to the acre, it is said. All soils in the region are not like this, however. Long-leaf pine is the prevailing tree in many places, and there the soil is paler and doubtless poorer, though it may be richer than the average long-leaf pine land. And some of the hardwood forests contain a considerable proportion of evergreens, presumably indicating a dearth of potassium ; but no examination has yet been made of these poorer soils. Salamanders are common in the pine land. Topography and Hydrography — The topography is everywhere gently undulating, never flat, unless some flatwoods areas which have been seen in this region are really parts of it and not outliers of the Apalachicola flatwoods on the west. Where the flatwoods occur (for example six miles east of Crawfordville on the road to St. Marks) they seem to be a little higher than the surrounding country. There are a few lime-sinks, sloughs and small ponds, but hardly any surface streams except the Wakulla River. This river has its source in Wakulla Spring, the greatest natural wonder in the region. As far as dimensions are concerned it is the largest spring in Florida, and perhaps the largest in the world, being about 400 feet in diameter and over 80 feet deep. In volume of water, however, it may be exceeded by the noted Silver Spring, in Marion County. Its water, like that of other limestone springs, is transparent with a slight bluish tinge. One or two creeks which rise northwest of this region sink into the ground near its edge, and one of these may be the main source of supply for Wakulla Spring.* *Although these creeks have coffee-colored water, as is usual with coastal plain streams, such water in passing through limestone for any considerable distance has its vegetable matter precipitated and comes out clear, except when the volume of water is too great for the precipitation to be completed in the
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13WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY. 2gi Vegetation Types — The poorest soils have a vegetation composed mostly of long-leaf pine and black-jack oak, like that which prevails in the neighboring Bellair sand region already described. But there are all gradations between that and shady forests of red oak, hickory, dogwood, and other deciduous trees. In a few places the hardwood forests contain a good deal of magnolia, evergreen willow oak, and other broad-leaved evergreens; a difference presumably correlated with the composition of the soil. The occurrence of a few patches of flatwoods has been mentioned above. The Wakulla River is bordered by iswamps, and the few ponds and sloughs have some characteristic vegetation around them. The high pine land and flatwoods nearly everywhere bear the marks of fire, which naturally does not invade the hardwood forests much. Where broad-leaved evergreens are common the vegetation may have been pine originally, and the protection from fire afforded by deciduous forests on one side may have allowed hammock vegetation to develop, as seems to have happened in many other places in the coastal plain. Plants — The following list is based on observations made in walking through the region four times, in April, June, July and October. TREES — 29.7 Pinus palustris +5-8 Quercus falcata +-(-5.5 Hicoria alba ^-5.5 Cornus florida -[-4.5 Querctis CatQsbaei +3.9 Quercus laurifolia '^'^3-3 Quercus stellata -\-3.1 Pinus echinata -1-3.1 Quercus cinerea +2.6 Magnolia grandiflora \ — 1-2.6 Sassafras variifolium — 2.3 Pinus Taeda — 1.9 Liquidambar Styraciflua 4-1.8 Diospyros Virginiana (X) -|--|-i.6 Quercus alba -I-1.6 TiHa pubqscens Long-leaf pine Red oak Hickory Dogwood Black-jack oak (Evergreen willow oak) Post oak Short-leaf pine (Turkey oak) Magnolia Sassafras Short-leaf pine Sweet gum Persimmon White oak (Lin) Poorer soils Uplands Uplands Uplands Poorer soils Hammocks Uplands Uplands Poorer soils Hammocks Uplands Hammocks, etc. Various situations Old fields, etc. Richer soils Hammocks time it remains underground. A few instances of springs in Florida in which the water is sometimes clear and sometimes coffee-colored are mentioned on page 284 of the Third Annual Report. (To the reference there given for Ichetucknee Spring can now be added Matson & Sanford. p. 287.)
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292 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. + 1.4 Ilex opaca + 1.4 Castanea puimila 1.3 Taxodium distichum + 1.1 Fagus grandifolia — 0.9 Pinus serotina +0.9 Malus angustifolia +0.7 Nyjgsa uniflora 0.7 Quercus nigra 0.7 Quercus Virginiana +0.7 Prunus serotina (X) 0.7 Acer rubrum +0.7 Ostrya Virginiana +0.6 Hicoria glabra -fo.4 Persea Borbonia +0.4 Quercus Margaretta — 0.4 Ny;ssa biflora 0.4 Quercus Michauxii +0.4 Fraxinus Americana — 0.4 Pinus glabra 0-3 Quercus Marylandica 0.3 Carpinus Caroliniana 0.2 Fraxinus Caroliniana? ).i Magnolia glauca (and about 10 others). Holly Chinquapin Cypress Beech (B!ack pine) Crab-apple Tupelo gum Water oakLive oak Wild cherry Maple Hickory Red bay Post oak Black gum (Swamp chestnut oak) Ash Spruce pine Black-jack oak (Ironwood) Ash Bay Haminocks Uplands Swamps Hammocks Flatwoods Rich woods Sloughs, etc. Hammiocks, etc. Roadsides, etc. Swamps Hammocks Hammocks Hammocks High pine land Swamps Hammocks Rich woods Hammocks Uplands Swamps, etc Swamps Swamps SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS -J-+.16 Viburnum rufidulum
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MWAKULLA IL\MMOCK COUNTRY. 293 SHRUBS +.026 Rhus copallina ++.02 1 Sa^ssafras variifoHum +.019 Callicarpa Americana +.017 Rubus cuncifolius (X) — .013 Serenoa serrulata 4". 01 1 Cornus asperifolia? ^-.oii Hamamelis Virginiana .010 Myrica cerifera .009 Cepha'.aiithus occidentali> +.009 Ascyrum hypericoides .009 Vaccinium nitidum .007 Rhus Toxicodendron .006 Chionanthuis Virginica +.006 Polycodium sp. — .006 Ilex glabra — .005 Cliryso'bahmns oblongifolius .004 Gaylussacia frondosa nana +.004 Crataegus uniflora .003 Cholisma fruticosa .003 Asimina angustifoHa •003 Asimina parviflora .003 Rosa Carolina .003 Gaylussacia dumosa .003 Itea Virginica .002 AesculiTiS Pavia .002 Baccharis halimifolia (and about 12 others). Sumac Sassafras French mulbc Blackberry Saw-palmetto Witch-hazel Myrtle Elbow-bugh Huckleberry Poison oak Graybeard Gooseberry Gallberry Huckleberry Haw Pawpaw Pawpaw Wild rose Buckeye Uplands Old fields rry Hammocks, etc. Roadsides, etc. Flatwoods, etc. Hammocks Hammocks ITammocks .Swamps, etc. Uplands Flatwoods. etc High pine land Hammock^ Uplands F"latwoods, etc. High pine land F'latwoods Uplands Flatwoods High pine land Hammocks Swamps High pine laixl Swamps Rich woods HERBS +.005 Tillandsia usneoides + .004 Eupritorium compositifolium (X) +.044 Iso'pappus divaricatus (X) +.003 Richardia scabra (X) +.002 Diodia teres (X) .002 Aristida striata .002 Pteridium aquilinum +.002 Stenophyllus Floridanus (X) +.002 Smilax pumila +.001 Cassia Tora (X) .001 Solidago odora -f.ooi Baptisia LeContei? .001 Stillingia sylvatica .001 Andropogon scoparius* (X) Broom-sedge Old fields, etc. Spanish moss
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294 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. .001 .001 + .001 +.001 .001 .001 + .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 +.001 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 Croton argyranthenuis Sericocarpus bifoliatus Crotonopsis spinosa (X) Heteropogon melanocarpus (X) Acanthospermum australe (X) Vernonia angustifolia Sagittaria natans lorata? Eupatorium aromaticum Chamaecrista fasciculata Cenchrus tribuloides (X) Polypodium polypodioides Ambrosia artemisiaefolia (X) Hielianthe-mum sp. (X) Bidens bipinnata (X) Sarothra gentianoides fX Laciniaria elegans C3rperus retrofractu^ Mitchella repens Meibomia purpurea (X) Leptilon Canadense (X) Eupatorium capillifolium CA grass) High pine land High pine land Roadsides, etc. Old fields + + + (X) Syntherisma sanguinale (X) Kuhnistera pinnata Chaetochloa sp. (X) Berlandiera tomentosa Phytolacca rigida (X) Oenothera cruciata (X) Lespedeza .striata (X) Scirpus validus Aristida purpurascens? (X) Euphorbia gracilis Cracca spicata Petalostemon albidus Ipomoea pandurata (X?) Paronychia riparia (X?) Dolicholus simiplicifolius Spermolepis divaricatus (X) Lepidium Virginicum (X) Peppergrass Laciniaria tenuifolia Erianthus ,sp. (X?) (A grasis) Eragrostis ciliaris (X) (A grass) 'Monarda punctata (X?) Rhynchospora Grayii (A sedge) Roadsides High pine land Wakull'a River Uplands ( Partridge pea) Uplands Sand-spur Roadsides (A fern) On trees Ragweed Roadsides, etc. Roadsides Spanish needles Fields and roadsides Roadsides, etc. Uplands (A sedge) Uplands ( Partridge -berry) Hammocks Beggar-weed Old fields Old fields Dog-fennel Crab-grass Fields, etc. (Summer farewell) High pine land (A grass) Pokeberry ( Rveniny primrose) J-ipan clover (Bulrush) (A grass) Morning-glory (Dollar-weed) High pine land Along fences, etc. Fields Roadsides, etc. Wakulla River Old fields High pine land Uplands High pine land Roadsides, etc. Roadsides High pine land Old fields Roadsides, etc. High pine land Along fences Roadsides Old fields, etc High pine land
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13WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY. 295 Sporobolus gracilis (A grass) Hij^h pine land Lechea spHigh pine land Psoralea caneiscens High pine land Stylosanthes biflora High pine land Oplismenus setarius (A grass) ilammocks Epidendrum conopseum (An orchi'ri On trees in hammocks Galactia mollis? High pine land Meibomia rigida (Beggar-weed) High pine land + Ceratophyllum demersum Wakulla River (and about 80 others). The following trees which are more or less common in other parts of Wakulla or in some adjoining county are rare or absent here: Pinus Elliottii (slash pine), Taxodium imbricarium (pond cypress), Juniperus (cedar), Sabal Palmetto (cabbage palmetto), Salix (willow), Quercus geminata (one of the live oaks), Q. Marylandica, Celtis (hackberry), Magnolia glauca (bay), Liriodendron (poplar), Oxydendrum (sourwood), and Halesia. As in the case of the Tallahassee red hills, there are remarkably few rare plants, for such a unique region. None of the species listed are confined to Florida. But there are decidedly more species of trees in this region than in the small regions immediately north and south of it, and some of them are exceptionally well developed. The dogwood seems to be more abundant here than in any other part of Florida, with the possible exception of the Tallahassee red hills, and trees of it a foot in diameter are not uncommon. Several oaks and hickories, magnolia, chinquapin, sassafras, grape vines, and a few other species, are also notably large or abundant, or both. Weeds are rather abundant, for a region without railroads, but this is doubtless a consequence of long cultivation, as in the case of the Tallahassee red hills already mentioned. Fungi (none of which are listed) seem to be commoner here than in most other parts of Florida. Only about 48% of the trees (and still fewer of the other plants) are evergreen, which is the smallest proportion yet found in any equal area in the state, and presumably indicates soils well supplied with potassium compounds. About 11% of the shrubs are Ericaceae, but if the flatwoods areas were excluded this figure would be considerably less. About 12% of the herbs, including weeds, are Leguminosae, which is not far from the average; the fire-swept pine lands where these plants are abundant being just about counterbalanced by the rich shady woods where they are scarce. ' Economic Features — The long-leaf pine is turpentined here as elsewhere, but there is hardly enough of it to invite extensive lumbering operations. The large and abundant dogwood and hickory have been utilized a little, it is said, but most manufacturers have overlooked the supply of these important hardwoods in this region, probably chiefly on acount of the lack of railroads. They will be an important resource for the future. Some Spanish moss is gathered for mattress-making, but perhaps used only locally. -
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2g6 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. As this region is much smaller than a count}no, statistics of its population and the amount of improved land can be obtained from the census reports. White people seem to be in the majority around Crawford ville, the county-seat, and negroes near the Wakulla River. (Some of the negro houses have chimneys of a type which seems to be peculiar to this region, the lower part built of rough limestone boulders and the upper part of the familiar sticks and mud.) The amount of cleared land is perhaps 25%, but not all (jf this is in cultivation at one time. The use of commercial fertilizer seems to be almost unknown* (as in Holmes Valley previously described), and probably for this reason it is found advantageous to let the land lie fallow part of the time. Although no crop statistics for this region by itself are available, it probably includes niost of the cultivated area of Wakulla County; and the following were the leading crops of the count 3^ in 191 2, in order of value : Corn, sweet potatoes, peanuts, sugar-cane, upland cotton, velvet beans, oats, field peas (and hay thereof), watennelons, pears, peaches, pecans, (grass) hay, and grapes. (A region where wild grapes and muscadines are so abundant ought to be well adapted for grape culture.) *The average annual expenditure for fertilizers, per acre of improved land, in Wakulla County was about six cents by the state census of 1905 and four cents by the government census of rgio ; or approximately 1/40 as much per acre as for the state as a whole. As most of the fertiHzer was presumably used in the flatwoods parts of the county (regions 9 and 15), it is evident that practically none is used in this region; which corroborates the testimony of the farmers fsfce page 290).
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14. PANACEA COUNTRY. 297 14. PANyVCEA COUNTRY. (figure 79) Reference — Sellards & Gunter 3, p. 142 (analyses of water from Panacea Springs). An area of perhaps 60 square miles around Panacea Springs, in the southern part of Wakulla County, although it has no striking peculiarities, differs too much from all neighboring regions to be incorporated with any of them. Topographically and in some other ways it resembles the Bellair sand region (no. 12) most, and if it was contiguous to that it might have been treated as a part of it. Its vegetation, however, has mucli in common with the neighboring Apalachicola flatwoods (no. 9). Geology and Soils — No outcrops of rock are known, and no de'finite statement can be made about the geology. The soil is a somewhat loamy sand of unknown depth, very similar to that in region 12. Salamander-hills and ant-hills are common in it, and gopher-holes occasional. The comparatively highly mineralized waters of Panacea Springs indicate some peculiar formations below the surface, which however seem to have no effect onvegel;ition. Topography and Hydrography — The surface is nearly everywhere undulating, with many small basins. In the middle of the legion some of th^ basins may be 20 feet deep or more, but toward the coast the whole topography gradually flattens out. Most of the basins contain water, which fluctuates comparatively little, on account of its nearness to sea-level. Between Sopchoppy and Panacea there are two southward-flowing creeks, Buckhorn Creek on the west and Otter Creek on the east, with sour coffeecolored water. Nothing is known at present of where they originate, as they are not shown on any available maps, but it is evident from the vegetation along them that they do not pass through any distinctly calcareous or clayey country. Vegetation Types — The prevailing vegetation is of the high pine land or black-jack ridge type, as in the Bellair region. Most of the basins, however, contain bay vegetation, much like that in the flatwoods a few miles to the westward. (The difference between these bays and the cypress ponds and open ponds of region 12 is doubtless correlated with differences in the amount of seasonal fluctuation of the water, as pointed out under region 2.*) But *In this connection see also Bull. Torrey Bot. CUib 38:231-232. 1911.
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298 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. most of those within a mile or two of the coast are devoid of woody plants (the reason for this is not yet evident), and might be designated as savannas or prairies. The vegetation along Otter Creek is much like that along small creeks in the flatwoods, while that along Buckhorn Creek includes short-leaf pine, sweet gum, and other plants indicating a moderately rich soil. The coast is bordered by salt and brackish marshes. Plants — The following list is based on observations made on April 21 and June 19, 1910, and July 30, 1914. It cannot be very complete, especially for plants that bloom in fall, and the percentage figures are omitted. TREES + Pinus palustris + Taxodium imbricarium + Quercus Catesbaei — Pinus Elliottii + Quercus cinerea Nyssa biflora + Nyssa Ogeche ^ Magnolia glauca — Pinus serotina + Persea pubescens — Pinus Taeda + Pinus Caribaea? — • Liquidambar Styraciflua Liriodendron Tulipifera — Magnolia grandiflora Quercus Margaretta Long-leaf pine (Pond) cypress Black-jack oak (Slash pine) Turkey oak Black gum Tupelo gum Bay (Black pine) Red bay Short-leaf pine (Pitch pine) • • Sweet gum Poplar Magnolia Post oak Uplands Bays and ponds Uplands Bays and swamps Uplands ' Swamps Along creeks Bays and swamp'S Bays, etc. Swamps Along Buckhorn Creek Near coast Along Buckhorn Creek Swamps Ham.mocks Uplands SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS + Cyrilla parvifolia + Ilex myrtifolia + Cliftonia monophylla Myrica cerifera Osmanthus Americana + Pieris phillyreifolia Smilax laurifolia H — 1Gaylussacia dumosa + Serenoa serrulata Chrysobalanus oblongifolius + Quercus minima Ilex glabra Quercus pumila Tyty .
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14PANACEA COUNTRY 299 +
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300 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Sericocarpus bifoliatus ++ Baptisia simplicifoUa Cnidoscolus stimulosu'S + Cyperus Martindalei Lechea sp. + Euphorbia gracilis Dichromena latifolia Laciniaria graci'is? Polygala nana Stylosanthes billora Solidago odora Sagittaria lancifolia + Dolicholus simpHcifolius Polygala lutea + Aster adnatus Lespedeza hirta + Lupinus villosus Campulosus aromaticus + Eupatorium Mohrii? + Indigofera Caroliniana Juncus scirpoides compositus + Polypteris integrifolia + Sabbatia decandra + Chrysopsis oHgantha + Aeschynomene viscidula + Lupinus perennis + Aster concolor Panicum sp. Polygala grandiflora Psoralea canescens + Eupatorium purpureum Osmunda cinnarnomea Andropogon Virginicus (and about 45 others). (Nettle) (A sedge) ( A sedge) Goldenrod (Dollar-weed) (Lupine) (A grass) ( Indigo) (Lupine) (A grass) I A fern) Broom-sedge High pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land Ponds, etc. High pine land . Pine lands High pine land High pine land Ponds near coast High pine land Edges of swamps Pine lands High pine land High pine land Low pine land Around ponds High pine land Around ponds High pine land Ponds Pine lands High pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land Along Buckhorn Creek Edges of swaiaps High pine land Many plants which prefer rich, calcareous, clayey or alluvial soils are of course conspicuous by their absence here. There do not seem to be even any hickories, willows, elms, haws, maples, dogwood or persimmon. But this region, like no. 12, has decidedly more rare plants than the larger and more fertile region immediately north of it. Cyrilla parvifolia, Crookea, Chrysopsis flexHosa and Baptisia simplicifoUa are not known outside of Florida, and Pieris pliillyreifolia, Myrica inodora. Pitcheria and Polypteris are comparatively rare in other states. The fact that there are four species of Myrica and three of Baptisia is noteworthy. There seem to be almost no weeds: About 66% of the trees and a still larger proportion of the shrubs and vines are evergreen. As in the Bellair sand region, the percentages of Ericaceae (among the shrubs) and Leguminosae (among the herbs) are both well above the average, being 31 and 28 respectively. Although more thorough exploration might reduce these figures a little, it is safe to say that this region contains a larger proportion of native leguminous plants than any other in northern
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14PANACEA COUNTRY. 3OI Florida. Practically all of them grow in the high pine land, and probably the best explanation of their abundance is that the high pine land, with its lack of humus (which these plants seem to have little use for, as already pointed out) covers nearly the whole area. Economic Features — This region is sparsely settled and little cultivated. Turpentining and grazing seem to be the principal industries. Panacea Springs, on the shore of Dickson's Bay, is a watering-place of considerable repute, with the additional attractions of boating and fishing, and has a hotel open all the year. Before automobiles became so common it was connected with Sopchoppy, the nearest railroad station, by a horse-car line nearly seven miles long.
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302 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 15. GULF HAMAIOCK REGION. (figures 80, 81) References— GiMmore (975), Harper i (222-223, 240, 242-244), Harper 4. Matson & Sanford (413-415), Sellards 3 (294 or 48), Smith 2 (205, 206. 227. 234, 235), and U. S. soil survey of Jefferson Co. (by Jones, Thaj-p & Belden, 1908). This region, which is very distinct from any other, borders the (Julf coast from about St. Mark's to Tarpon Springs. In the area under consideration (i. e., west of Hie Suwannee River) it extends 15 or 20 miles inland, and covers about 1,470 square miles. Geology and Soils — The country is everywhere underlaid by hmestone, most of which has been mapped as Upper Oligocene. Outcrops of it a few square feet in extent and projecting a few inches above the surface are very abundant. In some places there may be as many as a hundred such exposures to the acre, and again they may be wanting over several square miles. This rock extends out into the Gulf for an unknown distance, making a rocky bottom in many places. Alternating with the hard rock are unconsolidated beds of marl. The reddish clay that is common in most of the regions previously described is rare here, if it occurs at all. The greater part of the surface material is a more or less loamy sand, a few inches to several feet deep, presumably Pleistocene. In the drier places the limestone seems to have little or no influence on vegetation; but the swamps, sloughs, low hammocks and damp flatwods contain many plants that are very characteristic, and presumably correlated with the presence of limestone. Neither mechanical nor chemical analyses of the soils are available yet, but the following analysis of marl from a low hammock in Wakulla County, given by Dr. Eugene A. Smith in the 6th volume of the Tenth Census, page 205, is of some interest in this connection : 'o Moisture driven off at 100 C. 1.915% Combined water 1.159% Carbonic acid 24.253% Lime 30.986% Magnesia -^ .424% Potash -372% Soda .338% Phosphoric acid .014%
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15. GULF HAMMOCK REGION. 303 Sulphuric acid -331% Brown oxide of manganese .134% Peroxide of iron -534% Alumina 1.196% Soluble silica 3-456% Insoluble matter 35-5557o Total 100.667% (The percentage of lime given corresponds to about 55% of calcium carbonate, or limestone). The so-called Wakulla volcano, a column of smoke which is said to have been visible from Tallahassee and other high points in that neighborhood during most of the 19th century, must have been in this region. No one ever succeeded in reaching it, and it remains, and probably always will remain unless it becomes active again, entirely unexplained.* Topography and Hydrography — The whole region is less than 100 feet above sea-level, and the surface is for the most part level or nearly so; but there are some undulating areas with limesink topography, scarcely distinguishable from the lime-sink region described farther on (no. 17). One such area, covering several square miles at least, is in Taylor County, about half way between Perry and the coast. As in most other parts of Florida, shallow depressions of various sizes are very common. There are natural bridges as well as rocky shoals on several of the creeks and rivers a few miles from their mouths, but apparently no caves or open lime-sinks, probably because the ground-water is too near the surface in most places. Most of the streams have practically no valleys, the flatwoods extending almost to their banks. f They are all sluggish, except at the rocky rapids above mentioned, and most of thgm are coffee-colored, like the majority of coastal plain streams. There are, however, several clear runs from limestone springs, which are rather common along and near the inland edge of the region. Shallow *Perhaps the most reliable account of this phenomenon is in Norton's Handbook of Florida, 3d edition (1892), p. 346. There is a wood-cut of it and some descriptive matter, rather fanciful though, in the article by Barton D. Jonas in Lippincott's Magazine for March, 1882, p. 221 (see bibliography), and one of the chapters in Maurice Thompson's novel. "A Tallahassee Girl.'" is based on it. tWhere the Atlantic Coast Line R. R. crosses the Steinhatchee River on the boundary between Taylor and Lafayette Counties the rails are not perceptibly lower over the stream than they are a mile or two away on either side.
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304 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. sloughs or drains which carry water only in wet weather are common in some portions. Vegetation Types — The prevailing type of vegetation is open pine woods subject to frequent fires, with a low shrubby and herbaceous undergrowth, not very different from that of the strictly non-calcareous flatwoods (regions 9, 16 and 19). But within a few miles of the coast, and occasionally farther inland, the vegetation of the flatwoods, while having about the usual aspect, is quite different in composition, including many plants which are known or believed to prefer calcareous soils, and a few which are most commonly found in or near brackish marshes. There is usuall) nothing on the surface to indicate any reason for this fioristic difference, but a chemical examination of the ground-water in such places ought to reveal something of interest.* In the absence of any definite infoiTnation it is assumed that the soil in such places is more calcareous than usual, and in the list below the plants characteristic of such situations are assigned to "calcareous flatwoods." In an extreme phase of the calcareous flatwoods trees are wanting, and such places might be called savannas or prairies. Cypress ponds and bays similar to those already described are frequent. Most of the streams and sloughs, of whatever size, are bordered by low calcareous hammocks which are very characteristic of this region. The coast, which is unique in having practically no sandy beaches, as pointed out in the Third Annual Report (pp. 222-223! ), is bordered by marshes, which have been little studied as yet. 1 Plants — The following list is based on observations made on 12 different days, as follows : January, 3 ; March, 5 ; May, i ; June, I ; July, I ; September, i. TREES 44.1 Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Uplands + 11.7 Pinus Elliottii (Slash pine) Ponds, etc. — 5.9 Taxodiiim imbricarium (Pond) cypress Pondg and bays + +4. 1 Taxodium distichum. Cypress Swamps and low hammocks 4.1 Pinus Taeda Short-leaf pine Low hammocks, etc. +3.3 Sabal Palmetto Cabbage palmetto Low hammocks, etc. 2.5 Liquidambar Styraciflua Sweet gum Low hammocks A chemical analysis of soil from such a place will be inserted in the appendix if received in time. tSee also F. P. Gulliver, Proc. Am. Acad. Arts & Sci. 24:23-235. 1899.
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15GULF HAMMOCK REGION. 305 + 1.9 Pinus Caribaea? + 1-7 Acer rubruni (etc.J — 1.7 Magnolia glauca + 1.4 Quercus Virginiana + + I-3 Quercus hybrida? i — f-i.3 Carpinus Caroliniana + 1.2 Fraxinus Caroliniana? T — hi. 2 Ulmus Floridana — 1.2 Quercus Catesbaei +1.0 Quercus nigra — i.o Pinus serotina ).9 Magnolia grandiflora .7 Nyssa biflora +0.6 Juniperus Virginiana H — 1-0.6 GLeditschia triacanthos? H — 1-0.5 Crataegus sp. + +0.5 Crataegus viridis +0.5 Taxodium. sp.* +0.3 Persea Borbonia +0.3 Morus rubra —0.3 Quercus cinerea 0.3 Ilex opaca ++0.3 Crataegus Crus-Galli? 0.3 Quercus Michauxii — 0.2 Celtis occidentalis? +0.2 Cercis Canadensis — 0.2 Quercus falcata — o.i Hicoria alba? 0.1 Fraxinus sp. — 0.1 Cornus florida — 0.1 Quercus laurifolia 0.1 Ti'ia pubescens — 0.1 Quercus steHata 0.1 Quercus Schneckii? +0.1 Ulmus alata -0.1 Pinus echinata o.i Hicoria sp. Maple Bay Live oak (Water oak) 1 ronwood Ash Elm Black-jack oak Water oak Black pine Magnolia Black gum Cedar (Honey) locust Haw Haw Cypress Red bay Mulberry Turkey oak Holly Haw (Swamp chestnut oak) Hackberry Redbud Red oak Hickory A'.sh Dogwood Oak (Lin) Post oak (Red oak) Elm Short-leaf pine Hickory Mostly near coast Swamps Swamps, etc. Hammocks, etc. Low hammocks Low hammocks Swampy, etc. Low hammocks Driest spots Low hammocks, etc. Flatwoods and bays Hammocks Swamps Low ham,mocks Sloughs, etc. Low hammocks Sloughs, etc. Sloughs, etc. Low hammocks Low hammocks Driest spots Hammocks Calcareous flatwoods Low hammocks Low hammocks Hammocks Richer Richer soils Sloughs, etc. Richer soils Hammocks Low hammocks Richer soils Low hammocks Hammocks Richer soils Hammocks SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS -F-1-.5I Myrica cerifera -|-+.i8 Salix longipes? +.07 Cyrilla parvifolia .04 Diospyros Virginiana (X) .04 Cyrilla racemiflora +.03 ChionanthusVirginica .02 Batodendron arboreum .01 Quercus geminata A^yrtle Willow Tyty Persimmon Tyty Graybeard Sparkleberry Live oak Hammocks Ponds, sloughs, etc. Bays Old fields, etc. Swamps Hammocks Hammock^ Poorest soils *Apparently an intermediate form or connecting link between T. distichum and T. imbricarium.
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306 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Poison ivy Rattan vine +.01 Crataegus apiifolia Haw .01 Ilex Cassine .01 Cholisma ferruginea .01 Osmanthus Americana .01 Ilex decidua WOODY VINES +.008 Rhus radicans ++.007 Berchemia scandens +.005 Decumaria barbara +.004 Parthenoci)Ssus quinquefoHa .002 Smilax laurifolia +.002 Ampelopsis arborea .002 Vitis aestivalis .002 Bignonia crucigtra .002 Teconia radicans .001 Smilax Walteri .001 Vitis rotundifolia Virginia creeper Bamboo vine Wild grape Cross-vine (Cow-itch) Bullace or muscadine Low hammocks Low hammocks Hammocks Hammocks Sloughs, etc Low hammock^, etc. Low hammocks, etc. Low hammocks Low hammocks Bays, etc. Low hammocks, etc. Hammocks, etcLow hammocks Sloughs Swamps Hammocks, etc. SHRUBS +.075 Serenoa serrulata +.023 Ilex glabra +.013 Cephalanthus occidentalis +.012 Quercus minima ++.011 Viburnum obovatum ++.009 Cornus stricta?* +.008 Stillingia aquaiica .008 Myrica pumila +.007 Crookea microsepala +.006 Sabal glabra' .COS Hypericum myrtifoliurn .004 Ilex vomitoria .004 Vaccinium nitidum .004 Aesculus Pavia +.004 Iva frutescens .003 Pieris nitida +.003 Rosa Carolina +.003 Amorpha fruticosa .003 Hypericum fasciculatum +.003 Baccharis angustifolia .002 Cholisma fruticosa .002 Itea Virginica .002 Quercus pumila .002 Quercus myrtifolia ++.002 Sageretia minutiflora 4-.002 Styrax Americana .002 Rhus copallina Saw-palmetto Gallberry Elbow-bush Oak-runner Myrtle Palmetto (Huckleberry) Buckeye (Hurrah bush) Wild rose Oak runner Sumac Flafwoods Flatwoods Ponds and sloughs P'latwoods Low hammocks Sloughs, etc. Ponds Flatwoods Flatwoods Low hammocks, etc. Around pondg, etc. Harnmocks Flatwoods Richer soils Near coast Bays, etc. Sloughs, etc. Low hammocks, etc. Around bays, etc. Near coast Flatwoods Swamps, etc. Drier flatwoods Sterile sands Low ham.mocks Swamp»s, etc. Richer soils Probably including also C. asperifolia, which I did not always distinguish in the field.
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GULF HAMMOCK REGION. 307 +.001 Sebastiana ligustrina — .001 Chrysobalanus oblongifolius .001 Aronia arbutifolia .001 Hjrpericum galioides pallidum .001 Vaccinium virgatum? Huckleberry 001 Rhapidophy'llum Hystrix (Needle pal/m) .001 Kalmia hirsuta .001 Gaylussacia dumosa (and about 15 others). Low hammocks High pine land Around bays, etc. Swamps Around bays, etc. Low hammocks Flatwoods High pine land .004 Aristida striata .004 Tillandsia usneoides • +.002 Cladium effusum +.002 Chondrophora nudata ++.001 Mesopphaerum radiatum PIERBS Wire-grass Spanish moss Saw-grass +.001 Pterocaulon undulatum +.001 Pluchea bifrons +.001 Chamaecrista fasciculata H — l-.ooi Dichromena colorata +.001 Chrysopsis graminifolia ++.001 Atamosco Atamasco +.001 Pteridium aquilinum ++.001 Muhlenbergia filipes +.001 Juncus Roemerianus +.001 Saururus cernuus ++.001 Rhynchospora miliacea H — f-.ooi Rudbeckia foliosa .001 Kuhnistera pinnata + + + ++ + + + ++ ++ + + ++ + + + + + .001 Eupatoriunl compositifolium (X) Tubiflora Carolinensis Helianthus Radula Chaetochloa imberbis Lippia sp. Iris versicolor Tillandsia tenuifolia Salvia lyrata Ambrosia sp. Trilisa paniculata Centella repanda Dryopteris mollis? Helenium autumnale Chaptalia tomentosa Mikania .scandens? Laciniaria spicata (Black-rootj (Partridge pea) (A sedge) (A fern) (A gras.s) (A sedge) (Summer farewell) Dog-fennel (A grass) Air-plant ''Ragweed) (A fern) Pine lands On trees Marshes, ponds, etc. Flatwoods Calcareous flatwoods, etc. Flatwoods Flatwoods, etc. Drier flatwoods Calcareous flatwoods P'latwoods Calcareous flatwoods Flatwoods Savannas, etc. Brackish marshes and calcareous flatwoods Swamps, low hammocks, etc. Low hammocks Calcareous flatwoods High pine land Roadsides, etc. Low hammock^s Flatwoods Savannas, etc. Calcareous flatwoods Shallow sloughs, ^ets. Swamps, etc. Hammocks Calcareous flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods, etc. Low hamm-ocks, etc. Calcareouis flatwoods Low pine land Edges of marshes, etc. Flatwoods
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3C)8 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT, + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + ++ + + + + ++ + 4++ Helenium tenuifo^iTn-n (X) Bitter-weed Sagittaria lancifolia Afzelia cassioides Stillingia sylvatica Aster adnatus Lythrum lanceolatum? Eupatorium mikanioides Monniera acuminata Petalostemon albidus Aristida spiciformis Carex styloflexa? Euthamia Caroliniana Polypodium polypodioides ( A fern) (A grass) (A sedge) Pinguicula pumila Sericocarpus bifoliatus E!ephantopus e'atus? Flaveria isp. Cenchrus tribuloides (X) Sand spur Eupatorium aromaticum Syngonanthus flavidulus Viola lanceo^ata? Vicia acutifolia Ludwigia lanceolata? Sporobolus gracilis Xyris EHiottii? Uniola nitida Cyperus articulatus Laciniaria tenuifolia Gerardia sp. EHonurus tripsacoides Spartina Bakeri Baldwinia uniflora Berlandiera tomentosa Epidendrum conopseum (An orchid) Chrysopsis aspera Juncus megacephalus Hibiscus incanus Ipomoea sagittifoUa Typha latifolia Nama corymbosa Dryopteris Floridana Panicum virgatum Buchnera elongata (and about 150 others). Roadsides, etc. Marshes, etc. Flatwoods (Queen's delight)Drier flatwoods Flatwoods Calcareous flatwoods Calcareous flatwoods etc. Calcareous flatwoods Drier flatwoods Sour flatwoods Low hammocks Around ponds, etc. On trees in hammocks etc. Low flatwoods Drier flatwoods Flatwoods Calcareous flatwoods Along railroads, etc. High pine land Around bays, etc. Margins of ponds Low hammocks Ponds, etc. High pine land Around ponds Low hammocks Sloughs, etc. High pine land Flatwoods Calcareous flatwoods SavannaiS, etc. Flatwoods High pine land On trees in hammocks Drier flatwoods Calcareous flatwoods Around marshes, etc. Near coast Marshes Low :calcareous 'flatwoods Low ham;mocks Savannas, etc. Calcareous flatwoods White violet (A grass) (A grass) (A sedge) (A grass) (A grass) Morning-glor^' Cat-tail (A fern) (A grass) Although there are more species of trees and shrubs in this region than in some of the others, quite a number which are common not far away are decidedly fare here, if they occur at all. Among such are Pinus echinata (short-leaf pine), P. glabra (spruce pine), Hicoria (hickories), Salix nigra
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15GULF HAMMOCK REGION. 309 (willow), Ostrya, Betula (birch), Fagus (beech), several of the oaks, Liriodendron (poplar), Prunus (plums and cherries), Gordonia, Cornus florida (dogwood). Oxydendrum (sourwood), and CHftonia (tyty). Most of these growbest in drier and more clayey soils than the average of the Gulf hammockregion, but the absence of the last-named (and a few others) is probably best explained by its aversion to lime. The genus Crataegus (haws) seems to make up a larger proportion of the forests here than in most other parts of Florida (between i and 2%), which accords with the common belief that these little trees are partial to limestone regions. Most of the species which are more abundant here than elsewhere in northern Florida grow in low hammocks and calcareous flatwoods. Some of them are rather rare plants. For example, the Ambrosia which stands 27th in the list of herbs is known only in calcareous flatwoods within a few miles of St. Mark's, and in a similar place near the southeastern corner of Georgia (where it was found by the writer in 1902, in company with Lippia, Elionurus, ^nd a few other species included in the above list). Some species too scarce to be listed here are probably still more limited in distribution. Very few weeds are abundant enough in this region to be included among the first200 species, a natural consequence of the sparse population. The percentage of evergreens is about 74.3, which is a little above the average for northern Florida. The fact that this distinctly calcareous region has decidedly more evergreens than regions 4, 5, 11 and 13, where limestone is not much in evidence, seems to indicate once more that there is no close relation between calcium (or limestone) and evergreents. Limestone probably ha
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3IO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. i6. MIDDLE FLORIDA FLATWOODS. References. Gillmore (975, 1005; , Harper i (221), Harper 4 (222-224), Sellards 3 (294 or 48), and U. Ssoil survey of Jeffeqson County (by Jones, Tlharp & Belden, 1908). Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep., pi. 23.2. The above designation is applied to two disconnected areas parallel to the Gulf Coast and about 20 miles from it : one in Middle Florida and one in East Florida. In the Third Annual Report they were not separated from what is here called the Apalachicola flatwoods (region 9), but their different geographical location entitles them to separate treatment, and some differences in vegetation are discernible. There are about 1,000 square miles of this kind of country in the area under consideration, and a few hundred additional in Levy County. It has no counterpart in any other region. The greater part of the portion west of the Suwannee River is known as San Pedro Bay (a name which appears on few maps). Geology and Soils — This region is presumably underlaid by the Oligocene limestones which characterize the country on both sides of it, but no outcrops are known, and the limestone has little effect on soil or topography. There are a few spots where the vegetation seems to indicate that' there is marl within reach of the roots of trees, but the prevailing soil is mostly fine sand, mixed with more or less vegetable matter, well supplied with water, and probably underlaid by hardpan in many places. In that part of the region lying in Jefferson County most of the soil is mapped in the government report above cited as "Portsmouth fine sand." The following inechanical analyses of a soil, subsoil, and lower subsoil (depths not indicated) are taken from that report. The soil is described as "a black fine sand with a depth of 6 or 8 inches," with a subsoil of "gray sand changing to reddish brown at about 24 inches below the surface." The dark color of the surface soil is said to be due entirely to vegetable matter; and the dark material which cements the lower subsoil into "hardpan" seems to be also mostly vegetable, with a small amount of iron compounds. This soil is said to be entirely uncultivated, except on its edges where it merges into the "Norfolk fine sand."
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l6. MIDDLE FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 3II MEcHANUAr, Analyses of "Portsmouth Fine Sand," Jefferson County. Soil. Subsoil. Lower subsoil. I'ine gravel (2-1 niiii-j 0.9 0.6 0.4 Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 3.4 4.6 4.8 Medium sand (.5-.2S mm.) 6.8 7.4 -j.T) Fine sand (.25-.1 mm.) 35.4 36.1 33.9 Very fine sand (-i-.os mm.) 41.5 46.5 47.9 Silt (.05-.005 mm.) 6.6 3.8 3.0 Clay (.005-0 mm.) 5.2 1.6 2.6 Total 99.8 100.6 99.9 The distribution of "silt" and "clay" in the soil and subsoil seems to indicate that these materials are mostly vegetable matter rather than true silt and clay. This analysis differs somewhat from tho.se of the soil similarly named in the East Florida flatwoods (quoted farther on), but just what the differences indicate is not clear. Topography and Hydrography — The surface is level or nearly so, and dotted with many very shallow depressions which are permanently wet and contain peat, indicating that the ground-water is near the surface and fluctuates very little. San Pedro Bay is said by Gillmore to be 85 feet above sea-level, and perceptibly higher than the country around it. As in other flatwoods regions, there are many sluggish creeks and branches with coffee-colored water. Vegetakon Types — The prevailing vegetation on the drier areas is open forests of long-leaf pine and a few other trees, bearing marks of fire as usual. In the depressions there is much pond cypress, sometimes in almost pure stands (cypress ponds), but more commonly mixed with evergreen vines and bushes (bays). The streams are bordered by swamps of the non-alluvial type. Plants — The following list is based on observations made on three days in January and one each in March, May and July, and does not pretend to be at all complete. Percentage figures are therefore omitted. TREES — Pinus palustris Long-leaf pine Drier soils +-|Taxodium imbricarium (Pond) cypress Bays and ponds + Pinus Elliottii (Slash pine) Bays and ponds -t-+ Pinus serotina (Black pine) Low pine land — Quercus cinerea Turkey oak High pine land — Magnolia glauca • Bay Swamps -|Acer rubrum Maple Swamps • — Nyssa biflora Black gum Swamps
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^12 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. + Gordonia Lasianthus Taxodium distichum — Liquidambar Styraciflua — Quercus Catesbaei — Pinus Taeda — Magnolia grzndiflora — Quercus nigra (Red bay) Cypress Sweet gum Black-jack oak Short-leaf pine Magnolia Water oak Bays and swanii)s Marly (?) swamps Richer soils Driest .spots Richer soils Hammocks Richer soils (and a few others seen only once). SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS ++ Cyrilla parvifolia
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i6. MIDDLE FLORIDA F I. AT WOODS. 3IJ Trilisa odoratissima Chryscpsis graminifolia + Sarracenia psittacina + Bartoiiia verna + Panicum hemitomon Osmunda cinnamomea -fXyris fimbriata + Eriocaulon coinpressum + Cuscuta compacta + Syngonanthus flavidulus + Lycopodium alopecuroides Helianthus Radula — Eupatorium compQsitifoIiuni (X) Mesosphaerum radiatum + Castalia odorata -t--r Polygala Rugelii + Eupatorium rotundifolium (and about 40 others). Deer-tongue Pitcher-plant Maiden-cane (A fern) Love-vine IJog-fennel Water-lily Flatwoods Flat woods Around bays Flatwoods Ponds Around bays, etc. Ponds Ponds On bushes in swami:)(S Around bays Around bays Flatwoods Roadsides, etc. Marly (?) places Ponds Flatwoods Flatwoods Most of the species of trees indigenous to northern Florida, especially those preferring rich soils, are wanting here. None of the species listed are very rare, but Cyrilla parvifolia, Crookea, and Polygala Rugelii are confined to Florida, or nearl)' so. About 69% of the trees, and a still larger proportion of the small trees, shrubs and vines, are evergreen. The percentage of Ericaceae among the shrubs is 18.4, which is above the average. No leguminous plants have been noticed, but they cannot be entirely wanting. The iigures for evergreens, Ericaceae and Leguminosae are all pretty close to the corresponding ones for the Apalachicola flatwoods, and indicate acid soils deficient in potassium if not in other minerals. Weeds are scarce, for o'bvious reasons. Economic Features — As this region does not cover as much as half of any one county, it is difficult to make an accurate estimate of its population, etc. But it is evidently very sparsely settled, and probably not more than 3% of the area is under cultivation at present. Lumbering, turpentining and grazing are the leading industries. The abundant cypress will doubtless be a source of wealth some time. Many regions with prevailingly acid soils are particularly rich in honey-yielding plants, and that is the case here. The two most abundant small trees and the saw-palmetto and gallberry are noted honey plants, and many less common species are frequented by bees. The 9,274 pounds of honey reported from Madison, Taylor and Lafayette Counties by the State census of 1905 (and 14,525 pounds by the government census of 19 10) probably came mostly from San Pedro Bay and vicinity; and this industry is doubtless capable of much greater development. This is therefore a land of honey, if not of "milk and honey."
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314 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 17. PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION. (figures 82, 83) References. Harper i (221), Matson & Sanford (359-361, 408-412), Sellards, 3d Ann. Rep. 21-32, Sellards 2 (29), Sellards 3 (294-295 or 48-49), and U. S. soil survey of the "Gainesville area" (by Rice & Geib, 1905). Illustrated in 2nd Ann. Rep., pi. 4.1, 8.1; 4th, pi. 5.1. This well-marked 'region extends from a few miles north of the Georgia line southward through the western half of the peninsula to Pasco County at least. About 2,000 square miles of it are included in the arbitrary limits of this report. It bears some resemblance to the West Florida lime-sink region (no. 2), and still more to the Bellair sand region (no. 12), but differs perceptibly from both in its vegetation. Geology and Soils — The bed-rock here is the Vicksburg limestone, which is overlaid in many places by formations of later age, particularly the hard-rock phosphate beds (Alachua or Dunnellon formation), and nearly everywhere by several feet of pale loamy sand. The rock protrudes through the sand in many places, as in regions 12 and 15. Clay often lies between the rock and sand, especially northward, but exposures of it are rare, and consequently its areal extent is not definitely known. All the hard-rock phosphate mined in Florida comes from this region, and the soil probably contains more phosphorus than the average, though no analyses of it are available at this writing.* The salamander seems to be more abundant in this region than anywhere else, and its hills, a foot or more in diameter and a few inches high, are nearly always in sight in the drier soils, particularly in early spring just after the woods are burned over. Ants, gophers, and no doubt several other subterranean animals are common, and influence the soil in much the same way that the salamander does. Topography and' Hydrography — This region has a characteristic solution, or karst, topography (though possibly influenced some by the wind, as suggested elsewhere), with a profusion of low hills and basin-like depressions, the smallest of which are nearly circular. *In that part of the lime-sink region included in the "Gainesville area'' the soil is nearly all classed as "Norfolk sand" in the government soil survey above cited. But the two mechanical analyses of it given there both represent samples from the hammock belt (no. 10), so that it would not be proper to quote them here.
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ly. PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION. 315 The highest elevations are about 200 feet above sea-level. In the most hilly portions there may be differences of elevation of 50 feet in half a mile; but there seem to be no steep slopes except on the immediate banks of rivers and sinks. At the other extreme the country may be nearly flat. Some of the depressions contain permanent water and some are dry most of the time. There are a few open sinks, caves, and natural bridges, formed by solution in the usual manner. The best known natural bridge is probably that of the Santa Fe River. Streams are decidedly scarce, and most of those which do occur are rivers which rise in other regions and flow through this one without receiving any tributaries except a few short spring runs. Consequently swamps are likewise scarce. There are whole townships without any running water, and many square miles without any surface water at all. The rain-water sinks into the sand almost immediately, and gradually finds its way into subterranean channels in the porous limestone. Large limestone springs are fairly common, and some of them are health and pleasure resorts. In the more elevated areas the ground-water lies so deep that it can be raised to the surface only by buckets or force-pumps. For this reason, and also because of its hardness, many houses in the rural districts have cisterns instead of wells. Practically all the towns have artesian wells. Vegetation Types — At least nine-tenths of the area was originally covered with park-like open forests of large long-leaf pines, with a "lower story" of black-jack and turkey oaks in many places. The limestone outcrops are too small and often also too silicified to have any perceptible effect on vegetation, except where they are close to streams or sinks and thus protected from fire. There is liammock vegetation along some of the streams and around some of the deeper sinks, where the fires which periodically sweep the pine forests can approach from only one side. Swamps are chiefly confined to the banks of the Suwannee River, and are not very extensive even there. The ponds are nearly all treeless, probably because the water-level fluctuates too much, as is the case with some of the ponds in region 12. Plants — The following list is based on observations made on 22 different days, distributed through the year as follows : January, 4; February, 5; March, 2; April, 6; May, i; July, i; August, i; December, 2. No doubt some fall-blooming plants have been overlooked, but otherwise the list ought to be reasonably accurate. 20
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3l6 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ++73-8 Pinus palustris + 6.7 Quercus Catesbaei H — I" 5-5 Quercus cinerea 2.6 Liquidambar Styraciflua 1.5 Quercus falcata — 0.9 Pinus Taeda 0.7 Quercus Virginiana — 0.5 Taxodium imbricarium . — 0.5 Taxodium distichum 0.4 Quercus laurifolia 0.4 Quercus geminata — 0.3 Cornus Florida 0.3 Juniperus Virginiana — 0.3 Magnolia grendiflora — 0.3 Pinus EUiottii 0.2 Hicoria alba + 0.2 Planera aquatica 0.2 Salix nigra? + 0.2 Quercus Margaretta 0.2 Fraxinus Caroliniana 0.2 B'Ctula nigra 0.1 Acer rubrum 4o.T G'editschia riquatica' 0.1 Ulmus Floridana — Q.i Ilex opaca — 0.1 Pinus glabra — 0.1 Q'lercus nigra CI Cercis Canadensis o.T Crataegus viridis — 0.1 Sabal Palmetto 0.1 Acer rubrum tridens? 0.1 Persea Borbonia 0.1 Quercus lyrata o.T Quercus hybrida? (and 14 others). TREES Long-leaf pine Black-jack oak Turkey oak Sweet gum Red oak Short-leaf pine Live oak Pond cypress Cypress Live oak Dogwood Cedar Magnolia (Slash pine) Hickory Willow Post oak Ash Birch Maple Honey locust Elm Holly Spruce pine Water oak Redbud Haw Cabbage palmetto Maple Red bay (Swamp post oak) Always in sight Uplands Uplands Hammocks, etc. Richer soils Along Suwannee R. Hammocks, etc. Shal'.ow ponds Swamps Hammocks Uplands Hammocks, etc Along Suwannee R. Hammocks Shallow ponds, etc. Richer soils Along Suwannee R. River-banks, etc. Uplandjs Swamps Along Suwannee R. Swamps Along Suwannee R. Swamps Hammocks Along Suwannee R. Low grounds Richer soils A'ong Suwannee R. A'ong Suwannee R. A'ong Suwannee R. Hammocks Along Suwannee R. Low hammocks SMALL TREES + .04 Diospyros Virginiana (X?) + .03 Crataegus aestivalis + .02 Ilex rajn^tifolia + .02 Adelia acuminata + .OT Crataegus Michauxii .01 Prunus angustifolia (X) — .01 Myrica cerifera .01 Cyrilla racemiflora .OT Batodendron arboreum .01 Chionanthus Virginica .01 Sassafras variifolium (X) •OT Prunus umbeMata? .OT Crataegus apiifolia OR LARGE SHRUBS Persimmon May haw Yaupon Haw WiM plum Myrtle Tyty Sna rkleberry Graybeard Sassafras 'Hncr plum Haw Uplands Ponds and swamps Shallow ponds, etc. Along Suwannee RUplands Old fields Hammocks Swamps Hammoc'iis Hammocks Old fields Hammocks, etc. Along Suwanee R.
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17PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION. 317 .001 Parthenocissus quinquefolia .001 Berchemia scandens .001 Ampelopsis arborea Wistaria frutescens Vitis rotnndifo'.ia Vitis aestivalis WOODY VINES Virginia creeper Hammocks, etc. Rattan vine S\vnmp,s Edges of swamps Wisteria Along Suwannee R. Bullace or Muscadine Hammocks, etc. Wild grape Hammocks — .027 ++.025 ++.018 ++.015 ++.014 +.012 .009 +.005 •003 +.003 +.002 — .002 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 .001 +.001 Serenca serrulata Myrica pumila Rhus copallina Castanea alnifoHa Asimina speciosa Quercus pumila Chrysobalanus oblongifolius Ceratiola ericoides Rosemary Cephalanthns occidentalis E'bow-bush SHRUBS Saw palmetto Myrtle Sumac Chinquapin I'awpaw Oak runner Asimina angustifolia Rhus Toxicodendron Pieris nitida Cornu,s stricta? Viburnum obovatum Polj'codium sp. Phoradendron flavescens Aralia spinosa Asimina parvifiora Ceanothus microphyllus Itea Virginica Rubu,s cuneifolius (X) Amorpha fruticosa (and 10 or 12 others). Pawpaw Poison oak (Hurrah bush) Gooseberry Mistletoe Prickly ash Pawpaw Blackberry Pine lands Pine lands Various situations High pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land Poorest soils Ponds and swamps High pine Ian J High pine land Around ponds Swamps Swamps Sandy hammocks, etc. On trees I>ow hammocks Hammocks High pine land Swamps Pondsides, et;. Along Suwannee R. ++.0T8 +.007 ++.006 4+.004 .003 ++.C03 ++.002 ++.002 ++.001 ++.001 +.001 ++.00T Aristida stricta Kuhnistera pinnata Eupatorium compositifoHum (X?) Pteridium aquilinum Tillandsia usneoides Eriogonum tomentosum Chamaecrista fa4sciculata Psoralea canescens Eupatorium aromaticum Andropogon Virginicus Pterocau^on undulatum Zamia integrifolia HERBS Wire-grass Summer farewell Dog-fennel (A fern) Spanish moss Partridge-pea Broom-sedge Black-root Coontie ++.001 Carphephorus corymbosus ++.001 Crotonopsis spinosa (X?) High pine land High pine lanl High pine lad etc. High pine land On trees High pine land HiTh pine land High pine land High pine land High pine land Pine lands High pine land, Alachua Co. High -pine land Roadsides, etc.
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3l8 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. +.001 Croton argyranthemus High pine land +.001 Sporobolus gracilis (A grass) High pine land ++.OOI Actinospermum angustifolium High pine land + Andropogon scoparius (X?) , Broom-sedge Old fields + Lespedeza hirta High pine land FTelenium tenuifoHum (X) Bitter-weed Roadsides, etc. Acanthqspermum australe (X) Roadsides, etc. + + Lygodesmia aphylla High pine land + Rumex hastatulus (X) (Sorrel) Fields + Stillingia sylvatica (Queen's delight) High pine land + Amsonia ciliata High pine land + Glottidium vesicarium (X) Waste places ++ Berlandiera subacaulis High pine land + Vernon,ia angustifolia High pine land + + Piriqueta Caroliniana High pine land + Heteropogon melanocarpuis (X) (A grass) Old fields + Cnidoscolus stimulosus Nettle High pine land + Baptisia LeContei? High pine land ++ Silphium compositum High pine land Erigeron ramosus (X) Old fields, etc. Euthamia Caroliniana (X?) Around ponds, etc. Chrysopsis aspera? High pfne land Dolicholus simplicifolius (Dollar-weed) High pine land + Opuntia vulgaris Prickly pear High pine land + Hymenopappus • Carolinensis (X) Old fields, etc. + Indigofera Caroliniana High pine land + Eupatorium album High pine land Leptilon Canadense (X) Fields, etc. + Dactyloctenium Aegyptium (X) Crowfoot grass Cultivated fiel.d= Cassia Tora (X) Cofifee-weed Waste places Sericocarpus bifoliatus High pine land + Calophane^ oblongifoHa High pine land + Scutellaria multiglandulosa High pine land Scleria glabra (A sedge) High pine land + Stenophyllus Warei (A sedge) High pine land (and about 75 others). Most trees which prefer damp soils or clayey soils are scarce or absent in this region. Small trees, shrubs and vines are relatively scarce, too, doubtless because most such plants cannot stand much fire, and areas sufficiently protected from fire for them to flourish (such as swamps) are very limited. The most abundant shrub, the saw-palmetto, is less abundant here than it is in most other parts of Florida. The first seven shrubs and some of the others have thick underground stems which quickly send up new shoots after a fire, while the eighth, which is very sensitive to fire, grows only in the poorest soils, where the vegetation is too sparse to carry flames readily. (See fig. 82.) Most of the
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l-J. PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION. 319 herbs grow in the dry long-leaf pine forests, and quite a number of them are more abundant here than in any other region previously described. About 79.3% of the trees are evergreen, only 2.3% of the shrubs are Ericaceae, and over 20% of the herbs are Leguminosae. The figure for evergreen trees is mostly made up by one species, the long-leaf pine, which prefers richer soils than some other evergreens, and the proportion of evergreens among the shrubs and herbs is perceptibly lower. The very low figure for Ericaceae is partially explained by the scarcity of low pine land, sour bays, non-alluvial swamps, etc., but not wholly, for Gaylussacia dumosa, the commonest Ericaceous shrub in the somewhat similar Bellair sand region, has not been observed in the lime-sink region at all. It is possible that the soil is a little too limy for these plants, as was suggested in the case of the Gulf hammock region. The percentage of Leguminosae is among the highest, and is doubtless correlated with the prevalence of fire and consequent scarcity of humus, as well as the dry and somewhat calcareous nature of the soil. Economic Features — Although the prevaiHng dry sandy soil might look very unpromising, to a person unaccustomed to such soils, it is capable of producing excellent crops. In 1910 about 22^ of the area was improved land (a pretty high figure for Florida), and there were about 24 inhabitants to the square mile, an increase of 12% in ten years. White people are slightly in the majority. Probably the chief drawback to residence in this region is the scarcity of water, but that same condition also makes mosquitoes scarce, which is no small compensation. 'Some of the largest sawmills in the State have operated here, turning out a vast amount of long-leaf pine lumber, and the supply is far from being exhausted yet. Turpentining is of course also an important industry. Around the phosphate mines, particularly in Alachua County, the pine has been cut out pretty thoroughly for fuel for drying the phosphate rock, leaving most desolate landscapes (see fig. 83) . But thickets of young pines are springing up in many places, (there seemed to be more of them in 19 14 than in 1909), and if more conservative methods of drying the rock are adopted soon, or even if the present depression in the phosphate export trade continues long enough, the forests may have a good chance to restore themselves. The only county which is mostly in this region is Suwannee, and no crop returns were received from that by the State agricultural department in 19 12. But according to the State census of 1905 its leading crops, in order of value, were as follows : Sea-island cotton, corn, peanuts, sugar-cane, sweet potatoes, field peas, (grass) hay, oats, velvet beans, pecans, peaches, and watermelons.
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320 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. i8. PENINSULAR LAKE REGION. (figure 84) References. Harper i (223-224), Harper 7 (359), Matson & Sanford (391393), Sellards, 2nd Ann. Rep. 242-243, Sellards 2 (12, 30-31), Sellards 3 (295-296, or 49-50), Sellards & Gunter 2 (93-94. I53), Smith 2 (232, 233). Illustrated in 3d Ann. Rep., pi. 12.1 ; 4th, pi. lo.i ; 5th, pi. ii.i. This region is distinctly peculiar to Florida, with no counterpart elsewhere. It extends from the vicinity of Lake Kingsley in Clay County southward down the axis of the peninsula for some 200 miles. This report considers only that part included in Clay and Putnam Counties, about 500 square miles. Geology and ^oiU — Rock outcrops are very rare, and chiefly confined to the vicinity of large springs, none of which are known in the portion of the lake region under consideration ; consequently no definite statement can be made about the Tertiary geology. The lowest stratum exposed in railroad cuts and other excavations is a pale, more or less mottled clay, which is usually rather sandy, but in some places is pure enough to be mined for kaolin. On the uplands the surface is everywhere several feet of more or less loamy sand, about like that of the lime-sink region just described. (Neither mechanical nor chemical analyses of it are available at this writing.) Its prevailing color is cream or pale buff, but in the areas known as scrub (described further under the head of vegetation) it is usually almost snow-white, on the surface at least. In many depressions several feet of peat overlies the sand. Salamanders, gophers, and other burrowing animals are almost as common here as in the lime-sink region, but they seem to avoid the white sand of the scrub. Topography and Hydrography — The prevailing topography is much like that of the lime-sink region, with rounded hills and basins and few streams or valleys, but on a somewhat larger scale. Some of the basins may be as much as 100 feet deep (i. e., if filled with water to overflowing the water would have that depth). It is said that Lake Kingsley averages 60 feet deep, and has some places in it considerably deeper. In the vicinity of the Ocklawaha and St. Johns Rivers there are wide stretches of flatwoods scarcely distinguishable from the East Florida flatWoods (described next), with which they are indeed connected. The rolling topography of the uplands is not so evidently the result of solution as is that of the I'me-sink region, and no satisfactory explanation of it has yet been
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l8. PENINSULAR LAKE REGION. 32I offered. Lime-sinks, caves and natural bridges are unknown, and sprnigs rare. The ground-water level is generally nearer the surface and more constant here than in the lime-sink region. Nearly all the depressions contain beautiful lakes, averaging at least one to the square mile, and ranging in size from an acre to several square miles. Lakes only a short distance apart sometimes differ considerably in elevation, showing that the ground-water surface is irregular, probably conforming approximately with that of the clay substratum. Some of the smallest lakes have become filled with peat, and some of the larger ones show plainly the effects of wave action on their shores. Some of the lakes have remarkably clear water, but in most of them, as in the few streams, it is tinged brown from vegetable matter, though practically free from lime or mud. Vegetation Types — The uplands are covered mostly with high pine land vegetation, subject to fire every year or two, much like that of the lime-sink region. A very different upland type of vegetation, in northern Florida almost confined to the lake region, is known as scrub. This is almost wholly evergreen, and practically devoid of grasses and Leguminosae. Both in the lake region and elsewhere this sort of vegetation occurs almost always on white sand with very little animal life in it. Fire sweeps through the scrub on the average about once in the average life-time of the dominant tree (Pinus clausa), and kills the pines, but they soon come up again from seed. The more level areas, or flatwoods, have low pine land vegetation not very different from that in some of the other regions. In the flatwoods near the Ocklawaha River there are places where the vegetation seems to indicate marl near the surface, both in the fireswept pine forests and in shady low hammocks something like those in the Gulf hammock region. Sandy hammocks, or high hammocks, occur near some of the streams and lakes, especially on peninsulas. The streams and lakes are bordered in many places by non-alluvial swamp vegetation, and there are quite a number of peat prairies or marslies, like those described in the Third Annual Report (pp. 2742/5)Plants — The following list is based on observations made on 3 days in January, 5 in May, 2 in July and i in December; only 1 1 in all. It therefore cannot be considered very complete, especially for fall flowers, and some of the percentages for herbs may not be very accurate.
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322 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. +52.0
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l8. PENINSULAR LAKE REGION. 3-^3 .077 Serenoa serrulata SHRUBS Saw-palmetto Various situations, including scrub +.024
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324 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. .001 SporoboUis gracilis (A grass) High pine land +.001 Doellingeria reticulata Low pine land +.001 Spartina Bakeri (A grass) Around lakes, etc +.001 Nyrr.phaea macrophylla (Bonnets) Lakes, etc. .001 Silpliium compositum High pine land Sarracenia minor Pitcher-plant Flatvvoods Fuirena scirpoidea (A sedge) Lake shoreis Lygodesmia aphylla High pine land + Eryngium aromaticum High pine land + He.ianthella grandiflora? Pine lands + Stenophyllus ciliatifoHus (A sedge) High pine land + Castalia odorata Water-lily Lukes — Heleninm tenuifolium (X) Bitter-weed Roadsides, etc. + Indigofera Caro'iniana High pine land + Mesadenia Floridana High pine land Ludwigia virgata Flatwoods Sericocarpus bifoliatn
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1 8. PENINSULAR LAKE REGION. 325 About 79.6% of the trees are evergreen, 15.4% of the shrubs are Ericaceae, and 15.270 of the herbs are Leguniinosae. This is a much larger proportion of Ericaceae and a smaller proportion of Legummosae than in the lime-sink region, and doubtless indicates signiricant differences in the soil. It is noteworthy that the percentage of evergreens among the small trees, shrubs and vines is considerably higher here than in the lime-sink region, though that of evergreen trees is nearly the same in both. Economic Features — For some reason, or combination of reasons, lumbering and turpentining do not seeni to be practised as extensively in this region as in most other parts of Florida. There is not very much farming either, and what little there is is much more typically Floridian than that in the lime-sink region, where the crops are mostly the staples common to all the southeastern states. In the lake region, unlike any previously described, citrous fruits lead, and cotton and corn are of secondary importance. The leading crops in Putnam County in 1912, in order of value, were as follows: Oranges, Irish potatoes, grapefruit, corn, sweet potatoes, peaches, sea-island cotton, field peas (and hay thereof), watermelons, peanuts, pears, oats, tomatoes, cabbage, plums, pecans, rice and upland cotton. If the flatwoods which cover about half the county could be excluded, it would probably make Irish potatoes, corn and cotton take a still lower rank. The proportion of improved land in Clay and Putnam Counties (including both lake region and flatwoods) in 19 10 was less than 4%, and the density of population about 15 per square mile, an increase of 12% in ten years. White people are evidently in the majority in the lake region. One of the greatest assets of this region is its scenery. This together with the climate for which Florida is famous attracts many winter visitors of an unostentatious class, who like to enjoy themselves in a simple way.
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"3 5 6 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 19. EAST FLORIDA FLATVVOODS. (figures 85, 86) References. Gillmore (974), Harper i (224-225, 250-251, 272, 287-290), Harper 3 (229-232, 235), Matson & Clapp (29, 108-113), Matson & Sanford (126, 267-270, 283-287, 296-301, 273-2,7^, 394-398). Sellards & Gunter 2 (126, 135137, 141-143), Smith 2 {2^0-22,2), and U. S. soil surveys of the "Gainesville area" (1905), "Jacksonville area" (1911), and Bradford Co. (1914). Illustrated in 2nd Ann. Rep., pi. 6.2; 3d, pi. lo.i, 14.3, 23.1, 28, fig. 24; 4th, fig. 3; sth, pi. 13.3, 14. 1. The flatwoods of northeastern Florida extend northward along the coast to the vicinity of the Savannah River, where their character gradually changes. Going inland in Georgia this region passes gradually at a distance of 50 to 100 miles from the coast into the Altamaha Grit region or rolling wire-grass country, which is a direct continuation of the West Florida pine hills already described (region 7). In the area under consideration these flatwoods cover about 5,300 square miles. Farther south there is nothing exactly similar, for the extensive flatwoods of peninsular Florida differ in several ways. Geology and Soils — Fossiliferous marly strata are exposed on the banks of a few creeks and rivers in the eastern half of this region, and have been mapped as Miocene. Throughout the greater part of the area the marl seems to be overlaid by several feet of essentially non-calcareous sandy clay, and that in turn by a few feet or inches of grayish sand, which is regarded by some as a distinct Pleistocene formation and by others as a mere product of weathering. In many places, however, particularly on Trail Ridge (described under Topography, below) the sand passes at a depth of two or three feet into blackish "hardpan," and in such places there are usually no excavations deep enough to disclose whether clay is present beneath the hardpan or not. Another variation in the arrangement of the surface formations (if the sand and clay be regarded as such) is that within 25 miles of the coast there are many low spots where the vegetation seems to indicate the proximity of marl to the surface, and consequently the sand and clay must be thin or wanting. The sand which forms the surface everywhere except in the marly spots and where covered by muck or peat is fine-grained and usually rather dark-colored from admixture of vegetable matter. In all three of the government soil surveys above cited the most extensive type of soil in the flatwoods is called "Portsmouth fine
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ig. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 327 sand." (In the ''Gainesville area," which is mostly in regions lo and 17, this soil is said to cover 11.5%, or 35,840 acres; in Bradford County, which is about nine-tenths fiatwoods, 39.3%; ^nd i" the "Jacksonville area," which is all flatwoods, 46.5%And some of the other soils which cover large parts of these areas differ from this one but slightly). The following mechanical analyses of this soil and its subsoil are taken from the Gainesville and Jacksonville reports (none being given in the Bradford County report). 1. One mile northwest of Paradise, Alachua Co.* A gray medium sand, o to 20 inches. 2. Subsoil of same. A brown medium sand, 20 to 36 inches. 3. Average of four localities in Duval County. Soil (depth not given). 4. Subsoil of same. Depth not given. 5. Lower subsoil, average of two localities. Depth not given. Mechanical Analyses of "Portsmouth Fine Sand/' East Florida Flatwoods 12345 Fine gravel (2-1 mm.) o-4 0.8 o o Coarse sand (1-.5 mm.) 10.4 iO-3 0.8 0.5 0.4 Medium sand (.5-.25 mm.) 23.1 22.5 2.4 2.5 2.1 Fine sand (.25-.1 mm.) 49.8 46.8 84.9 83.7 83.8 Very fine sand (.1-.05 mm.) 12.5 13.1 4.0 5-9 57 Silt (.05-.005 mm.) 2.4 2.5 4.9 3-8 4-i Clay (.005-0 mm.) i.i 37 2.7 3.5 3.3 Total 997 997 997 99-9 99-4 If these are all typical sampled the soil is evidently of coarser texture in Alachua County than in Duval; but what significance, if any, is to be attached to this is not at present evident. A chemical analysis of soil from the same region is given in the Tenth Census, vol. 6, p. 202. The sample represents 10 inches depth of "second-class pine land," with long-leaf pine and wiregrass, 5 miles north of Lake City, Columbia County; collected by Dr. Eugene A. Smith in the summer of 1880 and analyzed under his direction at the University of Alabama by John B. Durrett, by the acid digestion method mentioned on preceding pages. *In the Gainesville report as published (page 20 of the advance sheets or page 284 of the whole volume) this was inadvertently placed in a table headed 'Gainesville sand."
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328 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT, Water and organic matter 1.807 per cent Potash .117 " " Soda .064 " " Lime .058 " " Magnesia . .042 " " Phosphoric acid .092 *' " Sulphuric acid .058 '" " Brown oxide of manganese .049 " " Peroxide of iron .224 " " Alumina .473 " " Soluble silica .879 " " Insoluble matter 95630 " " Total 99-493 '" " As compared with the three other northern Florida soils analyzed in the same report, this has the most potash, soda, and insoluble matter, and the least organic matter, lime, iron, alumina, and soluble silica. Just why the potash should be so high in such a soil is a puzzle ; unless possibly the woods had been burned over shortly before the sample was taken. Additional analyses from the same region would be very desirable. The soils of this region, as in other pine flatwoods regions, are prevailingly acid. The soil survey of Bradford County gives the amounts of lime (CaO) and limestone (CaC03) necessary to neutralize the acidity of an acre of soil a foot thick for two of the principal soil types. The following are the figures for the "Portsmouth fine sand," in pounds : Lime Limestone Surface soil 3,850 7,700 Hardpan stratum 6,300 12,600 Subsoil 2,450 5,900 Salamanders are common in the driest soils, but in much of the area the ground-water seems to be too close to the surface for them. Topography and Hydrography — The topography is for the most part flat, as in some of the regions previously described, but the land rises gradually in leaving the coast, until at the inland edge of the region it reaches elevations of about 150 feet at Jasper, 200 at Welborn and Lake City, and 175 at Gainesville, It is noteworthy that all along this edge the flatwoods are higher than the adjacent hammock belt, which slopes westward toward the Gulf, Near the edge are several deep sinks where the strata overlying the limestone
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ig. EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 329 have caved in.* South of Waldo the topography is a little undulating, and may indicate somewhat different geological conditions. The most striking topographic feature of the region is Trail Ridge, which extends from a few miles west of Jesup, Georgia, southward parallel to the coast and about forty miles distant from it, until it merges with the western edge of the lake region. (It is indicated by a dotted line on the map.) Its summit is said to be 210 feet above sea-level at Highland, and 238 feet east of Starke. f Its origin has never been satisfactorily explained. In Florida it coincides for some distance with the Atlantic and Gulf divide, but that is probably merely accidental, for it has no such relation irij Georgia. About fifteen miles east of Trail Ridge, and parallel to it, both in Georgia and in Florida, is another ridge so low that a person not specially looking for it would hardly notice it; J but in some ways it seems more significant than Trail Ridge. For it causes the Satilla and St. Mary's Rivers to flow parallel to the coast for many miles just before they break through it, and the marly spots mentioned in a preceding paragraph nearly all lie east of it. The stream valleys are mostly narrow and but little depressed below the general surface, though in some of them there is a slight development of the same sort of rolling topography that characteri;^es the West Florida pine hills. Springs are rather scarce, but there are a few large limestone springs, of which Green Cove Springs, in the town of the same name, is probably the best known. The streams are practically all cofifee-colored, bordered by swamps, and not subject to much fluctuation. The St. John's River is nota*Probably the most noted of these sinks is the "Devil's Millhopper," in Alachua County, about three miles west of Paradise or six miks northwest of Gainesville. It is over 100 feet deep, nearly circular, and surrounded by level flatwoods. For additional notes on it, see Dall, U. S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 84:1081892; Vaughan, U. S. Geol. Surv. Min. Res. 1901:932. 1902; Sellards, Fla. Geol. Surv. Bull. 1:29. 1908; Matson & Clapp, Sellards & Gunter, 2nd Ann. Rep. 71-72, 288. 1910; Sellards, 4th Ann. Rep. 34-351912. tin U. S. Geol. Surv. Bulletin 516, p. 17 (1912), the elevation of a point 2.6 miles northwest of Lake Kingsley, which must be on or near the summit of Trail Ridge, is given as 238.382 feet. This agrees remarkably well with a statement by Dr. W. I. Burnett in Am. Jour. Sci. 67:408 (1854) that a point "one mile west of Kingsley's pond and seven miles east of Sampson's pond" is 237V2 feet above low tide. jFor references to previous literature relating to this ridge see Bull. Torrey BotClub 38:230. 1911. The Georgia end of it has since been described (as a terrace) by Otto Veatch in Geol. Surv. Ga. Bull. 26:36, 426, 434. (Jan. 1912).
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330 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ble for being a tidal estuary all the way through this region, a distance of nearly loo miles. Shallow ponds and bays a few acres in extent, which dry up in spring, are frequent throughout, and west of Trail Ridge there are several large shallow lakes,* The groundwater is nearly everywhere close enough to the surface to be easily raised by suction pumps. Old-fashioned "well-sweeps" can still be seen in a few places. Artesian wells are common, and furnish good water in abundance, which rises above the surface nearly everywhere east of the low ridge or terrace above mentioned. Vegetation Types — Open forests of long-leaf pine, with an undergrowth of saw-palmetto, gallberry, wire-grass, etc., and bearing the marks of frequent fires, are the dominant feature of the landscape. On the highest and driest spots the blackvjack oak is a conspicuous feature, as in the high pine land of several other regions. The streams are all bordered by swamps or hammocks, or both. The shallow ponds are all full of trees, either black gum, cypress, slash pine, or bay vegetati'on predominating, according to the nature of the soil and the amount of seasonal fluctuation of the water. Treeless marshes occur in some places along the St. John's River and its tributaries, passing gradually into the brackish marshes of the coast. The vegetation of marly spots, referred to above, is much like that of the low hammocks of the Gulf hammock region. A few miles back from the coast in St. John's County there are a few areas of scrub vegetation, probably indicating old dunes. Plants — In order to bring out certain differences, as well as similarities, between the western and eastern halves of the region the percentages have been computed separately for the portions on opposite sides of Trail Ridge. The first column of figures is for the western division and the other for the eastern. Field work in the western portion has been done on 30 different days, distributed through the year as follows : January, 3 ; February, i ; March, i ; April, 2; May, 8; July, 11 ; August, 2; December, 2. The eastern portion has been explored on 21 different days, as follows: January, 3 ; February, i ; March, 2 ; May, 8 ; July, 2 ; August, i ; December, 4. As I have no notes for either portion between the first week in August and the second week in December no doubt many of the fall-blooming herbs do not figure as largely in the following list "See 3d Ann. Rep., p. 272.
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19EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 331 as they should. But with this exception it ought to be reasonably accurate. ' ^ + 47 — 40 Pinus palustris ++ 20 — 17 Pinus EUiottii + 18 — 13 Taxodium imbricariuni(Pond) +1.4 — 9.0 Pinus serotina +2.6 — 2.8 Nyssa biflora — i.o — 2..y Liquidambar Styraciflua — 1.4 — 2.2 Quercus Catejsbaei — 1.8 — 1.4 Magnolia glauca — 1.4 — 1. 5 Pinus Taeda 0.3 — 1.5 Acer rubrum ++0.5 — 1.0 Gordonia Lasianthus — 0.5 — 1.0 Quercus cinerea — 0.5 — 0.8 Taxodium distidhum 0.2 — 0.7 Sabal Palmetto — 0.2—0.7 Magnolia grandiflora — — 0.7 Pinus clausa 0.2 — 0.5 Pinus Caribaea? — 0.2 — 0.2 Quercus nigra — 0.2 — 0.2 Quercus geminata — 0.1 — 0.2 Quercus Virginiana -o — 0.2 Carpinus Caroliniana -0.3 — Quercus fakata 0.1 — o.^ Fraxinus sp. 0.1 — 0.1 — 0.2 — 0.2 ^-o.i — o — 0.1 o o o -o. -o.i — — 0.1 Hicoria glabra? Fraxinus Caroliniana Juniperus Virginiana Quercus laurifolia Liriodendron Tulipifera Ulmus Floridana? Morus rubra FraxiniTis profunda? Ostrya Virginiana Cornus florida Fraxinus lanceolata (and about 20 others). FREES
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33^ FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. o — .01 Cholisma ferruginea o — o Ilex Cassine (and 5 others). .OI2 — .006 Smilax laurifolia -.002 — .001 Vitis rotundifolia VINES Bamboo vine Bullace or Muscadine Poison ivy o — .002 Rhus radicans .002 — • o Smilax Walteri o — .002 Berchemia scandens Rattan vine .001 — o Gelsemium sempervirens Yellow jessamine — .001 Ampelopsis arborea .001 — ^o Tecoma radicans (Cow-itch) o — .001 Parthenocissus quinquefolia — .001 Vitis aestivalis? — o Decumaria barbara (and 4 others). Virginia creeper Wild grape Poorest soils Swamps Bays and swamps Hammocks, etc. Low hammocks, etc. Bays and swamps Low hammocks Hammocks, etc. Low hammocks Various situations Hammocks, etc. Hammocks, etc. Swamps +.103 — .096 +.045— .019 +.012 — .006 +.014 — .004 +.012 — .004 +.010 — .002 +.009 — .002 ++.009 — .002 ++.008 — .002 +.001 — 004 .003 — .002 .004 — .001 +.001 — .004 .001 — .003 o — .002 .002 — 001 +.002 — .GDI .001 — -.OOI O — .002 .002 — O +.002 — .002— O O —.001 — .002— O SHRUBS Serenoa serrulata Saw-palmetto Ilex glabra Galllberry Myrica pumila Myrtle Pieris nitida Hurrah bush H3T)ericum fascicula turn Quercus minima Oak runner Vaccinium nitidum Bejaria racemosa Cholisma fruticosa Asimina speciQsa? Cephalanthus occidentalis Quercus pumila Phoradendron flavescens Aralia spinosa Rhus copallina Chrysobalanus oblongifolius Gaylussacia frondosa nana Ceanothus microphyllus Quercus myrtifolia Viburnum nudum Kalmia hirsuta Rubus cuneifolius (X) Blackberry Sabal glabra Palmetto Gaylussacia dumosa (Poor grub) Pawpaw Elbow-bush Oak runner Mistletoe Prickly ash Sumac Flatwoods, etc Flatwoods Flatwoods Bays, etc. Around ponds, etc. Flatwoods . Flatwoods Flatwoods Flat-woods Drier soils Swamps, etc. Flatwoods On black gum mostly Low hammocks, etc. L'plands Drier soils Flatwood,s, etc. Drier soils Poorest soils Branch-swamps Flatwoods Roadsides, etc. Low hammocks, etc. Drier soils
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19EAST FLORIDA FLATWUODS. 333 .002 — Asimina angustifolia Pawpaw .001 — .001 .Aronia arbutifolia .001—0 Azalea viscosa Honeysuckle o — .ooi Baccharis halimifolia — .001 Amorpha fruticosa — .001 Ceratiola ericoides Rosemary . .OOI — Hypericum opacum +.001 — Decodon verticillatus .001 — Hypericum myrtifolium .001 — o Alnus rugosa Alder — .001 Cornus stricta? — Itea Virginica (and about 25 others). Drier soil's Edgevs of swamps Branch-S'wamps, etc. Low hamumocks, etc. Marly (?) swamps Old dunes (?) Flatwoods Swamps Around ponds Along creeks, etc. Low hammocks Swamps HERBS +.005 — -004 Tillandsia usneoides Spanish moss ++.00 5 — .002 Pterocaulon undulatum Black-root +.003 — .003 Aristida stricta Wire-grass +.002 — .002 Andhistea Virginica (A fern) ++.002 — .001 Sarracenia minor Pitcher-plant +.001 — .OOI Osmunda cinnamomea (A fern) ++.001 — .001 Aletris lutea +.001 — -.001 Pteridium aquilinum (A fern) .002 — o Eupatorium compositifoKum (X) Dog-fennel + o — .001 Rhexia Alifanus +.001 — .001 Polygala cymosa + — -.001 Campulosus aromaticus (A grass) ++.001 — .001 Doellingeria reticulata + — .001 Chondrophora nudata + — .001 Trilisa odoratissima Deer-tongue ++ o — .001 Galactia EUiottii ++0 — .001 Rhexia lutea + — .001 Dichromena latifolia (A sedge) + + — .001 Piaropus crassipes (X) Water-hyacinth + — .001 Panicum hemitomon ]\Iaiden cane + — .001 Juncus Roemerianus + —0 Cladium effusum Saw-grass + — o Polygala ramosa ++ — .001 Helianthus heterophyllus ++ o — Eupatorium rotundif olium ++ o — Eryngium synchaetum + o — .001 Eriocaulon decangul are + Pontederia cordata Saururns cernuus Psoralea canescens On trees Flatwoods Pine lands Bays and ponds Flatwoods Low grounds Flatwoods Flatwoods, etc. Roadsides, etc. Flatwoodjs Ponds Flatwoods Flatwoods, etc. Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods, etc. Flatwoods Flatwoods, etc. Rivers, etc. Ponds Brackisih marshes Ponds and marshes Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Flatwoods Around ponds Ponds Swamps Drier soils
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334 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. + Eupatorium Mohrii? + Spartina striata + + Tillandsia tenuifolia Berlandiera tomentosa Helenium tenuifolium (X) + + Teucrium. Nashii Glottidium vesicarium (X) Pluchea bifrons -| — h Aristida spiciformis Spartina Bakeri H — h Fimbristylis puberula + Polygala lutea + + Aster squarrosus -\ — h Xyris flexuosa* + Coreopsis nudata Juncus effusus + Helianthus Radula Centella repanda + Osmunda regalis Eriogonum tomentosum + Limodorum tuberosum? ++ Marshallia graminifolia + Sagittaria lancifolia -\ — fCanna flaccida + Ipomoea sagittifolia Silphium compqsitum H — h Phlox Drummondii (X) ++ Polygala setacea + Lachnocaulon anceps + Leptopoda Helenium + Nymphaea macrophylla Chrysopsis graminifolia (and about 200 others). (A grass) (Air-plant) Bitter-weed (A grass) (A grass) (A sedge) (Rush) (A fern) (An orchid) (Wild canna'i (Miorning-glory) Bonnets Flatwoods Marshes near coast Swamps Driest soils Roadsides, etc. Marly spots Waste places Shallow ponds Flatwoods Alarshes, etc. Flatwoods Flatwoods, etc. Flatwoods Flatwoods Around ponds Low grounds Flatwoods Around ponds, etc. Swamps Driest soils Flatwoods Flatwoods Marshes, etc. Marly (?) .spots Marly (?) 'Spots Drier soils Waste places Flatwoods Flatwoods Around pond«, etc Creeks, etc. Flatwoods The following trees which are more or less common elsewhere in the same latitude are rare or wanting here: — Finns echinata (short-leaf pine), P. glabra (spruce pine), Chamaecyparis (juniper), Salix nigra (willow), Betula (birch), Fagus (beech), Quercus alba (white oak), and several other oaks, Liriodendron (poplar), Crataegus (haws) Frunus (plums), Ilex opaca (holly), Tilia (lin, basswood), Corniis florida (dogwood), and Nyssa uniflora (tupelo gum). Most of these probably prefer more clayey soils than those of the East Florida flatwoods, but some no doubt are kept away by other reasons. Two trees, Finns Elliottii and Gordonia, two shrubs, Bejaria and Cholisma fruticosa, and many herbs, are evidently more abundant here than elsewhere in northern Florida; but just what combination of environmental conditions it is that makes them so it is hard to say. The shrubs that grow in the flatwoods nearly all have extensive underground stems, which are not killed by fire, as already noticed in the lime-sink region; while those that grow in hammocks and swamps probably have no such protective device. The great majority of the herbs grow in the open pine forests, and nearly all of them have perennial under*X. torta of many authors,
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19EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 335 ground parts too. (The percentage of annuals has not been estimated, but it must be very small). Few if any of the species are confined to Florida. Comparing the two columns of percentages in the plant list brings out some very interesting and significant facts. It is evident that Qtiercus falcata, Q. laurifolia, Cornus florida, Ostrya, Betula, Ilex opaca, Sniilax laurifolia, Vitis rotundifolia, Smilax Walteri, and many shrubs and herbs are more abundant west of Trail Ridge than east thereof, while the reverse is true of many other species. (It would take up entirely too much space to repeat their names here, but they can easily be picked out from the Hst by any one who is sufficiently interested). The first category includes the most shrubs, especially Ericaceous shrubs, while the second includes about twice as many trees, small trees and herbs as the first. If we could explain the reason for all these differences in vegetation it would be an important contribution to ecological science; but the problem is by no means a simple one. For the differences between the two halves of the region, although mostly small in amount, are of course of every conceivable kind; and any one of them might prove to be the key in some particular case. Just a few suggestions toward solving the problem will be given here. From what is known of their distribution elsewhere it appears that some of the species which are more abundant in the western division prefer somewhat clayey soils, some acid (or non-calcareous) soils, and a few are weeds which have come in with the farmers; but this leaves the majority of cases still unaccounted for. Many of the species more abundant eastward are partial to the low hammocks or marly spots, which are scarcely represented west of Trail Ridge (or even west of the smaller ridge 15 miles east of it). The greater abundance of Liquidambar (sweet gum), Quercus cinerea (turkey oak), and Q. Virginiana (live oak) eastward may possibly be correlated with phosphorus in the soil, for these species have been observed elsewhere to thrive in decidedly phosphatic soils, and phosphorus is generally more abundant coastward. Still others are confined to the sterile sands or old dunes a few miles back from the coast, while a few grow in or near marshes and perhaps belong more properly to the next region. The percentage of evergreens is about 74.7 west of the ridge and 73.9 east; of Ericaceae among the shrubs 19 west and 7 east; and of Leguminosae among the herbs 1.7 west and 4.4 east. If we had several chemical analyses of typical soils from both halves of the region we would be in a better position to interpret these figures; but a few suggestions can be made even with our present inadequate information. The evergreen percentages, which are both above the average for northern Florida, ought to indicate soils rather low in potassium, notwithstanding the chemical analysis given a few pages back (which must be abnormal in that respect). One of the figures for Ericaceae is above the average and the other below ; and the fact that the first is nearly three times as great as the second is probably correlated with the fact that the western division is essantially noncalcareous, while the eastern has mari near the surface in many places. For the distribution of Ericaceae (particularly those that are not evergreen) seems to be governed by lime more than by potash, as already intimated under the
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336 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Gulf Hammock region.* The percentages of Leguminosae are both very low, probably for the same reason as in regions 9, 10 (middle division), 15 and 16: namelj', the proximity of the ground-water level to the surface. But the Leguminosae are over twice as abundant in the eastern division as in the western, perhaps for the same reason that the Ericaceae are less so, for a high percentage of the one often goes with a low percentage of the other. Weeds are comparatively scarce here as yet, a natural consequence of the limited development of agriculture, pointed out below. Economic Features — Lumbering, turpentining and grazing have been the leading industries here, as in most other parts of Florida, but they are being gradually superseded by agriculture. The level topography has favored logging operations, and the best pines have been removed, leaving some rather desolate landscapes. But the long-leaf and slash pines reproduce themselves very well in this kind of country, and will doubtless continue to do so until nearly all the upland is occupied by farms. I In 19 10 the western part had not over 14% of improved land, and less than 20 inhabitants per square mile, 59.6% of them white. The population increased 12.4% in the decade immediately preceding. The eastern part had between 2 and 3% of improved land, and nearly 34 inhabitants to the square mile. But counting out the city of Jacksonville, which owes its development to its excellent transportation facilities, and trade with all parts of the State, rather than to the natural resources of the surrounding flatwoods, there were only 16.2 inhabitants to the square mile in the eastern division; and outside of Duval County only 14.3. The increase of population between 1900 and 1910 was for the whole eastern division 76%, but outside of Jacksonville only 30%, and' outside of Duval County 26%. (Even the last figure is above the average, though). jAbout 53% of the inhabitants, with or without Duval County, are white. At first thought it seems strange that the eastern part of the flatwoods, with its apparently more calcareous soils, should have so *0n the Florida Keys, where the rock is all limestone, with little or no soil on top of it, no Ericaceae at all have been found. The observation of the aversion of Ericaceae to calcareous soils is nothing new (see Hilgard, Soils 522. 1906; Science II. 27:140-143. 1908; Coville, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. 193. 1911), but most persons who have made such correlations before have regarded lime (or calcium) as the most important factor in soils, and hardly considered potassium at all. It is possible that phosphorus is just as inimical to the Ericaceae as calcium is, for some parts of northern Florida which have few Ericaceae are known to have decidedly phosphatic soils.
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19EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 337 much less improved land than the western; but the explanation is probably that the most fertile soils are too wet to cultivate without artificial drainage, which has not been undertaken very extensively here as yet. The leading crops in 19 12, in order of value, were as follows. In the western division, sea-island cotton, strawberries, corn, peanuts, beans, sweet potatoes, sugar-cane, velvet beans, (grass) hay, oats, oranges, Irish potatoes, field peas (including hay thereof), millet, tomatoes, pecans, upland cotton, peaches, watermelons. In the eastern division, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, oranges, (grass) hay, lettuce, beans, sugar-cane, onions, cabbage, peppers, grapes, tomatoes, peaches, field peas (including hay thereof), pears, watermelons, strawberries, sea-island cotton, figs, oats, pecans, velvet beans, cantaloupes, peanuts. In this region more than anywhere else in northern Florida is exhibited the tendency — much more pronounced farther south — ^to raise special crops, particularly vegetables, in restricted areas. The order of importance of the several crops is very different in the two divisions, and although soil no doubt has something to do with it, there are also some complex human factors to be taken into consideration. It would be rather difficult to explain, for instance, why sea-island cotton ranks first in the western division and 19th in the eastern, strawberries second in the western and i8th in the eastern, and Irish potatoes first in the eastern and 12th in the western. The special vegetable crops bring a much higher return per acre than ordinary field crops, and the total value of agricultural products in the East Florida flatwoods is considerably greater than that of some other regions which have a larger area in cultivation.
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338 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ' 20. EAST COAST STRIP. (figures 87-90) References. Curtiss, Harper i (226), Leeds; Matson & Sanford (155-166), Mayer (858, 864, 865-868). Illustrated in 2nd Ann. Rep., pi. 7.2; 3d, pi. ii.i, 14.1, 17.1; 4th, pi. 3.1, 11.2; 5th, pi. lo.r, 13.1. The coast of Georgia is bordered by low sandy islands, behind which are salt marshes several miles wide, intersected by an intricate system of crooked tidal channels. The same sort of country extends into Florida, gradually narrowing, until in the southern part of St. John's County it is reduced to little more than a straight sandy beach strip not over a mile wide, sometimes with a narrow lagoon behind it, and sometimes connected with the mainland. This coast strip covers probably not more than 200 square miles in Nassau, Duval and St. John's Counties. Geology and Soils — The beaches and outermost dunes are composed of cream-colored sand of Recent age, mixed with a varying proportion of shell fragments. Usually the shell material is hardly noticeable, but near the north end of Anastasia Island, and at various places farther south, it makes up almost the whole of the mass, and is more or less cemented together (especially on the surface), forming a sort of rock called coquina. More sand is continually being washed up on the beach and piled by the wind into dunes, but at a distance of 100 yards or so from high-water mark it is practically motionless. The dune sand that has been stationary for many years is usually nearly white, probably on account of the leaching out of the soluble material (as was suggested in connection with the West Florida coast strip). There are no salamanders or gophers on the islands to counteract the leaching, and other subterranean animals (other than fiddler-crabs in the marshes) are probably scarce. The soil of the salt and brackish marshes, as in similar situations in other states, is a very impure peat or muck, with a somewhat sulphurous odor. Neither mechanical nor chemical analyses of any of the soils are available, but the dune sand, especially that of the older dunes, must be very poor in soluble minerals, while the marsh muck is probably just the opposite. Topography and Hydrdgraphy — The beaches are generally very smooth, firm and straight, so that they make good paths for automobiles. The dune areas, both modern and ancient, are characterized by a very wavy or knobby topography, with pretty steep slopes in some places and a maximum elevation of perhaps 25 feet
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19EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. 339 above the sea. Some of the hollows among the dunes are small, rounded and concave, like the basins in the lime-sink region, while others are larger, elongated, and flat-bottomed. The surface of the marshes corresponds pretty closely with mean high-tide level. Most of the surface water in the coast strip is salt, but just behind the cuspate foreland at South Beach, on Anastasia Island, if not in similar places elsewhere, there are some small shallow pools of fresh water. There are practically no springs or streams, but fresh water can be obtained a few feet below the surface in many places, and deep wells yield a strong flow of rather hard and sulphurous, but wholesome water. Vegetation Types — On the outer beaches, below high-water mark, there is usually no vegetation at all. Between that point and the dunes, a short distance farther back, the vegetation is very sparse, and consists mostly of running vines and a few tufted plants. The outer or active dunes are characterized by some of the same species as on the upper beach, together with sea-oats and a few other grasses, and a few other plants, all or nearly all belonging to families well represented in the arid southwestern states and northern Mexico; and the resemblance of this vegetation to that of a desert is rather striking. The next older dunes, which have been stationary a comparatively short time, have a vegetation composed mostly of evergreen shrubs; and the oldest are well covered with trees, forming hammocks. On the coquina areas cedar is the most prominent tree, and there are a few other species which are commonly supposed to be lime-loving. The vegetation of the moist dune hollows is meadow-like, and rather dense. It consists mostly of herbs which seem to like lime (if not also phosphorus, sulphur, or something else) as well as moisture^ and includes some of the same species already noted as characteristic of marly flatwoods in the Gulf hammock region. The salt marsh vegetation comprises a few very abundant species, mostly tall stiff grasses and rushes. On Amelia Island there are flatwoods something like those of the mainland, but without long-leaf pine.* Fire seems to be a negligible factor throughout the coast strip. Plants — The flora of different islands and beaches differs considerably, for no apparent reason. (The same state of affair^ has been observed also in the corresponding parts of Georgia.) The *See 3d Ann. Rep., pi. ii.i, or 5th, pi. lo.i. Most if not all of the trees in that picture (which was taken by Dr. Sellards) are probably Piniis serotina.
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340 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. following list is based on a few hours' work on three islands in different counties; namely, near Fernandina on May 12, 1909, around Mayport the next day, and on Anastasia Island, opposite St. Augustine, on July 8, 1914. The percentage figures are omitted, as has been done in the case of some of the other smaller regions. ++ Sabal Palmetto + Quercus geminata + Magnolia grandiflora + Juniperus Virginiana + Persea Borbonia? + Quercus Virginiana + Quercus laurifolia + Liquidambar Styraciflua Pinus serotina Pinus Elliottii? Ilex opaca (and 3 or 4 others). TREES Cabbage palmietto Live oak Magnolia Cedar Red bay Live oak Sweet glim (Black pine) (Slash pine) Holly Various situations Hammocks Hammocks Dune hollows and coquina areas Haimmocks Hammocks Hammocks Various situations Flatwoods, Amelia L Edges of marshes, etc. Hammocks SMALL TREES OR LARGE SHRUBS Myrtle + Myrica cerifera + Quercus myrtifolia + + Yucca aloifolia + + Bumelia tenax? Batodendron arboreum + 4Ilex vomitoria -|Osmanthus Americana + + Xanthoxylum Clava-HercuHs Salix longipes? Willow Dune hollows, etc. Old dunes Spanish (bayonet Dunes Older dunes Hammjocks Hammocks Hammocks Hammocks Coquina hollows (Sparkleberry) + Vitis rotundifolia + Parthenocissus quinquefolia + -|Smilax auriculata Viti;s aestivalis? VINES Muscadine Hammocks, etc. Virginia creeper Hammocks, etc. Old dunes Wild grape Hammocks Serenoa serrulata + Aralia spinosa + Cholisma ferruginea + Rhus copallina + CalHcarpa Americana + Ilex ambigua ++ Iva frutescens SHRUBS Saw-palmetto Prickly ash Sumac Old dunes HamrrwDcks Old dunes Haimmocks, etc. French mulberry Hammocks Hammocks Edges of marshes
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20, EAST COAST STRIP. 341 + Baccharis halimifolia ++ Batis maritima + + Borrichia frutescen,s Polycodium sp. -| — h Iva imbricata + Sageretia minutiflora Ceratiola ericoides Asimina parviflora + Rhamnus Caroliniana — Ilex glabra — Vaccinium nitidum Lantana Camara CGooseberry) Rosemary Pawpaw Gallberry Lantana Near marshes Salt marshes Edges of marshes Ilamniockis Upper beach Hammocks Old dunes J-Iammjocks Coquina areas Flatwoods Flatwoods Coquina areas H — h Spartina stricta + Juncus Roemerianus ++ Lippia sp. + + Dichromena colorata + + Croton maritimus + + Ipomoea Pes-caprae Pteridium aquilinum + Boehmeria cylindrica H — |Dryopterip Thelypteris H — h Kosteletzkya sp. + + Uniola paniculata + Spartina Bakeri -j — h Heterotheca subaxillaris H — h Scirpus Americanus + Juncus megacephalus + Muhlenbergia filipes? + + Oenothera humifusa + + Ipomoea littorali^ + Galactia EUiottii + Cnidoscolus stimulosus + Ambrosia sp. + Lemna sp. + Centella repanda 4Scleria triglomerata -\ — h Distichlis ppicata + Sagittaria lancifolia + + Fimbristylis spadicea? + Chaimaecrista sp. H — h Ludwigia maritima + Chaetochloa sp. H — h Cyperus dentatus? + + Phyllanthus sp. (X?) + Carduus sp. — Tillandsia usneoides (X?) HERBS (A grass) (Rush) (A sedge) (Morning-glory) (A fern) (A fern) Sea-oats (A grass) (A sedge) (A grass) (Morning-glory) (Nettle) (Ragweed) (Duckweed) (A sedge) (A grass) (A sedge) (A gra/ss) (A sedge) Thistle Spanish moss Salt mjarshes Brackish marshes Dune hollows Dune hollows Active dunes Dunes and beaches Hammocks Dune hollows Dune hollows Dune hollows Active dunes Dune hollows Waste places mostly Dune hollows Dune hollows Dune hollows Active dunes Dunes and beaches Ol/d dunes Hammocks, etc. Dune hollows Fresh-water pools Dune hollows Hammtocks Salt marshes Dune hollows Dune hollows Dunes Dune hollowts Dune hollows Dune hollows Along car-tracks Dune hollows Hammocks
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342 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. -! — h Salicornia sp. ++ Cyperus cylindrostachys? + + Opuntia Pes-corvi ++ Gaura angujstlfolia (X?) — Eupatorium Icapillifolium (X?) + + Sabbatia stellaris ++ Solidago Chapmani? ++ Houstonia angustifolia Saururiis cernuus Polypodium polypodioides + Teucrium Nashii Smilax pumila Mitchella repens Epidendrum conopseum Monarda punctata (X?) + Chenopodium ambroisioides (and about 30 others). (Samphire) (A sedge) Prickly pear Dog-fennel Salt marshes Dune hollows Older dunes Waste places, etc. Low grounds Dune hollows Goldenrod Hammocks Coquina areas Dune hollows (A fern) Hammocks Dune hollows Hammocks (Partridge-berry) Hammocks (An orchid) Hammocks Clearings (X) Waste places A list of plants that are common farther inland and conspicuous by their absence or scarcity here would be a long one; but the following trees at least deserve special mention in this connection: Pinus palustris (long-leaf pine, entirely absent), P. Taeda and P. echinata (short-leaf pines), P. glabra and P. clausa (spruce pines), Taxodium (cypresses), Chamaecyparis (juniper), Hicoria (hickories), Salix (willows), Carpinus, Ostrya, Fagus (beech), nearly all oaks except the live oaks, Morus (mulberry), Uhnus (elms). Magnolia glauca (bay), Liriodendron (poplar), Crataegus (haws), Prunus (plums and cherries), Acer (maples), TtVio (basswood or lin), Gordonia, Nyssa (black gums and tupelo gums), Cornus florida (dogwood), Oxydendrum (sourwood), Diospyros (persimmon), and Fraxinus (ashes). Most of these prefer somewhat clayey soils, which are entirely absent in the coast strip; but of course no one explanation will fit all cases. It may be that some of them are averse to salt, lime and phosphorus. None of the trees and shrubs seem to be specially ' characteristic of this region except the Yucca and perhaps the Bumelia on dunes, Iva frutescens, Batis and Borrichia in and around salt marshes, and Iva imbricata on upper beaches. Many of the herbs, however, especially those of salt marshes and dune hollows, are almost confined to this region ; and nearly all the herbs which grow here at all are more abundant here than in the average of northern Florida (as indicated by the + marks). About 94% of the trees (but not so many of the other plants) are evergreen and 10% of the shrubs Ericaceae, and there are very few Leguminosae; all of which indicates the prevalence of very poor soils. The salt marshes and dune hollows, which contain few or no evergreens or Ericaceae, are evidently much richer than the average, though. Economnc Features — As in the case of the West Florida coast strip, there is practically no lumbering and no agriculture in this
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20. EAST COAST STRIP. 343 region. The fertile marshes and dune hollows cannot be cultivated without extensive diking and ditching to get rid of the salt water (as has been done successfully in Holland), and the population is hardly dense enough yet to warrant such undertakings. The permanent inhabitants, outside of Fernandina, are mostly fishermen, persons engaged in some branch of navigation or commerce, and those who cater to the wants of tourists. The coquina rock has been used largely for building purposes in and around St. Augustine, for over 300 years.
PAGE 351
ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA 345
PAGE 352
MARTANNA RED LANDS Jackson County (Pages 193-200) Fig. 41. Upland hardwood forest en red day soil derived from limestone, about 7 miles northwest of Marianna. Trees mostly hagus grandifoUa (beech) and Qncrcus Scluieckii (red oak), with a bushy undergrowth of Cercis (redbud) and a few oak sprouts. May 11, 1914. 346
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FIGURE 41 34:
PAGE 354
MARIANNA RED LANDS (Pages 193-200) Fig. 42. Rocky hillside near the Chipola or Long ^NIoss Spring, with hardwood forest composed of Fagits (beech), Celiis (hackberry), Uliiius fulva (slippery elm), Magnolia grandiflora (magnolia), and other trees. The rock is limestone. March 10, 1910. WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION (Pages 201 -2og) Fig. 43. Scene about 3 miles south of Sneads. Jackson Co., showing wet pine land vegetation (Sarrucenia flava, etc.) on slope in foreground, and a limesink with denser growth of hardwood trees at bottom of same slope. April 27, 1910. Fig. 44. Small dry lime-sink in comparatively level long-leaf pine forest in extreme eastern part of Walton County, between Sandy and Reedy Creeks. The pines are all turpentined. The broad-leaved trees are mostly Liquidambar (sweet gum), and the dark patch of vegetation in the sink is Osmunda cinnamo)iiea (a fern). May 7, 1914. 348
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FIGURES 42-44 349
PAGE 356
WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION (Pages 201-209) Fig. 45. Scene in open pine woods with no underbrush, and "pimply" soil, on a hill near Hinson's (or Douglass) Crossroads, about 9 miles west of Vernon, Washington County, looking toward a similar hill about a quarter of a mile away. (The house is in the saddle between the two hills.) The trees are all long-leaf pine, and the herbaceous vegetation is mostly wire-grass. May 7. 1914. Fig. 46. Interior of a bay about 8 miles west of Vermm. Washington County. The tree in the center is Taxodium iinbricariuiii (pond cypress), and the shrubbery is mostly Ile.v coriacea, Itea Virgiiiica, and Lencothoe racemosa. (Flowers of the last close to bottom of picture.) May 7, 1914. 350
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FICjURKS 45. 40 351
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WEST FLORIDA LIME-SINK REGION (Pages 201-209) Fig. 47. Permanent pond witli open water and scattered cypress trees (Taxodiiiiii iuihricariuin) about 2 miles north of Vernon, Washington County. The scattered shrubs in the water, barely visible in the picture, are Hypcriciiiii j'asciciilatiiin. IMay 8, 1914. Fig. 48. Interior of a small May-iiaw pond (dry at the time), about 8 miles west of Vernon, U'ashington County. Trees all Crataegus aestiz'alis. May 7. 1914. APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFF REGION (Pages 210-216) Fig. 49. Looking north over hills and river-bottoms trom near top of Aspalaga Bluff, Gadsden County. This view having been taken in early spring when the deciduous trees were still leafless gives an idea of the proportion of evergreens. Most of those in the picture are Pinits Tacda (short leaf pine). The trees in the bottoms are all deciduous, starch 7. 1909. 352
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Fl(;iIRi';S 47-49 *-j '«i.fe.i^Cf;^::J»..
PAGE 360
APALACHICOLA RIVER BLUFF REGION (Pages 210-216) Fig. 50. Looking up one of the shady ravines of Aspalaga Bluff, Gadsden County. Foliage of Tumion taxifolium (stinking cedar) conspicuous in foreground and elsewhere. (This is probably the first photograph of this tree in its native haunts ever published.) March 5, 1909. Fig. 51. Muddy swamp of Apalachicoia River in northern part of Liberty County. Trees all deciduous. The larger ones are mostly Liquidanibar (sweet gum), and the small leaning one in the foreground is Ilex decidua. March 8, 1909. 354
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FIGURES 50, 51 -^'^ii ^>J J-;:->^;'_'.•-' _i?»-«'jr-' '"^^y^^-^^ *c#::v '^v-v;/;..i^'^vi.-'-i .7^-' 355
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KNOX HILL COUNTRY Walton County (Pages 217-222) Fig. 52. Dense second growth of Pi mis Taeda (short-leaf pine) ahout 3 miles southeast of Eucheeanna and 5 miles southwest of Knox Hill. May 6, 1914HOLMES VALLEY Washington County (Pages 223, 224) Fig. 53. Looking north across Holmes Valley from near its high southern edge, about 2 miles south of Vernon. May 8, 1914. 356
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FIGURES 52, 53 357
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WEST FLORIDA LAKE REGION (Pages 225-228) Fig. 54. Small circular lake surrounded by long-leaf pine forest, about 10 miles soutlieast of Vernon, Washington County. Photograph by F. G. Clapp, 1908. (From 2nd Annual Report, plate 2.1.) WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS (Pages 229-241) Fig. 55. Looking upstream from foot-bridge in estuarine swamp of Blackwater River opposite Milton, Santa Rosa County. The trees are mostly Pinus Elliottii (slash pine), the bushes in the middle distance Hypericum fascictilatiim, and the grass-like vegetation in the foreground Cladium effusum (saw-grass). This vegetation is growing in peat too deep for roots to reach the bottom of it. June 22, 1909. 358
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FIGURES 54, 55 ;i59
PAGE 366
WEST FLORIDA PINE HILLS (Pages 2J9-241) Fig. 56. Scene about 2 miles southeast of DeFuniak Springs, Walton County, showing open pine forests, a small branch-swamp with Magnolia glaiica (bay) and Cyrilla raceniifiora (tyty). and a wet slope with characteristic vegetation in foreground. May 6, 1914. Fig. =1/. Scene about half way between DeFuniak Springs and Portland, showing a branch-swamp full of CUftoiiia (tyty), bordered by a boggy slope devoid of trees. September 23, igio. WEST FLORIDA COAST REGION (Pages 242-247) Fig. 58. Looking west along shore of St. George's Sound near Lanark, Franklin County, at or about flood tide. This shore is pretty well protected from wave action by Dog Island, a narrow barrier-beach two or three miles out. The coarse grasses near the water are mostly Spartina juiicifonnis and 5". Bakcri, and the trees are mostly Piuiis EUiottn (or perhaps P. Caribaea). June 9, 1909. 360
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FIGURES 5^>5S -5
PAGE 368
WEST FLORIDA COAST REGION (Pages 242-247) Fig. 59. Stationary dunes on narrow treeless part of Dog Island, about 5 miles due south of Carrabelle, Franklin County. Vegetation nearly all evergreen shrubs. Serenoa (saw-palmetto) at right, Coiiradiiia (the grayish shrub) and Ceratiola (smaller and darker) in foreground. Fire is impossible in such vegetation. May 28, 1914. Fig. 60. Forest of Pintts clausa (spruce pine) on narrow peninsula of ancient dune sand on south side of Escambia Bay, Santa Rosa County. The shrubs in the foreground are mostly Quercus myrtifolia (a dwarf evergreen oak), and there is also some Ceratiola (rosemary), which the picture does not bring out well. This locality is about 50 feet above sea-level, and the vegetation is evidently in a more advanced stage than that shown above. No traces of fire were observed here. September 19, 1910. Fig. 61. Looking south from a pine tree on highest old dunes near Lanark, Franklin County, about 50 feet above sea-level. St. George's Sound and Dog Island in distance. Gophers and ants inhabit the soil here, but there are no salamanders. Vegetation mostly Pinus palustris (long-leaf pine) and Quercus Catesbaei (black-jack oak). August 2, 1914. 362
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FIGURES 59-61 363
PAGE 370
APALACHICOLA FLATWOODS (Pages 247-253) Fig. 62. Typical flatwoods scene on St. James Island about a mile inland from Lanark, Franklin County. Long-leaf pine and saw-palmetto in foreground, tyty bays in distance. August 2, 1914. Fig. 63. Looking down muddy bayou in estuarine swamps of Apalachicola River about 7 miles north of Apalachicola. The trees are mostly Taxodium distichum (cypress), with some Juniperus Virginiana (cedar). Floating leaves of Nymphaea fluviatilis (bonnets) in foreground, Scirpus validus (bulrush) at water's edge, and Claduan effiisitm (saw-grass) a little farther back. April 24, 1910. 364
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FIGURES 62, 63 365
PAGE 372
MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT (Pages 254-265) Fig. 64. Interior of gum swamp or bay about 5 miles W.N.W. of Tallahassee, Leon County. The larger trees are mostly Nyssa hiflora (black gum), and the smaller ones Magnolia glauca (bay). February 27, 1909. (Reprinted from 3d Annual Report, p. 255, where additional information about the place can be found.) 366
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FIGURE 64 367
PAGE 374
MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT (Pages 254-265) Fig. 65. Flatwoods near Capitola, in ihe extreme eastern part of Leon County. The trees are Pinus palustris and P. serotina, and the shrubby undergrowth is mostly Serenoa (saw-palmetto) and Uex glabra (gallberry). March 21, 1910. Fig. 66. Large marsh, or marshy prairie, with several feet of peat, about 5 miles east of Greenville, Madison County. Trees all Taxodium imbricaritim (pond cypress). May 24, igio. (Described in 3d Annual Report, pp. 276-277.) 368
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FIGURES (.5. (X. irt'^
PAGE 376
MIDDLE FLORIDA HAMMOCK BELT (Pages 254-265) Fig. 67. Looking up Santa Fe River from bridge near Worthington Springs. (Bradford County on the left, Alachua on the right.) Hammock and bottom vegetation on both sides. May 26, 1909. Fig. 68. Field of peanuts on rich gray loamy sand (which is very characteristic of this part of the hammock belt), about 3 miles south of Alachua, Alachua County ; showing horizontal circular rows following contours around a dry lime-sink, with patch of weeds in center. Hardwood forests in background, solitary sweet gum tree at left. July 14, 1914. (The soil here is probably well supplied with phosphorus, among other things, and the sweet gum is one of the trees that seems to prefer phosphatic soils.) 370
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FIGURES 67, 68 371
PAGE 378
TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. Leon County (Pages 266-279) Fig. 6q. Looking about north across fields and hills about i 1-2 miles west of Tallahassee. Some of the hills are crowned with forests of Pinus echinafa (short-leaf pine), probably mostly second growth in this case. November 24, 1910. (The prevailing colors of the landscape at this season are dark green, gray and brown, the last including the soil.) The entire absence of gullies is noteworthy. Fig. 70. Looking east across fields of brown loam about 5 miles east of Tallahassee, showing two ponds at different levels, and a few dead live oaks (which are as characteristic of cultivated fields in this region as dead pines are in the long-leaf pine regions). April 4, 1914. Fig. 71. View of eastern part of Lake Lafayette, showing Taxodium imbricarium (pond cypress), Tillandsia nsneoides (Spanish moss), and a dense growth of Panicum hcmitomon (maiden cane) in middle distance. Water near its highest stage. March 24, 1914. (At this time the cypress trees were just beginning to put out their leaves.) 372
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FIGURES 69-71 373
PAGE 380
TALLAHASSEE RED HILLS. Leon County (Pages 266-279) Fig. T2. Short-leaf pine woods on uplands about 5 miles northeast of T-afeha&see. Trees nearly all Finns echinata. April 4, 19 14. (Reprinted from Popular Science Monthly, October, 1914.) Fig. 72Dry woods about 3 miles north of Chaires. Trees mostly Qiiercus falcata (red oak) and Corniis florida (dogwood), both in bloom. Tillandsia nsneoidcs (Spanish moss) abundant. April 4, 1014. 374
PAGE 381
FIGURES 72, -jz ::;35&.-.~.,Si*«i«» -.i^as«%^«w.-/^. i^ »*-S;>-'if. .Jt^ >, yuo
PAGE 382
BELLAIR SAND REGION (Pages 280-288) Fig. 74. Piniis palustris (long-leaf pine) and Qiiercus Catesbaei (blackjack oak) on deep dry sand about 1-2 mile south of Bellair (or 4 1-2 miles S.S.E. of Tallahassee). The black-jack oaks are rather small here, most of them being mere shrubs. The absence of Spanish moss is noteworthy. September 26, 1914. Fig. 75. Looking east across Munson's Lake, or Pond, about 5 miles south of Tallahassee, at low water or nearly so. (The shore in the foreground is evidently all inundated at high water.) The trees standing alone are all Taxodium i/iibricarium (pond cypress). June 20, 1914. 37t>
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FlGURi:S 74. 75
PAGE 384
WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY Wakulla County (Pages 289-296) Fig. 76. Looking up Wakulla River from upper bridge, about 2 miles southwest of Wakulla station, and 3 miles below the great spring of the same name. The trees are Taxodiinn disfichnin (cypress), and the vegetation in the foreground is mostly Snoilfaria laiicifnlia. April 9, igio. Fig. //. Forest of red oak, hickory and dogwood, with a very few longleaf pines (none of which show in the picture), about a mile north of Crawfordville. June 20. 1914. (This is the precise locality where the soil samples mentioned herein were taken a few months later.) 378
PAGE 385
FIGURES 76, 7; 379
PAGE 386
WAKULLA HAMMOCK COUNTRY Wakulla County (Pages 289-296) Fig. 78. Scene about 6 1-2 miles east of Crawfordville on road to St. Mark's, overhung by long-leaf pine, red oak. wild grape vines, etc. June 19, 1914PANACEA COUNTRY Wakulla County (Pages 297-301) Fig. 79. Small bay about 2 miles northwest of Panacea Springs, with Taxodiiuii iuibricariiiDi (pond cypress), Cyrtlla pan'ifolia and Ile.v inyrtifoUa. High pine land in foreground, with a decided slope down to the bayJuly 30, 1914. 380
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FKiURES 78, 79 381
PAGE 388
GULF HAMMOCK REGION (Pages 302-309) Fig. 80. ^Iarly(?) flatwoods about 8 miles southeast ot Hampton Springs, Taylor County. Trees mostly Piinis Elliottii and Sahal Paliiieffo. March 30, rgio. Fig. 81. Interior of "Pumpkin Swamp," a large low hammock near Hines, Lafayette County, showing young trees of Sabal Palmetto (cabbage palmetto) and a large trunk of Taxodium disticlniui (cypress). March 31, 1910382
PAGE 389
I'K.L'RKS 80. 81 ^lg
PAGE 390
PENINSULAR LIME-SINK REGION (Pages 314-319) Fig. 82. High pine land about 2 miles west of Archer, Alachua County. showing especially Ceratiola cricoidcs (rosemary), which is rare in this region. This is a place where the soil is so poor that the vegetation is sparse enough to afford the rosemary sufficient protection from fire ( to which it is very sensitive). April 2/, 1909. Fig. 83. Looking al)out north or northwest from Buda (or Clark), Alachua County, showing high pine land almost completely deforested to supply fuel for phosphate mines in the vicinity. The topography here is somewhat rolling, though the picture does not bring it out very well. There is no surface water within several miles. July 15, 1914. PENINSULAR LAKE REGION ( NOKT H ERN P.\KT ) (Pages 3-20-325) Fig. 84. Scrul) \'egetation on white sand on east side of Lake Kingsley, Clay County. The pines are Piiiiis claiisa, and the shrubs in the foreground are Ceratiola ericoides. There is almost no herbaceous vegetation, and consequently fires are very infrec]uent. May 14, 1909. (This view was selected because it is very characteristic of the lake region, but it is not at all typical ; i. e., the average appearance of the region is quite dift'erent. But no typical view of the small part of the lake region covered by this report happened to be available.) 384
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FIGURES 82-84 385
PAGE 392
EAST FLORIDA FLATWOODS. (Pages 326-327) Fig. 85. Cypress pond near Bellamy, Alachua County. Trees mostly Ta.vodhtm iinbricariiini, with some Piiiiis Elliotti. July 17. 1910. Fig. 86. Looking north across Lake Butler, Bradford County, from near edge of the town of the same name. The trees are Taxodium imbricariiini (pond cypress), draped with TiUaudsia iisiicnidcs as usual. May 27, 1909. 386
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i"ir;rRF.s s;, r6 387
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EAST COAST STRIP (Pages 338-343) Fig. 87. Exposure of coquina rock on shore of Anastasia Island, St. John's County. Photograph by F. G. Clapp, December. 1907. (From 2nd Annual Report, pi. 7. 2.) Fig. 88. Salt marshes near Mayport, Duval County, with dunes in distance. The grass in the foreground seems to be all SpartiJia sfricta. The cause of the circular pools is not obvious. May 13, 1909. 388
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FIGURES 87, 8S 389
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EAST COAST STRIP (Pages 338-343) Fig. 89. Salt marsh and hammock on inner side of Anastasia Island, looking west toward St. Augustine. The hammock is on an ancient dune rising abruptly from the marsh, which makes" up about half of the apparent height of the trees. The trees are mostly live oaks. The smoothness of the top of the forest is probably due largely to the eflfects of wind. July 8, 1914. Fig. 90. Looking north from summit of outermost d'uies on Anastasia Island about a mile south of South Beach, showing beach and surf at right, dunes in center, and shrubby thickets or dwarf hammocks at left. Ipomoea Pescaprae (seaside morning-glory) conspicuous in foreground. July 8. 1914. 390
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I CURES Rg. Qo 391
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STATISTICAL SUMMARY In the foregoing pages some of the fundamental and significant characteristics of each region have been expressed numerically. It will now be very instructive to bring together as many as possible of such numbers in a single table for purposes of comparison, and see what conclusions may be drawn from them. It has been stated in the introduction that in northern Florida, if not elsewhere, the differences in vegetation, density of population, etc., between neighboring regions seem to depend on soiL and topography more than anything else. And one of the purposes of this report is to show how a study of the native vegetation may indicate the character of the soil, and more particularly its agricultural value. But unfortunately our knowledge of the soil in this area is still so imperfect that it is difficult to make definite correlations. We have indeed many physical or mechanical analyses of soils, thanks to the activity of the U. S. Bureau of Soils, but no one seems to have ever pointed out any close correlations between such analyses and the vegetation or even the productivity, beyond the bare fact that a good soil ought to have a certain amount of silt and clay. Chemical composition seems to be more significant (though some limiting factors often have to be taken into consideration, as intimated in the footnote on pp. 175-176), and some correlations between evergreens and potash, Ericaceae and lime, etc., have already been indicated. But at present we have chemical analyses from only ten of the twenty geographical divisions, and seven of those are represented by only one analysis each ; and it is of course impossible for a single soil sample, no matter how carefully selected, to be typical of a somewhat diversified region. Consequently it would be rather risky to base any important conclusions on these data. Another index of the fertility of the soil is the amount of fertilizer used by the farmers. Of course in the long run nearly as much mineral plant food should be put back into the soil as is removed by crops, regardless of the original fertility; but in most parts of Florida agriculture is as yet a comparatively undeveloped industry, and the farmers are still drawing on the natural resources of the soil to a considerable extent. Consequently the least fertilizer is generally used on the richest soils, and vice versa. Statistics of the annual expenditure for fertilizers in each county are readily obtained from both -state and government census reports (but were discovered too late to be mentioned in the earlier pages of this report). But naturally there are several chances of error in trying to obtain the average amount of fertilizer used per acre in different regions from the census returns. First, in regions where the amount of cultivated land is very small a slight variation in the total amount of fertilizer used in different years may make a considerable difference in the amount per acre, and the census year might not be an average year. Second, in regions which do not cover as much as half of any one county it is impossible to apportion >!ie fertilizer among different regions in the same county accurately. A similar difficulty was encountered in apportioning the population and improved land (see p. 188), but it is more accentuated in the case of fertilizer, which seems to vary more from one region to another than the population, in Florida at least, and is not so easily checked up 26 393
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394 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. by personal observation. For example, in Wakulla County probably most of the tilled land is in region 13, which covers less than one-fourth of the county, and practically no fertilizer is used there (see p. 296) ; but about half the county is in region 9, where fertilizer is used at the rate of about a dollar's worth per acre per year. So instead of the flatwoods part of the county having half the tilled land and using half the fertilizer, it probably has something like one-tenth of the tilled land and uses nine-tenths of the fertilizer. Third, economic conditions sometimes cause the use of much more fertilizer than the ordinary staple crops would naturally require, as in Gadsden County, where large areas are devoted to tobacco, which requires a great deal of potash, and in the neighborhood of cities and along trunk lines of railroad, where truck-farming is carried on extensively. The first column of figures in the table is for areas, in square miles, and the next three for the percentages of evergreens, Ericaceae (among the shrubs) and Leguminosae (among the herbs), most of which have already been given in the regional descriptions. The fifth is for the percentage of original forest remaining, which is of course a little less than the difference between that of improved land and 100%. The sixth column represents the amount expended in 1909 for fertilizer, per acre of improved land, according to the 13th U. S. census. The seventh is for density of population (number of inhabitants per square mile), and the last for the percentage of whites. (The cities of Pensacola and Jacksonville are excluded from the calculations of density of population, for the reasons given on pages 229 and 336.) It did not seem worth while to insert in this table the rates of increase of population, which have been mentioned in some of the regional descriptions, for although they differ greatly in different regions, they vary too much from one decade to another to have much geographical significance. All the figures of course are only approximate, but in the first five columns the average error is probably not more than 10% one way or another. The last three columns are less reliable, on account of the lack of minute detail in the census reports, as already explained; but the averages for the whole of northern Florida, at the bottom of these columns, are just as accurate as the work of the census enumerators, if not more so. In some of the columns figures unknown but believed to be above the average for northern Florida in that particular thing are indicated by 4and the reverse by — , somewhat as was done in the plant lists. Where no such guess can be safely made an interrogation point is used.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 395 STATISriCAL TABLE REGIONS 1. Marianna red lands 2. W. I'la. linie-sink region-—— 3. Apalacliicola bluffs 4. Knox Hill country 5. Holmes Valley _ 6. West Fla. lake region 7. West t'la. pine lulls — Western division Eastern division — _ 8. West Fla. coast strip 9. Apalacliicola Hatwoods 10. Middle Fla. hammock belt — Western division Middle division Eastern division _ 11. Tallahassee red hills 12. Bellair sand region 13. Wakulla hammock country 14. Panacea country 15. Gulf hammock region _ — 16. Middle Fla. flatwoods 17. Peninsular lime-sink region — 18. Penins'ilar lake region 19. East Fla. flatwoods — • Western division Eastern division _ 20. East coast strip Northern Florida Area 440 iboo 50 50 30 350 3200 750 400 2600 440 800 650 340 240 150 60 1470 1000 2000 500 2050 3250 180 22600 Vegetation Percentage of Kverg 49 55 56 75 75 17 80 68 74 69 66 53 60 48 66 74 69 79 80 75 74 94 E'ic. Legum 2 12. 7 25 ? 15 7 16 8 20 9 8 30 II 31 7 18 2 IS 19 7 10 12 10 6 2 I ? ID 8 I 8 2 8 9 17 12 28 6 20 IS 2 4 4 Amt. of forest a So?| 85 90 V 75"^ 50'^ 97'^ 95 99 97 70 75 40 V 95 75? 99 95 98 75 95 8S 96 99 89 • IS? .99 2.33 1. 00 346 .21 .48 .10 V ? o ? .20 ? •35 + 1. 00 3.78 ? .89 c 9 A :? 40 V 22 V 26 13^ + 27 26 40' + 24 IS 20 i6t 20 40? 69 ? T + 62 + 58 32 50 25? ? t T 60 + 51 + 60 53 ? 54 ^Excluding Pensacola. tExcluding Jacksonville. It will be noticed that in general high percentages of evergreens and Ericaceae go with much virgin forest, considerable expenditure for fertilizers (in regions that have been cultivated enough to get any fertilizer statistics from), and sparse population with whites predominating; and vice versa. There are • some exceptions, of course, but most of those are due to somewhat accidental or psychological factors, and have been partly explained in the regional descriptions. It is certain at least that the six small regions with less than 60% of evergreens (indicated by shading on the map) have required very little fertilizer as yet, and most of them have at least 25% of their area cleared, and more negroes than white people. The relations of leguminous plants to soils and economic features are not quite so simple ,but some of them have been suggested in the regional descriptions. It is also evident that nearly all the regions that spend over a dollar an acre a year for fertilizer have more evergreens than the average, and also more white people. In region 9 the evergreen percentage is a little below the average, on account of the Apalachicola River swamps, in which deciduous trees predominate, but those fertile swamps are almost too wet to cultivate, and therefore do not perceptibly increase the amount of land that is cultivated with
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396 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. little or no fertilizer. In the western division of region 10 the percentage of whites is evidently below the average, but the high expenditure for fertilizer there is mainly due to the tobacco industry, whose concentration there may be very largely accidental. (The influence of the trucking industry on fertilizer expenditure is shown plainly in the eastern division of region 19, and less so in the eastern division of region 10.) Although one very rarely sees any such statement in print, it must be a fact that the pioneer farmers in northern Florida (if not in most other eastern states), who of course know little about soil physics or chemistry, and cannot afford to experiment much, in selecting land for cultivation must have been guided largely by the proportions of evergreen and deciduous trees in the forests.* And deciduous forests are nearly always cleared first, provided their location, drainage, etc., are suitable. Just how much the average farmer reacts to the presence of Ericaceae, Leguminosae, and other indicative plants it is hard to say, for he cannot be expected to have an intimate acquaintance with them. But probably almost every farmer knows that huckleberry bushes (Ericaceae) generally indicate poor soil, and clover and beggarweed (Leguminosae) the opposite. Our very sandy hammocks, which although pretty well supplied with humus (as nearly all hammocks are) are characterized by a preponderance of evergreens, are quite generally left uncultivated, as are the sour flatwoods and scrub, in which the vegetation is nearly all evergreen. And it cannot be doubted that the early settlers who began to clear up the land around Crawfordville in the first half of the 19th century, when most of Wakulla County was a "howling wilderness," were attracted by the predominance of deciduous trees in the forests, and not deterred by the coarse and unpromising appearance of the soil. *Quite a number of botanists and soil investigators have discussed the problem of determining the agricultural value of virgin soils by means of vegetation, particularly Hilgard (Tenth Census 5:68-69, 229; Soils, xviii-xx, 313-318, 487-526), Mohr (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 6:821-824. 1901), Kearney (Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. 5:481-484. 1901), Shantz (U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. 201. 191 1), and Kearney, Shantz and others (Jour. Agric. Research, 1:365417, pi. 42-47. Feb. 1914) ; but all these studies have been merely or mainly qualitative, as explained on page 173, and therefore of little value to one who does not happen to know the plants discussed. And they usually make no special reference to the percentage of evergreens, which is one of the most prominent and easily determined features of any forest. (That evergreens have practically the same significance as far north as upper Michigan — latitude 46° — that they do here has been pointed out by the writer in Rep. Mich. Acad. Sci. 15:197. 1914.)
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 397 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ABOUT SOILS. In the regional descriptions a number of mechanical analyses of soils have been quoted from government soil surveys; but in those published since 1905 the localities and depths of the samples are not given. Some of the missing data have just been obtained from the records of the U. S. Bureau of Soils through the kindness of Prof. C. F. Marbut, in charge of the soil survey work, and are given here, having been received too late for insertion in the proper places. Region i, p. 194. The sample of "Norfolk fine sandy loam" came from 3 miles north of Aycock, and should therefore have been given under region 2, on page 202. Region 6, page 225. Both samples of "Norfolk sand" are from localities outside of the lake region ; but perhaps there is no essential difference between them and the lake region soils, in texture at least. Region 9, page 248. The ' Leon sand" is from one mile north of Grand Bay, which would be about in S. 24, T. i S., R. 4 W. The depths of soil and subsoil are 0-8 and 8-36 inches respectively. Region 10, page 255. The samples of "Norfolk sand" from Jefferson County are from % mile south of Ashville and 2 m.iles south of Lloyd's. Region m, page 268. It turns out that neither sample of "Norfolk sand" from Leon County was from the Tallahassee red hills, so that its omission from the table was justified. Region 16, page 310, The "Portsmouth fine sand" samples from Jefferson County were taken 2 miles north of Delph (now called Fanlew), >vhich would probably be in S. 20, T. 2 S., R. 3 E. The depths are 0-8, 8-20, and 20-36 inches. Six additional chemical analyses of soils have been made by L. Heimburger, Assistant State Chemist, since the printing of the foregoing pages was well advanced. As in the case of those given on pages 270 and 281, he used the A. O. A. C. methods for fertilizers, described in Bulletin 107 of the Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, revised edition of 1912. To be more specific, the phosphoric acid was determined by method 3(a) (2) (a2) on page 2, the nitrogen by method 4(d) (modified Gunning method) on page 8, and the potash by method 5 (a) (2) (b) on page ^i. The sodium, sulphur, magnesium, manganese, and several other minor or less important constituents were not determined for lack of time. The volatile matter includes nitrogen. The samples are as follows : 1. (Region 2, page 201.) Pine land on east side of Choctawhatchee River, 8y2 miles northeast of Cerro Gordo, Holmes Co. Collected by Dr. E. H. Sellards. 2. (Region 9, page 247.) Flatwoods near 32-mile-post on G., F. & A. Ry. (betvsTeen Hilliardville and Arran), Wakulla Co. Oct. 8, 1914. A rather coarse gray sand, o-i ft. Vegetation long-leaf pine, saw-palmetto, gallberry, wire-grass, deer-tongue, and several less familiar plants. (This would probably be classed as "Leon sand'' by the U. S. Bureau of Soils.) 3. (Region 13, page 289.) Coarse yellowish sandy loam from rich woods about a mile north of Crawfordville, Wakulla Co. (The same spot shown in fig. 77.) Oct. 8, 19T4. Vegetation mostly red oak, hickory and dogwood, with very little underbrush or herbaceous vegetation. Sample taken to a depth of one foot. 4. Same locality, 2 to 3 feet below surface. Subsoil, very similar in appearance to surface soil. (See mechanical analysis on page 289.)
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398 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 5. (Region 15, page 304.) Calcareous flatwoods, close to sea-level, about a mile northwest of St. Mark's. Wakulla Co. Sept. 19, 1914. A blackish medium sand, with almost no silt and clay, taken to a depth of 6 inches. Vegetation Ambrosia sp., Flaveria sp., Chondrophora nudata, Pluchea bifrons, Cladium effusum (saw-grass), Mesosphaerum radiatum, Monniera acuminata, Lippia sp., Diclironiena colorata, Centella repaiida, Eupatorium mikaniodes, and a few other peculiar herbs, with wire-grass and small scattered long-leaf pines. A few earthworms found here, strange to say. 6. (Region 17, page 314.) High pine land near Wade, Alachua Co. Depth of sample 0-3 feet. Collected by Dr. E. H. Sellards. Analyses. I 23 4 5 6 Moisture (H2O) 0.29 0.06 0.33 0.09 0.63 0.03 Volatile matter 2.08 1.35 2.30 i.oo 3.07 0.52 Nitrogen .115 -HO .120 .083 .145 .075 Potash (K2O) .090 .029 .044 .033 .072 .033 Lime (CaO) .145 -085 .090 .060 .190 .115 Phosphoric acid (P2O5) .064 .044 .064 .044 .050 .072 Iron and alumina (Fe203,Al203) — 3.83 0.33 1.38 1.14 1.53 0.60 Insoluble matter, 93.56 98.35 96.08 97.86 94.87 98.89 Although these analyses do not all come out exactly as was expected, they are not wholly inconsistent with what was already known of the vegetation and agricultural resources of their respective regions. No. I is a pretty good average soil for northern Florida, and the statistics given a few pages back for the region from which it comes (the West Florida lime-sink or cypress pond region) are not far from the average for the whole area. No. 2 has less of all soluble and volatile constituents. than any other in the table, except that it exceeds in humus and the components thereof No. 4, which is a subsoil, and No. 6, which is soil and subsoil mixed, and has a little more lime than No. 4. It is not surprising therefore that it is uncultivated. The greatest surprise was in the case of Nos. 3 and 4, the soil and subsoil so carefully selected from near Crawfordvllle, on a special trip made for the purpose. By all accepted physical and chemical standards this should be a rather poor soil ; but the vegetation and crops indicate decidedly otherwise. Perhaps the main source of fertility lies in some constituent not considered in these analyses ; or perhaps the soil has some peculiarity that enables plant roots (especially in the case of trees, which have a life-time to do it in) to get more out of it than the chemists' reagents do in a few days.* Another possibility is that there is a more fertile stratum below the depth sounded (three "feet). Possibly a different method of analysis would give results more consistent with the surface indications. Hilgard (Soils 343, 375) states that the A. O. A. C. methods for soils extract less of some constituents, particularly potash, than his acid-digestion method; and Mr. Heimburger used the A. O. A. C. methods for fertilizers, which may differ in still other ways. And yet all of his analyses having been made by the same method, ought to be strictly comparable with each other, if not with those made by other methods; unless there is some significant difference in the rate of reaction of soils of different texture to the same reagents.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 399 which is reached by the roots of trees but not by those of herbs. For strange to say, the native herbs of region 13 are nearly all species characteristic of high pine land and sandy hammocks, the red oak and dogwood forests being almost devoid of herbaceous vegetation. In this particular this region is much like No. II, but a good deal different from Nos. 4 and 5, and very, very different from Nos. I and 3; although the arborescent flora of these six hardwood regions (which are shaded on the map) has much in common. But the fact that there is more potash, lime, phosphorus, iron and alumina in the soil than in the subsoil would not be easy to explain on the last hypothesis, nor would the productivity of the soil ; for it is not likely that the roots of annual crops go as deep as three feet. (The soil is indeed loose and easily penetrated for considerable depths, but so is that of regions 12 and 17, which are much less fertile.) This soil problem thus adds one more to the several mysteries or curiosities for which Wakulla County is already noted.* No. 5 contains more lime than any of the others in this lot ,as was expected, and also more humus, which is often correlated with lime. (This was the only one of the last six soils in which earthworms were noticed.) It contains considerably less lime, though, than the clayey soils previously analyzed, and whether the amount of lime in it completely explains the peculiarity of its vegetation or not cannot be said to be definitely settled. No. 6 is the poorest of the six in humus, but the richest in phosphorus, which might have been expected, as it comes from the phosphate country. It contains less phosphorus than the (more clayey) soils of regions i and 11, however, if we may judge from the analyses. *The name of the county is said to be an Indian word meaning mystery. (See Norton's Handbook of Florida, 3d edition, 1892, pp. 98, 347.)
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400 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. LIST OF TREES The following list comprises all the native trees (including many small trees) mentioned in the foregoing pages (and a few additional ones too rare to appear in any of the regional lists), with their percentages of abundance for northern Florida as a whole, their technical and coinmon names, and a few words about their distribution and habitat. The percentages are given only to the nearest tenth of one per cent, and therefore those less than .05% are represented by o. In the case of the small trees, which have been estimated on a smaller scale than the large ones, as explained on pages 178 and 186, the percentages are not given, but are replaced by interrogation points. None of them would exceed 1% even if they were given. Evergreens are indicated by heavy type, as before. The sequence is very nearly the same as in Small's Trees of Florida (1913), in which can be found the names of several species which are not mentioned here because they are confined to the southern parts of the state, or are not native, or have not been identified by the writer, or are too small to be 4-egaided as trees. 41.7 Pinus palustris Mill. Long-leaf pine. Sandier soils, in every region except the last. 0.2 Pinus Caribaea Morelet? Mostly near Gulf coast. Not well understood as yet. 9.2 Pinus Elliottii Engelm. (Slash pine.) Ponds, bays, non-alluvial swamps, etc., nearly throughout. 4.7 Pinus Taeda L. Short-leaf pine. (Also called loblolly pine and black pine.) Hammocks, bottoms, and other moderately rich soils, nearly throughout. 2.9 Pinus serotina Mx. (Black pine.) Bays, flatwoods, etc., rare westward, common eastward. 1.8 Pinus echinata Mill. Short-leaf pine. (Also called rosemary pine.) Mostly on clayey uplands. West and Middle Florida. 0.7 Pinus glabra Walt. Spruce pine. Hammocks, etc., common westward, rare eastward. 0.5 Pinus clausa (Engelm.) Vasey. Spruce pine. Old dunes near coast, and scrub of peninsular lake region. 0.9 Taxodium distichum (L.) Richard. Cypress. Mostly in marly or alluvial swamps ; common but not abundant. 8.8 Taxodium imbricarium (Nutt.) Harper. (T. ascendens Brong.) (Fond) Cypress. Ponds, bays, non-alluvial swamps, etc.. nearly throughout. Trees apparently intermediate between this and the preceding occur in the Gulf hammock region. 0.2 Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) BSP. Juniper. Non-alluvial and estuarine swamps, in West Florida pine hills. 0.3 Juniperus Virginiana L. (Red) cedar. Rock outcrops, low hammocks, etc., mostly in calcareous regions. 0.1 Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene. Stinking cedar, or Savin. Apalachicola River bluffs, in shade of other trees. Not known elsewhere.* *See Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 32:149. 1905.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 40I o Taxus Floridana Nutt. Alum Bluff, and reported from farther up the same river. Confined to region 3, like the preceding. 0.5 Sabal Palmetto (Walt.) R. & S. Cabbage palmetto. Mostly in low hammocks and near coast. Not known west of St. Andrew's Bay. ? Yucca aloifolia L. Spanish bayonet. Dunes of east coast. Juglans nigra L. (Black) walnut. Richest soils in regions i and 3. Hicoria aqnatica (Mx.f) Britton. (Swamp) hickory. Mostly in alluvial swamps, but not confined to muddy .-.treams. 0.3 Hicoria alba (L.) Britton? Hickory. . Moderately rich uplands, widely distributed. 0.1 Hicoria glabra (Mill.) Britton? Hickory. Mostly in hammocks, with poorer soil than the preceding requires. (There are probably two or three other hickories in our area, but they are difficult to distinguish from the two preceding.) ? Myrica cerifera L. Myrtle. (Usually only a shrub.) Low hammocks, etc., rather common. ? Myrica inodora Bartr. Non-alluvial swamps in Middle and West Florida. Occasionally arborescent in region 7. 0.1 Populus deltoides Marsh. Cottonwood. Banks of Apalachicola River mostly. o Populus heterophylla L. (Cottonwood.) Banks of lower Apalachicola River, in region 9. o.3Salix nigra Marsh. Willow. Banks of streams, etc., mostly westward. ? Salix longipes Anders.? Willow. Mostly in marly swamps and low hammocks, particularly in region 15. ? Salix Floridana Chapm. Somewhat calcareous swamps in regions i and 2; rare. 0.3 Carpinus Caroliniana Walt. (Ironwood.) Bottoms, low hammocks, etc., mostly northward. 0.2 Ostrya Virginiana (Mill.) Willd. Rich woods and hammocks, mostly westward. 0.2 Betula nigra L. Birch. Banks of creeks and rivers, mostly northward. (Several current botanical manuals credit betula leitfa L. to West Florida, but that seems to be wholly unfounded, for that species is not known south of the mountains of Georgia and Alabama, and it is very stunted even there.) 0.4 Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. (F. Americana Sweet.) (Our tree has been separated from the northern one as var. Caroliniana, but the differences are not very marked.) Beech. Rich woods and hammocks ; common westward, rare or absent eastward. o Castanea pumila (L.) Mill. Chinquapin. A small to medium-sized tree in regions 4 and 14; rare and usually only a shrub elsewhere.
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402 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. 0.2 Quercus alba L. White oak. Rich woods, mostly westward. Not seen east of region lo. O.I Quercus Margaretta Ashe. Post oak. (Sometimes called black-jack oak.) Sandy uplands, nearly throughout. 0.2 Quercus stellata Wang. Post oak. Clayey uplands, west of Suwannee River, o.i Quercus lyrata Walt. (Swamp post oak. Overcup oak.) Bottoms of Chipola, Apalachicola and Suwannee Rivers mostly. ? Quercus Chapmani Sarg. Sandy hammocks in peninsular lake region. 0.2 Quercus Michauxii Nutt. (Swamp chestnut oak. Chestnut white oak.) Low hammocks, bottoms, etc. ; rather widely distributed. Quercus Muhlenbergii Engelm. Rich calcareous uplands in regions i and 3. 0.5 Quercus Virginiana Mill. Ijve oak. Hammocks, lake shores, etc., apparently preferring phosphatic soils. 0.3 Quercus geminata Small. (Smaller, or scrub) live oak. In poorest dry sandy soils, such as old dunes, and scrub, also in sandy ham* mocks. Often scarcely more than a shrub. ? Quercus myrtifolia Willd. Often with the preceding, but confined to still poorer soils if anything, and only rarely arborescent. 0.5 Quercus laurifolia Mx. (Evergreen willow oak?) Sandy hammocks, etc., pretty widely distributed. o Quercus Phellos L. Willow oak. In clayey soil around small ponds in region i. Very rare farther south. 0.1 Quercus hybrida (Chapm.) Small? Common in low hammocks in the Gulf hammock region, and occasionally in similar situations elsewhere. 0.7 Quercus nigra L. Water oak. Bottoms and other low grounds, common except near coast. 1.7 Quercus cinerea Mx. Turkey oak. (Sometimes called upland willow oak or narrow-leaf black-jack.) Dry sandy uplands; apparently with a slight preference for phosphatic soils. 3.4 Quercus Catesbaei Mx. Black-jack oak. (Also called turkey oak or forked-leaf black-jack.) Dry sandy uplands, in every region except nos. 11 and 20. 0.3 Quercus Marylandica Muench. Black-jack oak. (Sometimes called roundleaf black-jack or dollar-leaf oak to distinguish it from the preceding.) Mostly on driest red clay uplands, from Leon County westward. 1.3 Quercus falcata Mx. (Q. digitata Sudw.) Red oak. ("Spanish oak" of the books.) Rich dry uplands, west of Trail Ridge. o Quercus pagodaefolia (Ell.) Ashe. (Red oak.) Bottoms of Apalachicola River. o Quercus velutina Lam. (Black oak.) Dry red clay uplands, mostly in Tallahassee red hills, o Quercus Schneckii Britton? (Red oak?) Rich woods and hammocks, mostly in regions i and 3. (Q. rubra L., the northern red oak, which resembles it considerably, may possibly occur with it.)
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 403 O.I Morus rubra L. Mulberry. Rich woods and low hammocks in calcareous regions. o Ulmus alata Mx. Elm. Rich woods, especially in calcareous soils; rare. 0.1 Ulmus Floridana Chapm. Elm. Calcareous bottoms, low hammocks, etc., especially in Gulf hammock region, o Ulmus Americana L. ? Elm, Along Chipola and Apalachicola Rivers, o Ulmus fulva Mx. Slippery elm. Rich calcareous woods in regions i and 3; very rare. . O.I Plancra aquatica (Walt.) Gmel. Along Apalachicola and Suwannee Rivers, and in a few other places where the water fluctuates several feet during the year 0.1 Celtis occidentalis L. ? Hackbekky. (Perhaps more than one species.) River-bottoms, rich hammocks, etc. 1,8 Magnolia grandiflora L. Magnolia. (Occasionally called loblolly.) A characteristic tree of hammocks, in every region. 3.0 Magnolia glauca L. (White) bay. Bays and non-alluvial swamps, in every region except the last. ? Magnolia macrophylla Mx. Cucumber tree. Rich woods in Knox Hill country and Holmes Valley. ? Magnolia pyramidata Pursh. Cucumber tree. ^ With the preceding, but rarer. 0.5 Liriodendron Tulipifera L. Poplar. Branch-swamps and wet woods, mostly northward.* 2.4 Liquidambar Styraciflua L. •Sweet gum. (Red gum of the lumber trade.) In various situations, nearly throughout; apparently preferring somewhat phosphatic soils. 0.1 Platanus occidentalis L. Sycamore. Banks of Apalachicola River, in regions 2, 3 and^ 9. 0.1 Malus angustifolia (Ait.) Mx. Crab-apple. Moderately rich uplands, west of Suwannee River. ? Amelanchier Canadensis (L.) Med.? Rich woods in West Florida; rare. ? Crataegus apiifolia (Marsh.) Mx. (Parsley haw^.) Bottoms, low hammocks, etc.; not common. ? Crataegus spathulata Mx. Bluffs of upper Apalachicola River. ? Crataegus aestivalis (Walt.) T. & G. May haw. Suwannee River bottoms, and shallow ponds in clayey soil westward. 0.1 Crataegus viridis L. Haw. Bottoms and sloughs, mostly in regions 2 and 15. (This is the largest of our haws, but it is never more than a medium-sized tree.) *About two years ago Prof. P. H. Rolfs found this tree being cut for lumber in tlie southwestern part of Putnam County, which was farther south than it had previously been known to grow. (See Torreya 13:69. 1913.) On July 9, 1914, the writer passed through the same section on the Ocala Northern R. R. and saw enough of this tree to warrant its inclusion in the list of plants for the peninsular lake region (page 322).
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404 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ? Crataegus Michauxii Pers. ? Haw. Moderately rich sandy uplands, particularly in old fields. ? Crataegus lacrimata Small. Haw. Sandy ridge in central part of Walton Co. ? Crataegus Crus-Galli L. ? Haw. Calcareous flatwoods in Gulf hammock region. Several other species of this difficult genus, which have not been identified, occur in regions ii, 13, 15, and elsewhere. (See index.) In Small's Trees of Florida 48 alleged species of Crataegus are enumerated, most of them from the area covered by this report. ? Prunus umbellata Ell. Hog plum. Dry woods, etc., mostly northward. (There is another species, apparently undescribed, which differs from this in having red and more edible fruit. It grows mostly along roads in regions 10, II. and 13, and may not be native.) o Prunus Americana Marsh. Wild (goose) plum. Rich calcareous woods in regions i and 3. o Prunus Caroliniana (Mill.) Ait. Mock orange. Bluffs of Apalachicola River, etc. Very rare in the wild state. 0.1 Cercis Canadensis L. Redbud. Rich, especially calcareous, upland woods. Gleditschia triacanthos L. ? (Honey locust.) Calcareous sloughs, etc., in Gulf hammock region, and perhaps elsewhere, o Gleditschia aquatica Marsh? Banks of Suwannee River, etc. ? Xanthoxylum Clava-Herculis L. Phosphatic (?) sandy hammocks in Alachua County and along east coast. ? Cyrilla racemiflora L. Tyty. (Also spelled tietie, tighteye and titi.) Branch and creek swamps, etc. ; common in most of the regions. ? Cyrilla parvifolia Raf. Tyty. (Usually only a shrub.) Bays, etc.; almost confined to Middle Florida. ? Cliftonia monophylla (Lam.) Sarg. Tyty. Bays and sour swamps, from Jefferson County westward. ? Ilex decidua Walt. Alluvial bottoms of Apalachicola River, etc. ? Ilex myrtifolia Walt. Yaupon. Shallow ponds, in most of the counties north of latitude 30. ? Ilex Cassine L. (/. Dahoon Walt.) Non-alluvial swamps, mostly southeastward. ? Ilex vomitoria Ait. (/. Cassine Walt.) Sandy hammocks, especially along east coast. 0.4 Ilex opaca Ait. Holly. In hammocks, commonest westward. ? Aesculus Pavia L. Buckeye. Bluffs and moderately rich uplands; usually only a shrub, o Acer saccharinum L. (A. dasycarfitfti Ehrh.) (Silver) maple. Banks of Apalachicola River, in regions 2, 3 and 9. 0.8 Acer rubrum L. (Red) maple. Mostly in non-alluvial swamps, in nearly every region. The var. trldens (or A. CaroUmarnim Walt.) is difficult to distinguish from this. It seems to prefer richer soils.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 405 0,1 Acer Floridanum (Chapm.) Pax. Sugar-maple. Rich calcareous woods, mostly in regions i and 3. o Acer Negundo L. Box-elder. Along Apalachicola River, and in hammocks in central Florida. (As these two habitats are quite different, and also pretty widely separated, there may be two species involved, but botanists have not yet distinguished them.) Sapindus marginatus Willd. Phosphatic (?) hammocks around Alachua Sink. Tilia Floridana Small. (Lin, or basswood.) Rich woods and bluffs near Apalachicola River, Jackson and Gadsden Cos. 0.1 Tilia pubescens Ait. Mostly in low or phosphatic hammocks, in regions 10, 13, etc. 0.2 Gordonia Lasianthus (L.) Ellis. (Red, tan, or loblolly bay.) Bays and non-alluvial swamps; rare west of Suwannee River, common east of Trail Ridge. o.i. Persea Borbonia (L.) Sarg. (Red bay.) Hammocks ; commonest eastward. Persea pubescens (Pursh) Sarg. (Red bay.) Non-alluvial swamps, etc. ; widely distributed but rather scarce. ? Persea humilis Nash. Scrub in the peninsular lake region. 0.1 Sassafras variifolium (Sal.) Kuntze. Sassafras^ ' Arborescent in the Wakulla hammock country. Elsewhere usually a shrub in old fields. Rare in East and West Florida. Nyssa sylvatica Marsh. Black gum. Clayey uplands, mostly northward. 2.0 Nyssa biflora Walt. Black gum. Non-alluvial and estuarine swamps and shallow ponds. 0.2 Nyssa uniflora Wang. (A'', aquatica L. ?) Tupelo gum. Swamps and sloughs, from Choctawhatchce River to Wakulla Co. 0.2 Nyssa Ogeche Marsh. Tupelo gum. (Ogeechee Lime.) Swamps and sloughs, especially of lower Apalachicola River. 0.9 Cornus florida L. Dogwood. On loamy uplands, in shade of other trees. ? Cholisma (originally misspelled Xolisma) ferruginea (Walt.) Heller. Sandy hammocks and scrub, Middle and East Florida; usually no more than a shrub. 0.1, Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. Sourwood. Loamy uplands, north of lat. 30° and west of Suwannee River. ? Batodendron arboreum (Marsh.) Nutt. Sparkleberry. Sandy hammocks and other dry places protected from fire. ? Diospyros Virginiana L. Persimmon. Old fields, etc. ; common, but perhaps not native, and often little more than a shrub. In the vicinity of Tallahassee its fruit begins to ripen about the last week in August, notwithstanding the old tradition about persimmons and frost (which probably originated in Virginia, and may be true there), o Bumelia lycioides (L.) Gaert. Calcareous bluffs of Apalachicola River. Gadsden Co. ? Bumelia lanuginosa (Mx.) Pers. Sandy hammocks mostly.
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406 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ? Symplocos tinctoria (L.) L'Her. Hammocks and bluffs, west of Suwannee River, o Halesia Carolina L. Rich woods near Chipola and Suwannee Rivers, etc. o Halesia diptera Ellis. Apalachicola River blufifs, etc. o Fraxinus Americana L. Ash. Rich woods, mostly in regions i and 15. 0.2 Fraxinus Caroliniana Mill. Ash. Swamps of various kinds, especially alluvial and calcareous. Two or three other species of Fraxinus, difficult to distinguish without fruit, grow in situations similar to the last. ? Adelia acuminata Mx. Banks of Apalachicola and Suwannee Rivers. ? Chionanthus Virginica L. Graybeard. Hammocks and rich woods, mostly in Middle Florida. ? Osmanthus Americana (L.) B & H. Hammocks. o Catalpa bignonioides Walt. Catalpa. Banks of smaller rivers; possibly not native. ? Viburnum rufidulum Raf. Black! haw. Rich upland woods, mostly northward and westward. This list contains about 126 species (or nearly the same number as in either of the two adjoining states), about 40 of which (12 gymnosperms and 28 angiosperms, together making up about 70% of the forest) are evergreen. The only ones which seem to make up more than 1% of the forest (13 in number) may be arranged in order of abundance as follows: Pinus palustris. P. Elliottii, Taxodium imbricariitm, Pimis Taeda, Quercus Catesbaei, Magnolia glauca, Pinus serotina, Liquidantbar, Nyssa biflora, Magnolia grandiflora, Pinus echinata, Quercus cinerea, Q. falcata. The eight pines make up about 62% of the forests, or 60% of the total vegetation, and 21 arborescent oaks between 9 and \o%. (Alabama has the same number of pines and of oaks, but in that state each makes up about 20% of the forests, arrd not over 40% of the trees are evergreen.)
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 407 LIST OF ERICACEAE AND LEGUMINOSAE. In each regional description some statistics of the quantity of Ericaceous and leguminous plants have been given, but it would be difficult if not impossible for a non-botanical reader to verify the figures from the regional lists alone. A list of the plants belonging to these families is therefore appended here. With the Ericaceae are included two closely related families now generally regarded as distinct, namely, Clethraceae and Vacciniaceae; and with the Leguminosae are included two smaller families formerly (and still by some botanists) united therewith, namely, Mimosaceae and Caesalpiniaceae. As these other families are believed to have essentially the same soil preferences as the Ericaceae and Leguminosae proper, they have been counted into the statistics in every case. Of the Ericaceae and related families, Oxydendrum is a tree, Batodendron a small tree or large shrub. Cholisma ferruginea occasionally arborescent, Pieris [>JiiUyreifolia usually a vine (something very exceptional in this family*) and the rest shrubs, ranging in size from Kalmia Intifolia, which is mentioned in some books on trees, to Gaylussacia duinosa, which is smaller than many herbs. Of the Leguminosae Cercis and Cleditschia are trees, IVistaria a woody vine, Amorpha fruticosa a shrub, and the rest ordinary herbs or herbaceous vines. The following list does not include all the plants of these families that are known in northern Florida, or even all seen by the writer, but only those seen often enough to be mentioned in one or more of the foregoing regional lists. The names of a few additional Ericaceae can be found m Small's Shrubs of Florida (New York, 1913), and of several additional species of both families in the Flora of the Southeastern United States by the same author (1903 and 1913). In this list, as in the regional lists, evergreens are indicated by heavy type and weeds by (X). Common names are given when known. Instead of stating the habitat and distribution, as in the foregoing list of trees, the names of the species are here followed by the numbers of the regions from which they have been listed ; and the interested reader can turn back to the proper pages for additional information. These numbers of courbe do not indicate all the regions in which the species have been seen, but only those in which they are abundant enough to be listed. ^ CLETHRACEAE. Clethra alnifolia L. (including C. tomentosa Lam.) 2, 7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16. ERICACEAE. Bejaria racemosa Vent. 18, 19. Azalea nudiflora L. Honeysl'ckle. 3, 4, to, ii. Azalea viscosa L. Honeysuckle, 7, 19. Kalmia latifolia L. Ivy. 2, 3, 4, 7. Kalmia hirsuta Walt. 9, 15, 16, 18, 19. Leucothoe axillaris (Lam.) Don. 3, 10. Leucothoe racemosa (L.) Gray (including L. elongata Small) 2, 9, 12, 16. Pieris phillyreifolia (Hock.) DC. 2, 7, 10, 14, 16. Pieris nitida (Bartr.) B. & H. (Hurrah bush.) 2, 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19. *See Torreya 3 :2i-22. 1903.
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408 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Pieris Mariana (L.) B. & H. 12. Cholisma ferruginea (Walt.)) Heller. 8, 10, 12, 13, 15, 18, 19, 20. Cholisma fruticosa (Mx.) Nash. (Poor grub.) 9, 10, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19. Cholisma ligustrina (L) Britton. 9, 10. Oxydendrum arboreum (L.) DC. Sourwood. 3, 4, 5, 7, 8. 10, 11. VACCINIACEAE. Gaylussacia dumosa (Andr.) T. & G. 2, 4, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19. Gaylussacia hirtella (AiL) Klotzsch. 7. Gaylussacia frondosa (L.) T. & G. (Including the varieties nana and tomentosa, sometimes treated as distinct species.) Huckleberry. 2, 7, 9, 10, 13, 14, 18, 19. Batodendron arboreum (Marsh.) Nutt. Sparkleberry. i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, IS, 17, 18, 20. Polycodium (probably twa or three species). Gooseberry. 4, 11, 12, 13, 17, 20. Vaccinium nitidum Andr. (V. Myrsinites Lam?) 2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20. Vaccinium virgatum Ait. (and probably a few other species). Huckleberry. 2, 4, 10, 15. MIMOSACEAE. Morongia uncinata (Willd.) Britton. i, 2, 11, 12, 14. CAESALPINIACEAE (or Cassiaceae). Cercis Canadensis L. Redbud. i, 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 13, 15, 17. Cassia Tora L. (X) Coffee-weed. 10, 11, 13, 17. Chamaecrista fasciculata (Mx.) Greene (and a few other species) Partridge pea. 7, II, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 20. Gleditschia (perhaps both G. triacantltos L. and G. aquatica Marsh.) Honey locust. IS, 17. LEGUMINOSAE (or Fabaceae.) Baptisia simplicifolia Croom. 14. Baptisia LeContei T. & G. ? 8,-9, 13, 14, 17. Baptisia hirsuta Small. 7. Baptisia lanceolata Walt. 2, 6, 7, 14. Baptisia alba (L.) R. Br. i. Baptisia leucantha T. & G. 10, 11. Crotalaria rotundifolia (Walt.) Poir. 12, 14. Lupinus perennis L. Lupine. 14. Lupinus villosus Willd. 12, 14. Medicago Arabica All. (X) Bur-clover, ii. Trifolium Carolinianum Mx. (X) Clover, ti. Indigofera Caroliniana Walt. 12, 14, 17, 18. » Cracca Virginiana L. Devil's shoestring. 7. Cracca spicata (Walt.) Kuntze? 13. Cracca chrysophylla (Pursh) Kuntze. 2, 7, 12, 14. Wistaria frutescens (L.) Poir. Wisteria. 9, 17. Glottidium vesicarium (Jacq.) Mohr. (X) 10, 17, 19. Psoralea Lupinellus Mx. 12.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 409 Psoralea canescens Mx. 2, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 19. Amorpha fruticosa L. i, 2, 9, 15, 17, 19. Petalostemon albidus (T. & G.) Small. 12, 13, 15. Kuhnistera pinnata (Walt.) Kiintze. (Summer farewell.) 2, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, IS, 17, 18. Aeschynomene Virginica (L.) B.S.P. (X) 11. Aeschynomene viscidula Mx. 14. Stylosanthes biflora (L.) B.S.P. 2, 12, 13, 14. Chapmania Floridana T. & G. 18. Meibomia nudiflora (L.) Kuntze. (This and other species of the same genus are often called Beggar-lice.) i. Meibomia laevigata (Nutt.) Kuntze. i. Meibomia rigida (Ell.) Kuntze. 13. Meibomia purpurea (Mill.) Vail. (X) Beggar-weed, ii, 13. Lespedeza striata (Thunb.) H. & A. (X) Japanese clover, ii, 13. Lespedeza hirta (L.) Ell. 11, 14, 17. Pitcheria galactioides Nutt. 2, 6, 7, 8, 14. Dolicholus simplicifolius (Walt.) Vail. Dollar-weed. 2, 7, 12, 13, 14, 17. Erythrina herbacea L. 11. Galactia erecta (Walt.) Vail. 2. Galactia regularis (L.) B.S.P. 12. Galactia mollis Mx. 13. Galactia Elliottii Nutt. 19, 20. Phaseolus polystachyus (L.) B.S.P. 11. Vicia acutifolia Ell. 15. It appears from the foregoing that the sparkleberry (Batodendron) is the commonest Ericaceous plant in northern Florida, and that three others grow in ten or more of the twenty regions. Kuhnistera pinnata is the only leguminous plant listed from as many as ten regions, and 'nearly half the Leguminosae are listed from only one region each.* It has already been shown in the statistical summary that regions 12 and 14 contain the largest quantity of Ericaceae, proportionately, and regions 14 and 17 the most Leguminosae. But statistics based on number of species, regardless of relative abundance, naturally do not give exactly the same results. Regions 7 and ID seem to contain the most species of Ericaceae, and 12, 13 and 14 the most species of Leguminosae. It is interesting to note that none of the Ericaceae are weeds, and none of the Leguminosae are evergreen. *In the Altamaha Grit region of South Georgia, which corresponds to region 7 of this report, it has been estimated that the average Ericaceous plant grows in 2.87 different habitats, and the average leguminous plant in 1.56. (See Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 17:326. 1906.) 26
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^ TO FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNLTAL REPORT. BIBLIOGRAPHY. This list aims to include only works in which the geography or vegetation of some part of northern Florida is described, and therefore excludes purely geological papers and mere lists of plants, except a few of the latter which deal with some particular small area. Some pertinent titles which were given in the First or Third Annual Report are omitted here to avoid undue repetition, as are most papers in which some general features of the state are described without locating them definitely enough to be cited in the foregoing regional descriptions. The names of authors are arranged alphabetically and the writings of each one chronologically, if there is more than one. Adams, J. S. (Commissioner of Immigration). Florida : its climate, soil and productions, with a sketch of its history, natural features and social condition A manual of reliable information concerning the resources of the state and the inducements which it offers to those seeking new homes. — 8vo. pamphlet, 69 pp., a few illustrations, and folded map. New York, 1870. A 64-page pamphlet with very nearly the same title, apparently official or semi-official, but with no author indicated, was published by L. F. Dewey & Co. of Jacksonville in t868. Barbour, G. M. Florida — for tourists, invalids and settlers; containing practical information regarding climate, soil, and productions; cities, towns, and people; the culture of the orange and other tropical fruits ; farming and gardening ; scenery and resorts; sport; routes of travel, etc., etc. — -310 pp., 39 figs., folded map. D. Appleton & Co., New York, 1882. Bartram, William. Travels through North & .South Carolinct, Georgia, East & West Florida, the Cherokee country, the extensive territories of the Muscogulges, or Creek Confederacy, and tli€ country of the Chactaws; containing an account of the soil and natural productions of those regions, together with observations on the manners of the Indians. — 522 pp. and a few plates. T2mo. James & Johnson, Philadelphia, 1791. (Soon afterwards reprinted in London and Dublin, and also translated into French and German.) The author's travels in Florida (described on pages 70-254, 303-306, 413-417 of the first edition) extended south to what is now Volusia County, and west to the Suwannee River, with a brief visit to Pensacola by way of Mobile. Flis descriptions of the country in Florida seem less accurate than in the case of the other southern states (see 3d Ann. Rep., p. 242), and it is difficult to trace his route in this state with any degree of accuracy. Burnett, W. I. (M. D.) (Notes on Florida, extracted from a letter to Prof. J. D. Dana.) — .A.m. Jour. Sci. 67:407-412. T854. Bush, B. F. 'Notes on the botanj' of some southern swamps. — Garden & Forest 10:514516. Dec. 29, 1897. Contains a few notes on the river-swamps near Apalachicola.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORIDA. 4I I Carse, G. B. Morida: its climate, soil, productions and agricultural capabilities. (With chapters bj' A. W. Chaf'man and /. H. Foss.) — U. S. Dept. Agric. [Report 21] 98 pp. 1882. Chapman, A. W. (M. D.) Torreya taxifolia, Arnott. A reminiscence. — Bot. Gaz. 10:251-254. pi. 5 (map). April, 1885. Contains a list of plants characteristic of the Apalachicola bluff region (no. 3) ; the only one published up to tlie present time. Croom, H. B. Botanical communications. — Am. Jour. Sci. 25:69-78; 26:313-320; 28:165168. 1833-1835. These papers contain valuable information about the flora of Middle Florida, particularly around Tallahassee and Aspalaga. (See 3d Ann. Rep., P333footnote.) Curtiss, A. H. A visit to the shell islands of Florida. — Bot. Gaz. 4:117-119, 132-137, 154158. 1879. These islands are near the mouth of the St. John's River. Dall, W. H., & Stanley-Brown, J. Cenozoic geology along the Apalachicola River. — Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 5:147-170. 1S94. Eagan, Dennis. (Commissioner of Lands and Immigration.) The Florida settler, or immigrants' guide ; a complete manual of information concerning the climate, soil, products and resources of the state. — 8vo pamphlet, 160 pp. Tallahassee, 1873. A copy of this rare pamphlet has been seen in the library of Dr. Eugene A. Smith, who made good use of it in writing his description of Florida for the Tenth Census. It has no index or table of contents. The first 54 pages are devoted to the genera! features of the state, and the remainder mostly to county descriptions, which are somewhat optimistically exaggerated, as is often the case. The following statement about malaria, on page 11, is of interest, and probably true: '"St. Augustine has long enjoyed a total exemption from all kinds of fever; Jacksonville is equally favored. In Pensacola the treatment of malarial fever is not a part of the practice of the city physicians." Garber, A. P. (M. D.) 1. Botanical rambles in East Florida. — Bot. Gaz. 2:70-72, 82-83. Jan. and Feb. 1877. 2. Botanical rambles in Middle Florida. — But. Gaz. 2:102-103. May, 1877. (This deals with the country around Gainesville, and not with Middle Florida, which the author seems never to have visited.) Gi'.lmore. (Gen.) Q. A. Survey for a ship-canal from St. Mary's River, Florida, to the Gulf of Mexico. — Ann. Rep. Chief of Engineers (U. S. Army) 1880:973-1010, with folded map. 1880. Contains valuable information about the topography of parts of Middle and East Florida.
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412 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Gray, Asa (M. D.) A pilgrimage to Torreya. — Am. Agriculturist 34:266-267. July, 1875. (Reprinted with some alterations in Scientific Papers of Asa Gray, i : 188-196. 1889.) Describes a visit to River Junction in the spring of 1875, to find Tuinion taxifoliiim (then known as Torreya taxifolia, named in honor .of his colleague Dr. John Torrey) and Croomia pauciflora, both of which were discovered a few miles farther down the river about 40 3'ears before by H. B. Croom. (See pages 214-215 of this report for nolres on the relative abundance of these two plants at the present time.) Harper, R. M. 1. Preliminary report on the peat deposits of Florida.— Fla. Geol. Surv., 3d Ann. Rep., 201-375 (including figs. 17-30), pl16-28. Jan. 191 1. Plate 16 is a folded map showing the geographical divisions of the state. 2. Chondrophora virgata in West Florida. — Torreya 11 192-98, fig. i. April, 1911. Describes the geology and vegetation of Rock Hill, Washington Co. 3. Early spring aspects of the coastal plain vegetation of South Carolina, Georgia, and northeastern Florida. — Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 38 1223-236. "May" [June], 191 1. Describes the vegetation s^en from a fast train on March 4, 1910, arranged by regions and in order of abundance. 4. A quest for the Wakulla volcano. — Florida Review 6:215-224, with 3 half-tones. Sept., 191 1. Describes parts of the Gulf hammock region and Middle Florida flatwoods, in Wakulla and Jefferson Counties. 5. The river-bank vegetation of the lower Apalachicola, and a new principle illustrated thereby. — Torreya 11:225-234, fig. i. Nov., 1911. 6 Notes on the distribution of the southeastern salamanders (Geomys Tuza and allies). — Science 11:35:115-119. Jan. 19, IQ12. Mostly about Florida. (Even at this writing the writer has never seen a salamander.) 7. The coniferous forests of eastern North America. — Pop. Sci. Monthly 85 :338-36i, with 16 half-tones not numbered. Oct., 1914. Two illustrations are from northern Florida. 8. (Topography, streams and springs, lakes and ponds, coast and harbors, climate, vegetation, flora, fauna, and forest products of Florida.) — New International EncA'clopaedia, Second Edition, 7 .yoG-yoc), 713. Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, Dec. 1914. (Also about Vs column on Hammocks in vol. 9.) Harshberger, John W. The vegetation of South Florida, south of 27° 30' north, exclusive of the Florida Keys.— Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. (Philadelphia) 7:49-189, with map, 2 text-figures and 10 plates. Dec. 1914. On pages 64, 69 and 71 are descriptions of the vegetation of Anastasia Island, St. John's Co., introduced by way of comparison. Johnson, L. C. 1. The structure of Florida. — Am. Jour. Sci. 136:230-236. 1888. 2. The Chattahoochee fembayment.— Bull. Geol. Soc. Ann. 3:128-132. 1891.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NOKTHERX FLORIDA. 413 Jones, Barton D. On the Gulf coast [of Florida].— Lippincott's Mag. 29:113-122, 217-229, with II wood-cuts. February and March, 1882. Not restricted to the coast, but describes most of the counties in Middle and West Florida. Lanier, Sidney. Florida: its scenery, climate and history. With an account of Charleston, Savannah, Augusta, and Aiken, and a chapter for consumptives; being a complete hand-book and guide.— 226 pp. and numerous wood-cuts. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia, 1875 (and later editions). Leeds, B. F. Winter vegetation on Florida sand dunes. [Pablo Beach, Duval Co.]. — Garden & Forest 5 :2i-22. Jan. 13, 1892. Long, (Mrs.) Ellen Call. Forest fires in the southern pines. — Forest Leaves 2:94. 1889. Claims that long-leaf pine forests would gradually be converted into hammocks if fully protected from fire. One of the first papers in which this theory is proposed. Matson, G. C-, & Clapp, F. G. (of US. Geol. Surv.) A preliminary report on the geology of Florida, with, special reference to the stratigraphy.— Fla. Geol. Surv., 2nd Ann. Rep., 5-8, 21-173, pl1-8. figs. 1-5, and folded colored map in pocket. Jan. 1910. Matson, G. C, & Sanford, Samuel. Geology and ground waters of Florida. — U. S. Geol. Surv. Water Supply Paper 319. 445 pp., 7 text-figures, 14 half-tone plates, 3 maps, and numerous inserted tables. Jan. 1914? This practically supersedes the preceding. Mayer, A. G. Our neglected southern coast. — Nat. Geog. Mag. 19:859-871. Dec, 1908. Contains several excellent views of the east coast of Florida. McAtee, W. L. • A list of plants collected on St. Vincent Island, [Franklin Co.] Florida. — Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 6 :39-S2. March, 1913. Mohr, Charles. The timber pines of the southern United States. — U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Div. Forestry, Bull. 13. Quarto, 160 pp., 27 plates. 1896. (Second edition, 176 pp., 1897-) See also under Sargent, below. Nash, George V. Notes on some Florida plants. II. — Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 23 :95-io8. March, 1896. Relates mostly to northern Florida. Neal, J. C. (M. D.) Weeds of Florida.— Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 8:7-16. 1890.
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414 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Pierce, James, Notices of the agriculture, scenery, geology, and animal, vegetable and min eral productions of the Floridas and of the Indian trices. — Am. Jour. Sci. 9:119 136. 1825. Reynolds, (Miss) Mary C. Notes from St. Augustine, Fla. — Bot. Gaz. 4:227-230. Nov., 1879. Sargent, C. S. (Forests of) Florida. (Including notes on Middle and East Florida b} A. H. Curtiss and on West Florida by Charles Mohr.) — Tenth Census U. S. 9:520-523, with map. 1884. Some of Dr. Mohr's observations have been quoted on pages 239-240 of this report. Mr. Curtiss expressed somewhat different views about the future of our pine forests, as follows : "One of the most important facts in regard to the pine forests of Florida is their permanence. Owing to the sterility of soil and the liability to inundation of most of the state, it is certain that but a very small portion of Florida will ever be cleared of its forest covering. Taking into consideration the great area covered with valuable pine forests, and the fact that there will be a continuous new growth if the spread of forest fires can be checked, only trees of the largest size being cut, it is evident that Florida will furnish a perpetual supply of the most valuable pine lumber." The truth doubtless lay somewhere between these statements and Dr. Mohr's. Sellards, E. H. 1. Some Florida lakes and lake basins. — Fla. Geol. Surv., 3d Ann. Rep., 43-76, pi. 6-9. Dec, 1910. (Reprinted with some alterations in the present volume.) 2. The soils and other surface residual materials of Florida. — Fla. Geol. Surv., 4th Ann. Rep., 1-79, figs. 1-3, pi. i-t2, and map. 1912. 3. Classification of the soils of Florida. — 12th Bien. Rep. Dept. Agr. Fla., 249-299, 4 text-figs., and single-page outline map. 1913. (Also issued separately. with corresponding pages numbered 3-53.) Contains brief descriptions of the geographical divisions of the State. Selkrds, E. H., & Gunter, H. 1. The fuller's earth deposits of Gadsden County, Florida, with notes on similar deposits found elsewhere in the state. — Fla. Geol. Surv., 2nd Ann. Rep.. 253-291, pi. 16, 17, 19, and 3 line-drawings in the text (one of which is a map of Gadsden Co. and some contiguous territory). Jan., 1910. 2. The artesian water supply of eastern Florida. — Fla. Geol. Surv., 3d Ann. Rep., 77-195, figs. 6-r6, pi. 10-15 (one of which is a map of the state). Jan., 1911. Deals with the counties east of Trail Ridge. 3. The water supply of west-central and West Florida. — Fla. Geol. Surv., 4th Ann. Rep., 81-155, figs. 4-15 (including map and 7 half-tones), pi. 13-16. 1912. Treats all the counties of Middle and West Florida except Hamilton. 4. The artes-an water supply of eastern and southern Florida. — Fla. Geol. Surv., 5th Ann. Rep., 103-290, figs. T-17, pi. 10-14. X9T3. As far as northern Florida is concerned this covers the same ground as no. 2.
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GEOGRAPHY AND VEGETATION OF NORTHERN FLORH)A. 415 Smith, Eugene A. 1. On tlu' geology of Florida.— Am. Jour. Sci. 121 -.202-309 (including map). April, 1881. 2. Report on the cotton production of the state of Florida, with an account of the general agricultural features of the state.— Tenth Census U. S. 6:175-257, with 3 single-page (quarto) maps, two of which are colored and inserted. 1884. For an appreciation of this report see 3d Ann. Rep., p. 365. and p. 172 of the present volume. Smith, J. D. (of Marianna) About unknown Florida.— Fla. Review 2:33-39 (including 3 full-page halftones). July, 19C9. Mostly about the caves of Jackson County. Stickney, L. D. Florida Soil, climate and productions. — Rep. U. S. Com. Agr. 1852:52-65. 1863. (This was published at a time when Florida and other southern states w-ere temporarily out of the Union, a fact which is mildly commented upon in the report.) Thompson, Maurice. A Tallahassee Girl. — i6-mo.. 355 pp. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1881. Although this is a novel, it contains valuable information about geographical and social conditions in and around Tallahassee at that time. (The author was state geologist of Indiana from about 1885 to 1888.) Torrey, Bradford. A Florida Sketch-book. — Houghton, INIififlin & Co., Boston, 1894. This contains rnany interesting notes on the plants, birds, people, etc., around Tallahassee, St. Augustine, and some places farther south, by a wellknown naturalist. Most if not all of the chapters were previously published in the Atlantic Monthly. U. S. Army Engineers. The annral reports of the Chief of Engineers of the U. S. Army contain a great deal of detailed geographical information about Florida rivers which is not found elsewhere. Many reports on particular rivers and harbors by the Army Engineers lave also been transmitted to Congress by the Secretary of War and published as Congressional documents. Such reports are so numerous that it would be out of the question to refer to them individually here. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bureau (formerly Division) cf Soils. Soil surveys of various counties and similar areas, in annual reports of Field Operations. The following areas in northern Florida have been reported on by this organization up to the present time. (The dates given are the years in which the field work was completed, and the reports are found in the volume for that year. But the separate reports usually appear the following year, and the complete vcdrmes about two years after the field work. The latest complete volume on hand is that for igtr.) Gadsden Co.. 1903; "Gainesville area," 190;; Leon Co.. 1905; Escambia Co., igo6; Jeflferson Co., 1907; "Marianna area." loog; "Jacksonville area.'' 1910: Bradford Co., 19x3. A survey of Payne's Prairie,
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4l6 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. in Alachua Co., was published in 1912 as Circular 72 of the Bureau. Jn the last few years the State Geological Survey has co-operated in this work to some extent. Vignoles, Charles. Observations upon the Floridas. — 190 pp. and map. New York, 1823 See Third Annual Report, p 365, for comments on this rare work. Whiting, Henry, Cursory remarks upon East Florida, in 183S.— Am. Jour. Sci. 35 :47-64. 1838. Williams, (Col.) John Lee. 1. A view of West Florida, embracing its geography, topography, etc., with an appendix, treating of its antiquities, land titles, and canals, and containing a map, exhibiting a chart of the coast, a plan of Pensacola, and the entrance of the harbour. — 178 pp. and folded colored map. Philadelphia, 1827. "West Florida" at that time included also what was later called Middle Florida. 2. The territory of Florida : or sketches of the topography,, civil and natural history of the country, the climate, and the Indian tribes, from the first discovery to the present time, with a map, views, etc, 304 pp. A. T. Goodrich, New York, 1837. These two extremely interesting and valuable books by Col. Williams have been seen only in the New York Public Library, and could not very well be cited by page in the foregoing regional descriptions. They furnished Dr. Eugene A. Smith much accurate information about the parts of Florida which he was unable to visit in 1880.
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INDEX OF PLANT NAMES This index includes both technical and common names of the plants mentioned in the report on northern Florida, and also many synonyms, with crossreferences, which are inserted for the benefit of persons who may know some of the species better by other names than those used in the body of this report. Common names are enclosed in quotations, so that the non-botanical reader can pick them out readily. Where the name of a genus is not followed by any specific name it means either that only one species of that genus has been seen by the writer in northern Florida and the specific name is omitted to save space, or that the identity of the species is doubtful, or that some statement is made in the text at the page indicated that applies to several or all of the species of that genus. As there are many places in the text where species are referred to by only the technical name or only the common name, especially in the case of trees, the reader who wants to be sure to find everything that is said about a given species should bear both names in mind. In this index numbers in parentheses refer to pages where the plant in question is referred to indirectly or under a different name ; and this device is used in most of the cases referred to in the preceding sentence, but not in all of them. Numbers in heavy type refer to pages belonging to the regional list in which the species named stands highest, or is most abundant. They do not correspond exactly with the double + marks in the plant lists, because it was not possible to make careful comparisons between all the lists before they were printed (especially in the case of the herbs whose percentage numbers are not given), owing to the fact that the first parts of the manuscript were sent to the printers before the last parts were finished, and many of the + and — marks were therefore located by guess. The necessary comparisons have been made in the paged proof, however, resulting in the discovery of several inconsistencies and many places where the double + marks should have been used and were not; all of which are now rectified in the index as far as possible. There are over twice as many numbers in heavy type in this index as there are double + marks in the plant lists, partly on account of the more careful comparisons just mentioned, and partly because they are given here for technical and common names separately and also for famihes. The object of making these numbers conspicuous in the index, as stated on pages 186-187, is to enable any one who desires a supply of any particular tree or other plant to tell in two or three glances in which part of northern Florida it is most abundant. Where the references to any plant do not include any number in heavy type either the name is a synonym, or an extra-limital species mentioned incidentally, or else it is difficult to decide in which of several regions the species is most abundant. And where there are two or more such numbers in the same line either it is a name (generic or common) which belongs to two or more species, or else the species in question seems to be equally abundant in two or more regions and perceptibly less so in the rest. The number of species listed is about 750 (including nearly 100 weeds, which probably did not grow in this area before the discovery of America), which is probably not over half the total number of vascular plants in northern Florida. But those omitted, together with all the cellular cryptogams (which 417
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41 8 FLORIT^A GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. may be still more numerous) probably do not make up more than one or two per cent of the total bulk of vegetation, and would hardly be noticed by any one tiaveling by rail. As the 19 regional lists together contain about 2600 lines of plant names, it is evident that the average species here listed grows in about ZVz regions. (But if the lists had been made more complete this ratio would be smaller, for the rarer species are naturally less widely distributed.) Acanthospermum, 287, 294, 31S, 324 Acer, 342 Carolinianum, 404 dasycarpum, 404 (see A. saccharinum) Floridanum^ 196, 205, 212, 219, 404 Negundo, 213, 259, 263, 404 rubrum, 197, 204, 219, 234, 249, 258, 272, 283, 292, 305. 311, 316, 322, 331, 404 var. tridens, 204, 2T2,283, 316, 404 saccharinum, 205, 212, 215, 404 Actinospermum, 237, 318, 323 Adelia acuminata, 213, 316, 406 ligUrStrina, 198, 214 Adiantum, 214 Aeschynoimene hispida (see next) Virginica, 277, 409 viscidula, 300, 409 Aescu'.us, ig8, 206, 213, 220, 261, 263, 274> 293, 306, 404 Afzelia cassioides, 252, 308 pectinata, 286 Agalinis (see Gerardia) "Air-pant," 307, 334 "Alder," 206, 213, 220, 235, 250, 333 Alotris aurea, 207, 237 lutea, 207, 251, 324, 333 Allium striatum (see Nothoscordum) Alnus, 206, 213, 220, 235, 250, 2>2>2> Alsine pubera, 215 Amaranthus spinosus, 277 Ambrosia, 307, 309, 34i, 398 artemisiaefo'.ia (elatior), 2741 294 hispida? 246 Amelanchier, 205, 219, 403 Amianthium (see Chrosperma, Tracyanthus) Amorpha, 198, 206, 251, 306, 317, 333, 407, 4c8 Ampelopsis arborea, 197, 205, 250, 274, 281, 3o5, 317, 332 quinquefolia (see Parthenocissus) Ampelothamnus (see Pieris phillyreifolia) Amsonia, 285, 318 Anastrophus paspaloides, 286 Anchistea, 246, 251, 262, 312, 2,^z^ ZZZ Andromeda (see Cholisma. Leucothoe, Pieris) Andropogon, 274, 293 argyraeus, 274 E'-liottii.? 324 scoparius, 199,220, 263, 274,293,318 Virginicus, 207, 227, 237, 286, 300, 317, 2>2Z Anem'onella (see Syndesmon) Angelica. 275 Anisostichus (see Bignonia) Anthemis, 199, 276 Apitim, 275 Aquilegia. 199, 200 Aralia, 198, 214, 220, 261, 274, 317, 3232>y2; 340 Arenaria Caroliniana, 237 Argemone, 2TJ Arisaema Dracontium, 199, 214 Aristida purpurascens? 294 spiciformis, 252, 287, 308, 334 stricta, 206, 214, 220, 227, 236, 251, 262, 285. 293, 299, 307, 312, 3i7» 323, ZZ2) (see also Wire-grass) Aristolochia, 215 Aronia, 206. 214, 235. 262, 307, 312, 333 Arsenococcus (see Cho'isma ligustrina) Arundinaria macrosperma, 213, 215, 250 tecta. 235. 261, 263, 274 Asarum, 220 Asclepias humistrata, 286 tuberosa, 287 variegata, 198, 220 Ascyrum hypericoides, 293 microsepalum (see Crookea) istans, 206, 236
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INDEX OF PLANT NAMES. 419 "Ash," 197, 204, 212, 224, 234, 236, 238, 246, 249, 259, 287, 292, 305, 3i(', 322, 331, 342, 406 Asimina angustifolia, 206, 227, 262, 263, 284, 293, 317, 333 parviHora. 198, 220, 274, 293, 317, 341 speciosa, 317, (318), 323, 332 Aspidium (see Dryopteris, Polystichum) Asplenium Filix-foemina 221 parvulum (see A. resi'-iens) platyneuron, 275 resiliens, 198, 214 Aster adnatus, 207, 237, 300, 308 concolor, 286, 300 eryngiifolius, 208, 237, 251 squarrosus, 334 Atamosco, 199, 215, 307 Azalea nudiflora, 214, 220, 261, 274, 407 viscosa, 23s, 333, 407 B. Baccharis angustifolia, 306 halimifolia, 245, 262, 274, 293, 333, 341 Baldwinia miiltiflora (see Actinospermum) uniflora, 236^ 251, 308 "Bamboo vine," 205, 213, 235, 245, 250, 260, 284, 306. 312, 322, 332 Baptisia, 300 alba, 198, 408 hirsuta, 236, 238, 408 lanceolata, 207, 227, 236, 299, 408 LeContei? 246, 252, 293, 299, 318, 408 leucantha, 263, 276. 408 simplicifolia, 300, 408 Bartonia verna, 313 "Basswood," 259, 272, 324, 334, 342, 405 (see also Tilia) Batis, 341, 342 Batodendron, 197, 205, 213, 219, 234, 245, 260, 273, 284, 292, 305, 316, 322, 340, 405, 407-409 Batschia, 227, 236 "Bay," red. 197, 234, 259. 260, 287, 292, 295, 298, 305, 3T2, 316, 322, 331. 340, 405 (see also Gordonia and Persea) loblolly, or tan, 405 ('see Gordonia) Bay" — Continued (white). 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, 245, 249, 258, 263, 272, 283, 292, 298, 311. 322, 331, 342, 360, 366, 403 (see also Magnolia glauca) "Bean," wild, 276 "Bear-foot," 199, 276 "Bear-grass," 215 "Beech," 196, 204', 212, 218, 234, 246, 253, 258, 272, 287, 292, 339, 324, 334, 342, 346, 348, 401 "Beggar-lice," 199. 409 (see also Mei'bomia) "Beggar-weed," 276, 294, 295, 396, 409 Bejaria, 323, 33a, 334, 407 Berchemia, 198, 205, 213, 261, 263, 284, 292, 306, 312, 317, 332 Berlandiera pnmila (see B. tomentosa) subacaulis, 318 tomentosa, 207, 215, 220, 227, 236, 285, 294, 299, 308, 334 "Bermuda grass," 275 Betula, 199, 204. 212, 219, (224), 234, 249, 259, 278, 309, 316, 324, 334, 335, 401 (see a'.so Birch) Bidens bipinnata, 276, 294 coronata, 237, 277 Bigelovia (see Chondrophora) Bignonia crucigera (capreolata), 198, 205, 213, 219, 260, 263, 273, 306 radicans (see Tecoma) "Birch," (199), 204, 212, 224, 234, 249, 259, (278), 309, 316, 324. 334, (335), 401 "Bitter-weed," 207, 263, 275, 287, 308, 318, 324, 334 "Blackberry," 198, 206, 220. 235, 261, 274, 284, 293, 317, 323, 332 "Black gum," 196, 197, 203, 204, 213, 218, ~^i9, 233, 234, 245, 246, 249, 258, 272, 273, 283, 292, 298, 305, 311, 324, 330, 33^, 332, 342, 366, 405 (see also Nyssa) "Black haw," 197, 205, 213, 273, 292, 406 "Black-jack oak" (Quercus Catesbaei), 195, 197. 204, 208, 212, 219, 224, 226, 233, 234, 244, 245, 249, 258, (278), 282, 283, 284, 291, 297, 298, 305, 312, 315, 316, 322, 330, 33^, 3^2, 376, 402
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420 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. "Black-jack oak" (Quercus Marylanclica), 196, 204, 219, 224, 230, 234, 259, 272, -z^T, 292, (295), 402 "Black oak," 272, 277, 402 "Black pine," 208, 218, 219, 221, 226, 234, 249, 258, 283, 292, 298, 30s, 311, 322, 331, 340, 400 "Black-root," 251, 263, 286, 299, 307, 312, 317, 323, 333 "Black walnut" (see Juglans) "Blood-root," 199, 214 "Blue-eyed grass," 299 Boehmeria, 276, 341 "Boneset," 276 "Bonnets," 198, 208, 352, 263, 285, 334, 364 Borraginaceae, 227 (see also Batschia, Lithospermum) Borrichia, 341, 342 "Box-elder," 213, 259, 404 Brachiaria (see Panicum hemitomon) Brasenia, 276, 286 Breweria, 286 "Broom-isedge," 199, 207, 220, 227, 237, 263, 274, 286, 293, 300, 317, 318, 323 Brunnichia, 250 Buchnera, 308 "Buckeye," 198, 206, 213, 220, 261, 274, 293, 306 "Bullace," 198, 213, 219, 235, (260), 272,, 284, 292, (296), 306, 317, 322, 332 (see also Muscadine) "Bulrush," 252, 294, 364 Bumelia lanuginosa, 205, 260, 263, •^IZ, 292, 405 lycioides. 213, 215, 405 tenax, 340, 342 "Bur clover," 276, 408 "Cabbage palmetto," 238, 246, 259, 295, 304, 316, 322, 331, 340, 382, 401 (see also Saba! Palmetto) Cacalia (see Mesadenia) Caesalpiniaceae, 407, 408 Calamintha (see Clinopodium, Conradina) Callicarpa, 198, 213, 220, 245, 261, 274, 293, 340 Calophanes, 286, 318 Calopogon (see Limodorum) Campanula Americana, 214, 215 Campuloisus, 207, 237, 251, 300, 324, Canna, 334 Capriola, 275 Carduus, 341 "Careless," 277 Carex debilis, 221 Harperi, 199 leptalea or polytrichoides (see preceding) styloflexa, 308 Carp'hephorus corymbosus, 317 Pseudo-Liatris, 238, 252 Carpinus, 196, 204, 212, 219, 238, 259. 273, 287, 292, 305, 322, 331, 342, 401 Carya porcina (see Hicoria glabra") tomentosa (see H. alba) "Carrot," wild, 199 Cassia Chamaectrista, etc. (see Chamaecrista) obtusifolia (same as next) Tora, 263, 275, 293, 318, 408 Castalia, 207, ^ZT, 262, 275, 286, 313, 324 Castanea alnifolia (nana), 262, 263, 274, 317, (318) pumila, 205, 219, 235, (253), 292, 401 Catalpa, 205, 406 "Cat-tail," 252, 308 Ceanothus Amiericanus, 198, 206, 235, 274, 285 microphyllus, 206, 236, 285, 317, 323, 332 "Cedar" (red), 173, 196, 200, 208, 212, 221, 253, 295, 30S> 309, 316, 324. 331, 339, 340, 364, 400 (see also JuniperU's) stinking, 212, 400 white, 238 (see also Chamaecyparis and Juniper) "Cellular cryptogams," 186, 418 Celtis. 197, 205, 212, 259, 263, 295, 305. 324, 348, 403 (see also Hackberry) pumila, 273 Cenchrus echinatus, 276 tribuloides, 277, 285, 294, 308
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INDEX OF PLANT NAMES. 421 Centella, 208, 246, 252, 286, 307, 334, 341, 398 Cephalanthus, 198, 205, 206, 214, 220, 250, 261, 263, 274, 284, 293, 306, 317, 3^3, 332 Cephaloxys (see Juncus repens) Ceranthera (see Dicerandra) Ceratiola, 236, 245, 317, (318), 323. 333, 341, 362, 384 Ceratophyllum, 295 Ceratoschoenus (see Rhynchospora corniculata, R. Tracyi) Cercis, 196, 204, 212, 219, 259, 272, 292, 305, 316, 324, 346. 404, 407, 408 Cerothamnus (see Myrica) Chaerophyllum, 275 Chaetodiloa, 276, 294, 341 imberbis, 307 Chamiaecrista, 236, 275, 286, 287, 294, 299. 307, 317, 341, 408 Chamaecyparis, 178, 208, 234, 238, (253), 324' 334, 342, 400 Chaimaesyce (see Euphorbia) Chapmania 324, 409 Chaptalia, 207, 237, 352, 307 Chenopodium, 342 "Cherokee rose," 273, 277 "Cherry," wild, 197, 259. 272, 277, 287, 292, 309, 342 "Chestnut white oak," 402 (see Quercus Michauxii) "Chinaberry," 197, 212, 219, 259, 272, 277 "Chinquapin," 205, 219, 235, 253, 262, 274, 292, 295, 317, (318), 401 Chionanthus, 197, 205, 235, 260, 273, 293> 305, 316, 406 Cholisma ferruginea, 245, 260, 263, 284, 292, 306, 322, 322, 340, 405, 408 fruticoisa, 250, 262, 293, 306, 312, 323, 332, 334, 408 ligustrina, 251, 262, 408 Chondrophora nudata, 207, 236, 251, 307, 333, 398 virgata 412 Ohrosperma, 207, 220 Chrysobalanus, 206, 227, 235, 245, 251, 284, 293, 298, 307, 317, (318), 323, 332 Chrysoma, 235, 245, 246 Chrysopogon avenaceus 277 (see also Sorghastrum) Chrysopsis, 288 a r gen tea? 237 aspera, 237, 286, 308, 318 flexuosa, 285, 288, 299, 300 gossypina, 285, 299 graminifolia, 207, 236, 252, 263, 275, 285, 299, 307, 313, 334 Mariana, 277 oligantha, 208, 237, 252, 300 pilosa (see C. gossypina) pinifolia, 288 Cirsium (see Carduus) Cladium, 236, 246, 251, 299, 307, 312, 323, 333, 358, 364, 398 (see also Sawgrass) Clethra, 206, 235, 250, 261, 285, 299, 312, 407 Cliftonia, 205, 213, 227, 234, 245, 250, 260, 263, 287, 298, 309, 312, 360,404 Clinopodium coccineum, 235, 245, 246 dentatum, 214, 215 "Clover," 274, 396, 408 Cnicus (see Carduus) Cnidoscolus, 199, 275, 285, 300, 318, 341 Cochranea (see Heliotropium) "Cofifee-weed," 263, 275, 293, 318, 408 Collinsonia, 199 "Columbine," 199 Compositae, 177 "Compti" (see Coontie) "Conifers," 178, 412 Conopholis, 199, 214 Conradina, 245, 246, 250, 362 "Coontie," 317 Coreopsis aurea (see Bidens coronata) nudata, 207, 251, 334 Cornus, 274 asperifoHa, 198, 293, 306 florida, 196, 204, 212, 218, 227, 234, 258, 263, 272, 287, 291, 305, 309, 316, 324, 331, 334. 335, 342, 374. 405 (see also Dogwood) striata, 198, 251, 262, 306, 317, 333 "Cottonwood." 197, 204, 212, 249, 253, 401 "Cow-itch," 197, 213, 219, 250, 261, 273, 306, 332 "Crab-apple," 205. 212, 221, 259, (263), 272, 287, 292, 324, 403 "Crab-grass" (crap grass, crop grass) 27s, 294
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422 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY— SLXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Cracca chrysophylla, 208, 237, 286, 299, 408 spicata, 294, 408 Virginiana, 230, 237, 408 Crataegus, (221), 273. 287, 292, 305, 309, 324. 334, 342, 404 (see also Haw) aestivalis, 197, 205, 235, 260, 273. 316, 352, 403 arborescens (see C vindis) apiifolia, 205, 306, 316, 403 Crus-Galli? 205, 305, 404 lacrimata, 234, 238, 403 Michauxii? 284, 292, 316, 403 spathulata. 213, 403 uniflora, 274, 293 viridis, 204, 305, 316, 403 Crookea, 245. 250, 261. 263, 285, 299, 300, 306, 312, 313 Croomia, 214, 215, 412 "Crop grass," (see Crab-grass) "Cross-vine," 198, 205, 213, 219, 260, 273, 306 Crota-aria rotundifolia, 286, 299, 408 Croton argyranthemus, 207, 220, 227, 236, 285, 294, 299.31B, 324 glandulosus, 277 maritimus, 341 Crotonopsis, 286, 294, 3^7 •'Crowfoot grass," 318 Ctenium (see Campulosus) "Cucumber tree," 219, 221, 403 Cuscuta compacta, 313 Cytiodon (see Capriola) Cynoxylon (see Cornus florida) Cyperus articulatus, 308 cylindrO'Stachys? 342 dentatus? 341 Martindalei, 300 retrofractus, 294 rotundus, 275 speciosus? 287 "Cypress" (Taxodium distichum), 173, 178, 196, 204, 209, 212, 219. 234, 238, 246, 249. 259, 273. 292, 3C4, 312, 316, 322, 324, 331, 342, 364, 378, 382, 400 (Taxodium imbricarium), (178), 197, 203, 204, 209, 221, 226, 232234, 245, 248, 249. 258, 271, 272, 283, 295, 297, 298, 304, 311. 313, 316, 324, 330, 33h 342, 350, 352, 368, 372. 376, 380, 386, 400 Cyrilla parvifolia, 206, 208, 24S, 250. 261, 284, 287, 298, 300, 305, 312, 3i3> 380, 404 racemiflora I97, 205, 213. 219, 227, 234, 250, 260, 263, 273, 284, 292, .305, 316. 331, 360. 404 D. Dactyloctenium, 318 Danthonia, 220, 221 Dasystoma Virginica. I99, 276 Daucus, 199, 276 Decodon, 262, 333 Decumaria, i97, 205, 213, 219, 261. 263. 273. 306, 332 "Deer-tongue," 207, 220, 237, 251, 263, 286, 3^3, 333. 397 Dendropogon (see Tillandsia usneoides) Dentaria, 215 Desmodium (see Meibomia) Desmothamnus (see Pieris nitida) "Devil's shoestring," 230, 237, 408 "Dewberry," 273 Dianthera crassifolia. 252 Dicerandra, 199. 286 Dichro-mena colorata, 307, 341. 398 latifolia 207, 237, 251, 300, 333 Diodia teres, 252, 275, 285, 293 Dioscorea, 214, 276 Diospyros, 186, 197. 205, 219. 227, 259, 260, 272, 284, 291, 305. 316. 323, 331342, 405 Diplopappus obovatus (see Doellingeria reticulata) Dirca 213, 215 Distichlis, 341 Doellingeria, 237, 238. 2O3, 324, 333 "Dog-fennel," 199, 207. 220, 227, 236, 262, 263. 275. 276. 285, 287, 293. 294. 313. 317, 323. 333, 342 "Dogwood," 196, 204, 212, 218, 221, 224, 227, 231, 234, 246, 253. 258, 271, 272, 277, 287, 291, 295300. 305, 309. 316. 324. 331334. 342, 372, 378, 397, 405 Dolicholus simplicifolius, 208, 236. 286, 294, 300, 318, 409 "Dollar-weed," same as preceding) "Dollar-leaf oak," 402 (see Quercus Marylandica)
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INDEX or PLANT NAMES. 423 Drosera capillaris, 207, 238, 252, 286 filiformis Tracyi, 207, 236, 251 Dryopteris' Floridana, 308 molis? 307 patens? 198, 214 Thelypteris, 199, 341 "Duckweed," 341 Diipatya (see SynRonanthus) E. Eichhornia (see Piaropus) "Elbow-bush," 198, 205, 206, 214, 220, 250, 261, 274, 293, 306, 317, 2>32 "Elder," 220, 261, (263), 274, z^t, Eleocharis acicularis, 287 Baldwinii, 252 equisetoides (same as next) interstincta, 263 melanocarpa, 286 Elephantopus, 275, 308 Eleusine, 276 Elionurus, 308, 309 "Kim," 197, 205, 212, 221, 238, 246, 249, 287, 300, 305, 316. 324, 331, 34-2. 403 slippery, 212, 348, 403 Elodes (see Triadenum) Endorima (see Baldwinia) . Epidendrum, 220. 295, 308. 342 Epifagus (same as next) Epiphegus, 199, 214, 221 Eragrostis Brownei (see E. simplex) ciliaris 294 simplex, 286 Eriantlius, 199, 275, 294 P>icaceae, 177, 180. 188, 200, 2c8, 215, 221, 224, 238, 253, 264, 278, 288, 295. 300, 309, 313, 319, 325, 335, 336, 3\2, 393-39^, 407-409 Erigeron Canadensis (see Leptilon) ram'osus (strigosus), 275, 318 . vernus, 207, 252, 286, 299 Eriocaulon connpressum. 207. 236, 251, 299, 313 decangulare, 207, 236, 251, 312, 333 gnaphalodes (see E. compressum) septangulare, 285, 287 villosum (see Lachnocaulon anceps) Eriogonum, 207, 215, 227, 236, 263. 287, 317, 323, 334 Eryngium aromaticuni, 324 synchaetum, 208, 251, 333 virgatum, 207, 22,7 Erythrina, 276, 409 Eubotrys (see Leucothoe) Euonymus, 198, 214, 262, 274 Eupatorium album, 287, 318 aromaticuni, 285, 294, 308, 317 capillifolium, 263, 264, 275, 287, 294, 342 compositifolium (coronopifolium). 199, 207, 220, 227, 236, 262, 264, 275, 285, 293, 307, 312,, 317, 323333 foeniculaceum (see E. capillifolium) lep'tophyllum. 285, 288 mikanioides, 308, 398 Mohrii? 300, 334 perfoliatum, 276 purpureum, 300 rotundifolium, 208, 238, 251, 262, 313, 333 Euphorbia commutata, 214, 215 cordifolia, 287 dentata (inadvertentlj^ called E. heterophylla), 277 Floridana, 236, 285 gracilis, 246, 285, 294. 300 inundata, 251 sphaerosperma (see E. Floridana) Euphorbiaceae, 177 Eiithamia, 285, 308, 318 "Evening primrose," 275, 294 "Evergreen willow oak" (see Quercus laurifolia) F. Fabaceae, 408 Facelis apiculata, 207, 208 Fagus, 196. 204, 212, 218, 234, 258; 263, 272, 277, 2^7, 292, 309, 324, 334. 342, 346, 348, 401 "Ferns," 198, 199, 207. 214. 215, 220, 221, 227, 236-238, 246, 251, 252, 262, 263, 275-277, 285, 293, 294, 299, 300, 307, 308, 312, 313, Z'^T^ ?>2z, 333, 334, 341, 348 Fimfcristylia puberula, 334 spadicea, 246, 341 Flaveria, 308, 398 Forestiera (see Adelia)
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424 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. "Forked-leaf black-jack Qak," 402 (see Quercus Catesbaei) Forsteronia (see Trachelospermum) Frangula (see Rhamnus) Fraxinus, 212, 238, 278, 287, 305, 322, 331, 342, 406 Americana, 197, 212, 292, 406 Caroliniana, 197, 204, 234, 236, 259, 292, 305, 316, Z22, 331, 406 lanceolata? 331 profunda? 249, 331 "French mulberry," 198, 213, 220, 245, 261, 274, 293, 340 Froelichia 324 Fuirena scirpoidea, 246, 252, 299, 324 Fungi, 178, 186, 295 Galactia Elliottii, 333, 341, 409 erecta, 207, 409 glabella (see G. regularis) mollis, 295, 409 regularis, 287, 409 sessiliflora (see G. erecta) Galium uniflorum, 215 "Gallberry," 19S, 206, 214, 220, 235, 250, 253, 255, 256, 261, (263), 284, 287, 293, 298, 306, 312, 313. 323, 330, 332, 341, 368, 397 Garberia, 323, 324 Gaura angustifolia, 342 filipes (same as next) Michauxii, 207, 236 Gaylussacia dumosa, 206, 220, 227. 235, 251, 284, 293, 298, 307. 319, 332, 407, 408 frondosa (and varieties), 206, 235, 250, 262, 293, 299, 323, 332, 408 hirtella, 235, 408 Gelisemium, 197, 205, 213, 219, 235, 260, 273, 284, 332 Geobalanus (see Chrysobalanus) Geranium, 275 Gerardia, 308 divaricata, 285 fasciculata, 277 Gibbesia, 285 Gleditsohia, 199. 2"/%. 305, 316, 404, 407, 408 Glottidium, 263, 318. 334, 40S Gnaphalium purpureum, 207. 275 "Goldenrod," 198, 208, 276, 285, 293, 300, 342 "Gooseberry," 220, 274, 284, 293, 317, 341, 408 Gordonia, 208, 238, 309, 312, 322, 331, 334, 342, 405 "Grape," wild, 213, 250, 261, 273, 284, 292, 29s, 296, 306, 317, 332, 340, 380 "Grasses," 174, 177-179, 188, 199, 207, (208). 214, 220, 237. 238, 243, 246, 251, 252, 263, 274-278, 285-287, 293-295, 299, 300, 307, 308, 317, 318, 321, z^Z, 324, 333, 334, 339, 341. 360. 388 Gratiola Floridana, 199 quadridentata (same as next) ramosa, 299 spaerocarpa, 199 •'Graybeard," 197, 205, 235, 260, 273, 293, 305, 316, 406 "Gum." black (isee Black gum, Nyssa biflora, Nsylvatica) red or sweet (see Sweet gum, Liquidambar) tupelo (see Tupelo gum, Nyssa Ogeche, N. uniflora) Gyrotheca, 251 H. "Hackberry," 197, 205, 212, 221, 238, 259, 273, 295, 305. 324, 348, 403 (see also Celtis) Halesia, 295, 324 Carolina, 197, 406 diptera, 212, 273, 406 tetraptera (see H. Carolina) Hamamelis, 214, 220, 245, 262, 293 Hartmiannia, 198 "Haw," 197, 205, 213, 221, 234, 246, 253, 273, 274, 284. 292, 293, 300, 305, 306, 309, 316. 324. 334, 403 (see also Black haw, Crataegus. May haw. Possum haw) "Heart-leaf," 220 "Heath family." 177, 309. (see also Ericaceae) Helenium autumnale, 307 tenuifolium, 207, 263, 275, 287, 308, 318, 324, 334 Helianthella, 251, 324
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INDEX OF PLANT NAMES. 425 Helianthemum, 294 Carolinianum, 276 Helianthus heterophyllus, 207, 333 Radula, 207, 236, 285, 299, 307, 313, 334 Heliotropium andhusaefolium. 276 H'elosciadium (see Apium) Hepatica, 214 Herpestis amplexicaulis (see Monniera Caroliniana) nigrescens (see M. acuminata) Heteropogon, 263, 275, 294, 318 Heterotheca, 341 Hibiscus incanus (lasiocarpus), 308 "Hickory," 194, 196, 204, 205, 208, 213, 219, 221, 227,, 230, 234, 238, 24s, 253, 255, 259, 268, 271, 272, 277, 283, 291, 292, 29s, 300, 305, 308, 316, 324, 331, 342, 378, 397, 401 Hicoria, 205, 212, 259, 263, 305, 308, 324, 342, 401 (see also Hickory) alba, 196, 204, 219, 234, 259, 272, 277, 283, 291, 30s, 316, 401 aquatica, 204, 213, 278, 401 glabra, 199, 208, 227, 245, 259, 272, 277, 283, 292, 331, 401 "Hog plum," 219, 260, 273, 316, 404 "Holly," 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, 253, 259, (263), 272, 287, 292, 305, 316, 322, 324, 334, (335), 340, 404 "Honey locust," 305, 316, 404, 408 (.see also Gleditschia) "Honeysuckle" (Azalea), 214. 220, 23s, 261, 274, 333, 407 (Lonicera), 273 "Hop hornbeam" (see Ostrya) Houstonia angustifolia, 342 "Huckleberry," 206, 220, 221, 227, 230, 235, 250, 261, 262, 284, 293, 299, 306, 307, 323, 396, 408 (see also Gaylussacia and Vaccinium) "H'urrali bush," 206, 235, 245, 261, (2S4). 299, 306, 312, 317, 323, T,32, 407 "Hyacinth." water (see PiaropUfS, Water hyacinth) Hydrangea, 198, 213 Hydrolea (see Nama) Hymenocallis, 199, 208 Hymenopappus. 277, 318 Hypericum aspalathoides, 245 aureum, 214, 215 fasciculatuni, 198, 206, 227, 235, 245, 250. 261, 284, 299, 306, 312, 323, 332, 352, 358 galioides (etc.), 198, 206, 235, 262, 307 (see 3d Ann. Rep., p. 329) gentianoides (see Sarothra) microsepalum (see Crookea) myrtifolium, 206, 250, 284, 299, 306, 333 opacum, 251, 333 Hyptis (see Mesosphaerum) Hex ambigua (Caroliniana), 340 Cassine, 234, 306, 312, 322, 332, 404 coriacea, 206, 214, 235. 250, 262, 312, 350 Dahoon (see I. cassine) decidua, 205, 213, 306. 354, 404 glabra, 198, 206, 214, 220, 235. 250, (253.. 255, 256), 261, 263, 284, 287, 293. 298. 306. 312, (313), 323, (330), 332, 341, 368 lucida (see I. coriacea) myrtifolia, 205, 234, 250, 260, 284, 298. 312, 316, 331. 380, 404 opaca, 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, (253), 250. 263, 272, 287. 292. 305, 316, 322, 324, 334. 335, 340, 404 vomitoria, 206, 220, 234, 245, 292, 306, 340, 404 Hlicium, 214, 220, 235, 238 "Indigo" (same as next) Indigofera, 2S7. 300. 318. 324. 408 Tnodes (see Sabal) Ipomioea littoralis. 341 pandurata, 294 Pes-Caprae, 341, 390 sagittata (sagittifolin, speciosa), 308. 334 Iris 208, 252, 307 "Ironweed," 227 (see Vernonia) "Ironwiood," 196, 204, 219, 238, 259, 273, 287, 292, 305, 322, 331, 401 (see also Carpinus) Isolepis (see Stenophyllus) Isopappus, 263, 276, 285. 293 Isopyrum. 199 -/
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426 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Itea, 198, 206, 220, 250, 261, 274, 293, 299, 306, 312, 333< 350 Iva frutcscens, 245. 250, 306, 340, 342 imbricata, 341, 342 "Ivy," 206, 214, 220, 235, 407 poison (see Poison ivy) "Japanese clover," 275, 294, 409 "Japanese honeysuckle," 273 Jatropha stimulosa (see Cnidoscolus) "Jessamine," yellow (see Gelsemium) "Johnson grass," 199 Juglans, 197, 213, 278, 401 Juncus abortivus, 287 biflorus, 252 candatus (see J. trigonocarpus) efifusus, 220, 275, 334 megacephalus, 308, 341 repens, 198, 207, 286 Roemerianus, 236. 246, 252, 299, 307, 333, 341 scirpoides compositus, 252, 287, 300, 324 trigonocarpus, 237 "Juniper," 208, 234, 238, 253, 324, 334342, 400 (see also Chamaecyparis) Juniperus. 196, 208, 212, 219, 278, 295, 305, 316, 324, 331, 340, 364, 400 K. Kalmia hirsuta. 250, 307, 312, 323332, 407 latifolia, 206, 214, 215, 220, 235, 407 Kneiffia, 220, 276 Kosteletzkya, 341 Kraunhia (see Wistaria) Kuhnistera, 207, 236, 252, 263, 264, 285, 294, 299, 307, 317, 323, 408, 409 Lachnanthes (see Gyrotheca) Lachnocaulon anceps, 238, 251, 334 Beyrichianum? 287, 324 Michauxii (see L. anceps) Laciniaria, 288 Chapmani, 246, 285, 287 elegans, 286, 294 gracilis, 287, 300 spic-ata, 307 tenui folia, 237, 285, 288, 294, 308 Lantana Camara, 274, 277, 341 Sellowiana, 274, 277 Laportea (see Urticastrum) "Laurel," (see Kalmia latifolia) Lechea, 286, 295, 300 Legouzia (see Specularia) Leguminosae ("leguminous plants"), ^77, 17Q. 180, 188, 200, 208, 215, 221, 224, 238, 246. 253, 264, 278, 288, 295, 300, 309, 313, 319, 321, 325, 335. 336> 342, 394-396, 407-409 Leitneria, 251 Lemna. 341 Lepidium. 275, 294 Leptamnium (see Epiphegus) Leptilon Canadense, 275, 294. 318 Leptocaulis (see Spermolepis) Leptopoda, 237, 251, 334 Lespedeza hirta, 276, 300, 318, 409 striata, 275, 294, 409 Leucothoe axillaris, 214,, 261, 263, 407 elongata, 407 (see next) racemosa, 206,261,284,312, 350,407 Liatris (see Laciniaria, Trilisa) "Lichens," 178, .186, 267 s Limodorum. 334 "Lin," 205. 212, 238, 259, 272, 291, 305, 324, 334, 342, 405 (see also Tilia) Linaria Canadensis, 275 Linum Floridanum, 238 Lippia. 307, 309, 341. 398 Liquidambar, 196, 204, 212, 2t8, 234, 249, 258, 263, 272, 283, 291, 298, 304. 312, 3t6, 322. 331, 335, 340, 348. 354, 403 406 (see also Sweet gum) Liriodendron, 197, 204, 212, 219, 226, 234, 249, 258. 263, 273, 278. 287, 295. 298, 309,332,331,334,342.403 Lithospermum Gmelini, 227, (236) tuberosum, 214 "Live oak," 197, 204, 205, 221, 234, 238, 24s, 247, 250, 259. 272, 277, 283, 202, 29s, 305, 316. 322, 331, 340, 342, 372, 390, 402 (see also Quercus geminata and Q. Virginiana) "Loblolly," 196 (see Magnolia) "Loblo'ly bay," 405 (see Gordonia) "Loblolly pine " 106, 221 (see Pinus Taeda) "Locust" (see Gleditschia. Honey locust)
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INDEX OF PLANT NAMES. 427 "Long-leaf pine," 178, 184-185. 195, 196, 200, 203, 204, 208, 209, (211), 212, 218, 226, 228, (229,) 230, 231, 233, 234. 239-241, 244, 24s, 247-249, 255, 256, 258, 266, 271, 272, 279, 282, 283, 290, 291, 295, 298, 304, 309, 311, 315. 316, 319, (321), 322, 327, 330, 331,' 33(^, 339, 342, 348, 350, 35S, 3C>2, 364, 372. 378, 380, (384). 397, 398, 400, 413 (see also Pinus palustris) "Long moss," (see Spanish moss, Ti'jandsia usneoides) Lonicera Japonica, 273 sempervirens, 273 Lophiola, 208, 236. 246, 251 Lorinseria, 220, 263, 276 "Love-vine," 313 Ludwigia capitata (see Lsuffruticosa) lanceolata, 308 maritima, 341 pilosa, 208, 263, 286 siififriiticosa, 208, 285 virgata, 252, 324 Liulwigiantha, 287 "Lupine," 286, 300, 408 Lupinus perennis, 300, 408 villosus, 286, 300, 408 Lycopodinm alopecuroides, 237, 318 Carolinianum, 237, 252 Lycopus. 286 Lygodesmia, 286, 299, 318, 324 Lyonia (see Pieris) Ly thrum, 308 M. Macranthera, 238 "Magnolia," 196, 204, 211, 212, 218, 226, 234. 245. 249, 258, 272, -83, (287), 291, 295, 298. 30s, 312, 316, 322, 331, 340, 348, 403 Magnolia foetida (isee M. grandiflora) Fraseri (see M. pyramidata) glauca, 196, 204, 212, 218, 226, 234. 245, 249, 258, 263, 272, 283, 292, 295, 298, 305, 311, 322, 331, 342. 360. 366, 403, 406 grandiflora, 196, 204, 212, 218, 226. 234, 24s, 249, 258, 263, 272, 277, Magnolia — Continued 283, 287, 291. 298, 305, 312, 316, 322, 331, 340, 348, 403, 406 macrophylla, 199, 219, 221, 278, 403 pyramidata, 219, 221, 403 Virginiana (see M. glauca) "Maiden-cane," 207, 262, 274, 313, 323, 372 "Maidenhair fern," 214 Ma'.us, 205, 212, (221), 259, 263, 272, 287, 292, 324, 403 "Maple," 196, 197, 204, 205, 212, 219, 234, 246, 249, 258, 272, 273, 283, 292, 300, 305, 311, 316, 322, 331, 342, 404 Marginaria (see Polypodium) Marshallia, 334 Maruta (see Anthemis) Mayaca, 237, 286 "May haw," 197, 203, 205, 235, 260, 273, 316, 352, 403 Medicago Arabica (maculata), 276, 408 Meibomia laevigata, 199, 409 nudiflora, 199, 409 purpurea, 276, 294, 409 rigida, 295, 409 Melia, 197, 212, 219, 259, 272 Melica, 214 Mesadenia diversifolia, ig8 Floridana, 324 sulcata, 236 Mesosphaerum, 276 radiatum (rugosum), 287, 307, 313,. 398 "Mexican clover," (275), 293 Mikania, 307 "Milkweed." 198. 220, 286 Mimosaceae, 407, 408 "Mistletoe," 206, 213, 235, 250, 261, 274, 312, 317. 323, 332 Mitchella, 198, 208, 214, 220, 263, 275, 294, 342 "Mock orange," 212, 404 Mohrodendron (see Halesia) Monarda punctata, 294, 342 Monniera acuminata, 308, 398 Caroliniana, 299 Morella (see Myrica) "Morning-glory," 294, 308, 334, 341, 390
PAGE 434
428 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Morongia, 199, 208, 276, 286, 299, 408 Morus, 197, 205, 212, (221), 259, 263, '272. 305, 324, 331, 342, 403 "Moss," Spanish, (see Spanish moss, Tillandsia usneoides) "Mosses," 178, 186 Muhlenbergia expansa (see M. trichopodes) filipes, 307, 341 trichopodes, 208, 238 "Mulberry," 197, 205, 212, 221, 259, (263), 272, 305, 324, 331, 342, 403 French (see French mulberry) "Muscadine," 198, 213, 219, 235, 260, 273, 284. 292, 296, 306, 317, 322, 332, 340 (see also Bullace) Myrica, 300 Carolinensis, 206, 235, 250, 299 cerifera, 197, 205, 213, 219, 234, 245, 250, 260, 273, 284, 293, 298, 305, 312, 316, 322, 331, 340. 401 inodora, 206, 208. 235, 238, 299. 300, 401 pumila, 206, 235, 250, 261, 263. 284, 299, 306, 312, 317, (318), 323, 332 Myriophyllum, 199 "Myrtle," 197, 205, 206, 213, 219, 234, 235, 245, 250, 260, 261, 273, 284, 293, 298, 299, 305, 306, 312. 316, 317, 322, 323. 331, 332, 401 N. Nama corymbosa, 308 "Narrow-leaf black-jack oak," 230, 402 (see Quercus cinerea) "Needle palm," 198, 214, 261, 307 Negundo (see Acer Negundo) Nelumbo, 276 Neopieris (see Pieris Mariana) "Nettle," 199, 275, 28s, 300. 318, 341 Nothoscordum, 199 Nuphar (see Nymphaea) "Nut-grass," 275 N3^mphaea chartacea, 198 fluviatilis, 252, 364 macrophylla, 263. 324, 334 odorata (see Castalia) orbiculata, 285 Nyssa, 324, 342 (see also Black gum, Tupelo gum) Nyssa — Continued aquatica, 405 (see N. uniflora) biflora, 196, 204, 218, 234, 245, 249, 258, 272, 283, 292, 298, 305, 311, 331, 366, 405, 406 capitata (same as next) Ogeche. 186, 204., 205, 208, 235, 238, 249, 260, 263, 284. 298, 331, 405 sylvatica, 197, 213, 219, 273. 405 uniflora, 196, 204, 219, 238, 249, 259, 263, 272, 292, 334, 405 O. "Oak." 175, 197. 204, 213, 246, 250, 253. 255, 305, 309, 324, 334. 342, 406 black, 272, 277, 402 black-jack, 196, 197, 204, 212, 219, 224, 226, 230, 233, 234, 244, 245, 249, 258, 259, 272, 277, 282-284, 287, 292, 298, 305, 312, 315, 316, Z22, 330, 331, 362, 376, 402 chestnut white, 402 (see Quercus Michauxii) dollar-leaf, 402 evergreen willow, 196, 402 (see Q. laurifolia) forked-leaf black-jack, 402 live, 197, 204, 205, 234, 238, 245, 247, 250, 259, 272, 277, 283, 292, 295, 305, 316, 322, 331. 335. 340, 342, 372, 402 narrow-leaf black-jack, 230, 402 overcup, 402 poison (see Poison oak, Rhus Toxicodendron) post, 194, 196, 204, 218, 219, 226, 230, 234, 238, 259, 268, 272, 277, 283, 284, 291, 292, 298, 30s, 316, 322, 402 red, 194, 196, 204, 212, 213, 218, 230, 234. 258. 268, 271. 272. 2-77, 283, 287, 291, 305, 316. 331. 346, 374, 378, 380. 397, 402 round-leaf black-jack, 230. 287, 402 (see Q. Marj'-landica) scrub, 231 Spanish, 194, 196, 268 swainp chestnut, 197, 204. 212, 219, 249, 259, 272, 292, 305. 402 swamp post, 197, 204, 212, 249, 316, 402
PAGE 435
INDEX OF PLANT NAMES. 429 "Oak."— Continued. turkey, 197, 204, 212, 219, 234, 245, 240, 259, 282-284, 291, 298, 30s, 311, 315, 316, 322, 331, 335. 402 upland willow, 402 water, 196, 204, 212, 219, 234, 249, 258, 272, 277, 283, 292, 305, 312, 316, 322, 331, 402 white, 196, 205, 212, 218, 238, 259, 272, 291, 334, 402 willow, 197, 402 "Oak runner," 206, 230, 235, 250, 256, 261, 274, 284, 285, 298, 306, 312, 317, 323, 332 "Oats," sea, 246, 339, 341 wild, 208, 230, 236, 286 Oenothera biennis, 275 cruciata, 294 humifusa, 341 linearis (see Kneiffia) speciosa (see Hartmannia) "Ogeechee lime," 405 (see Nyssa Ogeche. Tupelo gum) Onoclea, 215 Onosmodium, 238 Oplismenus, 214, 295 Opuntia Pes-Corvi, 342 vulgaris, 318 "Orchids," 208, 220, 221, 295, 308, 334, 342 Orontinm, 237 Osmanthus, 197, 205, 213, 219, 234, 260, 273, 284, 292, 298, 306, 322, 340, 406 Osmunda cinnamomea, 207, 220, 237, 252. 262, 276, 300, 313, 323, 333, 348 regalis, 238, 252, 263, 299, 334 Ostrya, 196, 205, 212, 219, 234, 259, 272, 277, 283, 287, 292, 309, 324. 331. 335. 342, 401 "Overcup oak," 402 (see Quercus lyrata) Oxalis, 275 Oxydendrum, 200, 212, 218, 234, 245, 259. 263, 273, 295, 309, 324, 342, , 40s, 407, 408 Oxypolis filiformis, 208, 236 P. Pachysandra, 139, 200 Paepalanthus (see Syngonanthus) "Palmetto," 198, 206, 213, 220, 236, 250, 261, 306, 323, 332 (see also Cabbage palmetto, Sabal, Saw palmetto, Serenoa) "Palms," (see above, also Needle palm, Rhapidophyllum) Pancratium (see Hymenocallis) Panicum, 252, 300 angustifolium? 207, 237 commutatum, 276 digitarioides (see P. hemitomon) erectifolium? 246 gibbum, 276 hemitomon, 207, 262, 274, 285, 313, 323. 333, 372 proliferum, 277 •sanguinale (see Syntherisma) virgatum, 308 Paronychia riparia, 294 "Parsley haw," 403 (see Crataegus apiifolia) Parthenocissus, 197, 205, 213, 219, 250, 260, 273, 277, 292, 306, 317, 322, 332, 340 "Partridge-berry," 198, 208, 214, 220, 263, 27s, 294, 342 "Partridge-pea," 227, 236, 275, 286, 287, 294, 299, 307, 317, 408 Paspalum, 276 "Pawpaw," 198, 206, 220, 227, 262, 274, 284, 293, 317, 323, 332, 333, 341 Pentstemon hirsutus, 207, 221, 237 multiflorus, 285, 286 "Peppergrass," 275, 294 Persea, 208, 278, 287 Borbonia, 197, 259, 263, 292, 305, 316, 340, 405 humilis, 322, 324, 405 pubescens, 234, 260, 298, 322, 331, 405 "Persimmon," 186, 197, 205, 219, 227, 246, 259, 260, 272, 277, 284, 291, 300, 305, 316, 323, 331, 342, 405 Petalostemon albidus, 287, 294, 308, 408 corymbosus (see Kuhnistera) Phaseolus, 276, 409 Phegopteris, 215 Phlox amoena, 221 divaricata, 214 Drummondii, 334
PAGE 436
430 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Phoradendron, 206, 213, 235, 250, 261, 274, 312, 317, 2>22>, 332 Phragmites, 252 Phyla (see Lippia) Phyllanthus, 341 Phytolacca rigida, 277, 294 Piaropus, 324, 333 Pieris Mariana, 284, 287, 408 nitida, 206, 235, 245, 261, 284, 299, 306, 312, 317, 323. 332, 407 phillyreifolia, 205, 235, 260, 298, 300, 312, 407 Pinckneya, 214, 235, 250, 261, 263 "Pine," 175, 189222, 229, 243, 257, 297, 321, 384, 397. 406, 413, 414 black (see Black pine) loblolly, 196, 221 (see Pinus Taeda) long-leaf (see Long-leaf pine) pitch (see Pinus Caribaea) short-leaf (see Pinus echinata, P. Taeda) slash (see Slash pine) spruce (see Spruce pine) yellow (see Pinus palustris, P. Elliottii) Pinguicula pumila, 308 Pinus Caribaea, 234. 245, 298, 305, 331, 360, 400 clausa, 178, 234, 238, 244, 245, 246, 249, 278, 321, 322, 324, 331, 342, 362, 384. 400 echinata, 178, 196, 204, 212, 218, 222, 224. 234, 253, 258, 263, 271, 272, 277, 287, 291, 305, 308, 324, 334, 342, 372, 374, 400, 406 Elliottii, 178, 196, 204, 219, 226, 234, 245, 249, 258, 272, 283, 295, 298, 304, 311, 316, 322, 331, 334, 340, 358, 360, 382, 386, 400, 406 (see also Slash pine) glabra, 196, 204, 212, 218, 234, 249, 258, 263, 272, 292, 308, 316, 324, 334. 342. 400 mitis (see P. echinata) palustris, 178, 196, 204, 212, 218, 226, 234, 24s, 249, 258, 263, 272, 283, 291, 298, 304. 311, 316, 322, 331, 339. 342, 362, 368, 376, (384), 400, 406 (see also Long-leaf pine) serotina, 178, 199, 208, 219, 226, Pinus. — Continued. 234, 249, 258, 278, 283, 287, 292, 298, 305, 311, 322, 331, 339, 340. 368, 400, 406 Taeda, 178, 196, 204, 212, 218, 221, (224), 234, 249. 258, 263, 272, 277, 283, 291, 298, 304, 312, 316, 322, 331, 342, 352, 356, 400, 406 Piriqueta, 318 Pitch eria, 207, 208, 227, 236, 238, 246, 287, 299, 300, 409 "Pitcher-plant," 199, 206, 207, 236, 237, 246, 251-, 252, 313, 324, 333 "Pitch-pine," 298, 331 P'anera. 204, 212, 260, 316, 403 Plantago Virginica ("Plantain"), 274 Platanus, 199, 204, 212, 215, 249, 278, 403 Pleea, 236 Pluchea bifrons (foetida), 207, 287, 299, 307, 323, 334. 398 "Plums," 197, 205, 212, 213, 221, 238, 246, 253, 260, 273, 287, 292, 309, 316, 322, 324. 334, 342, 404 Pogonia ophioglossoides, 208 Poinsettia (see Euphorbia) "Poison ivy," 197, 205, 213, 235, 250, 261, 273, 292, 306, 332 "Poison oak," 206, 227, 236, 274, 284, 293, 3^7 "Poison sumac," 235, 262, 274, 299 "Pokeberry," 277, 294 Polycodium, 220, 274, 284, 293, 317, 341, 408 Polygala cruciata, 238 cymosa, 207, 238, 251, 312, 324, 333 grandiflora, 300 lutea, 208, 237. 246, 252, 300, 334 nana, 208, 221, 300 ramosa, 207, 237, 333 Rugelii, 313 setacea, 334 Polygonatum, 215 Polygonella, 245. 286 Polygonum hydropiperoides, 220, 276 Polymnia. 199, 276 PoVpodium. 214, 277, 294, 308, 342 Polypremum, 286 Polypteris, 286, 300 Polystichum, 199, 214, 220
PAGE 437
INDEX OF PLANT NAMES. 431 "Pond cypress," i97, 203, (204), 221, 226, (233), 234, (24»), 249, 258, (271), 272, (283), 295, (297), 298, 304,311, 316, 322, (324, 330), 331. 350, (352), 368, 372, 376, 380, 386, 400 Pontederia, 207, 237, 251, 263, 275, 287, 312, 333 "Poor grub," 250, 262, 332, 408 (see also Cholisma fruticosa) -Poplar," 197, 204. 212, 219, 226, 234, 246, 249, 258, (263), 273, (278), 287, 295, 298, 309, 322, 331. 334. 342, 403 Populus deltoides, 197.. 204, 212, 215, 249, 278, 401 heterophylla, 249, 253, 401 "Possum haw," 251, 262 (see also Viburnum nudum) "Post oak" (Quercus Margaretta), 204, 219, 226, 230, 234259, 283, 284, 292, 298, 316, 322, 402 (Quercus stellata), I94, 196, 204, 218, 238, 259, 268, 272, 277, 291, 30s, 402 "Poverty weed," 199 (see also barothra) '•Prickly ash," 198, 214, 220, 261, 274, 317, 323332, 340 "Prickly pear," 318, 342 Prunus, 273, 287, 292, 309, 324, 334, 342, 404 Americana, I97> 212, 404 angustifolia, I97, 205, 219, 260, 273, 316, 322 Caroliniana, 212, 404 Chicasa (see P. angustifolia) serotina, I97. 259, 272, 292 umbellata, 197. 205, 213, 219, 260, 273, 292, 316, 404 Psilocarya, 287, 288 Psoralea canescens, 208, 237, 263, 264, 285, 295, 300, 317, 323, 333, 408 Lupinellus, 286, 408 Ptelea, 214 Pteridium (or Pteris), 207, 220, 227, 236, 252, 263, 264. 275. 28s. 293, 299. 307, 312. 317, 323, 333, 341 Pterocaulon, 251, 263, 286, 299, 307, 312. 317, 323, 333 Pyrrhopappus (see Sitilias) Pyrus (see Aronia, Malus) "Queen's delight," 220, (237), 286, 293. 299, 308, 318 Quercus, 324 acuminata (see Q. Muhlenbergii) alba. 196, 205, 212, 218, 259, 263, 272, 291, 334, 402 aquatica (see Q. nigra) brevifolia (see Q. cinerea) Catesbaei, I97, I99, 204, 208, 212, 219, (224), 226, 231, 234, 245, 249, 258, 263, 278, 283, 284, 291, 298, 305, 3^2, 316, 322, 331, 362, 376, 402, 406 Chapmani, 322, 402 cinerea, I97, 204, 212, 219, 226, 230, 234, 24s, 249, 259, 263, 278, 283, 284, 291, 298, 305, 312, 316, 322, 331, 402, 406 digitata (see Q. falcata) falcata, I9f>. 200, 204, 212, 218, 230, 234, 258, 263, 272, 283, 287. 291, 305, 316. 33h 335, 374, 402, 406 (see also Red oak) geminata, 199. 205, 234, 245, 250, 259, 278, 283, 295, 305, 316. 322, 33'^, 340, 402 hybrida? 305, 3i6, 402 laurifolia, 196, 204, 212, 219, 226, 234. 258, 272, 277, 283, 291, 30s, 3t6, 322, 331. 335, 340, 402 lyrata, 197, 204, 212, 249, 263, 316, 402 Margaretta, 204, 219, 226, 234, 259, 263, 283, 284, 292, 298, 316, 322, 402 Marylandica, 196, 200, 204, 219, (224), 230, 234, 259, 263, 272, 277. 287, 292. 295, 402 Michauxii, I97, 204, 212, 219, 249, 259, 263, 272, 287, 292, 305. 402 minima. 206, 250, 284, 298, 306, 312. 323, 332 minor (see Q. stellata) Muhlenbergii. 197, 213, 402 myrtifolia, 24S, 246, 250, 306, 322. 332, 340, 362, 402
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43:^ FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Quercus. — Continued. nigra, 196, 204, 212, 219, 234, 249, 258, 272, 283, 292, 305, 312, 316, 322, 331, 402 obtusiloba (see Q. stellata) pagodaefolia, 213, 215, 402 Phellos, 197, 208, 278, 402 pumila, 206, 208, 230, 235, 238, 250, 261, 263, 274, 285, 298, 306, 312, 317, (318), 332 rubra, 402 Schneckii, 196, 212, 305, 346, 402 stellata, 196, 204, 218, 238, 259, 272, 291. 305, 402 tinctoria (see Q. velutina) triloba (see Q. falcata) velutina, 272, 402 virens (same as next) Virginiana, 197, 204, 259, 263, 272, 283, 292, 305, 316, 322, 331, 335, 340. 402 (see also Live oak) R. "Ragweed," 246, 274, 294, 307, 341 "Rattan vine," 198, 205, 213, 261, 284, 292, 306, 312, 332 "Red bay," 197, 234, 259, 260, 287, 292, 298, 305, 312, 316, 322, 331, 340, 405 "Redbud," 196, 204, 212, 219, 238, 259, 272, 292, 30s, 316, 324, 346, 404, 408 "Red cedar,'' (see Cedar, Juniperus) "Red gum," 403 (see Liquidambar, Sweet gum) "Red haw," 204, 213, 273, 292 (see also Crataegus) "Red maple," 404 (see Acer rubrum) "Red oak," 194, 196, 204, 212, 213, 218, 230, 234, 258, 268, 271, 272, 277, 283, 287. 291, 30s, 316, 331, 346, 374. 378, 380, 397, 402 (see also Quercus falcata, Q. pagodaefolia, Q. Schneckii) "Red-shank," 198, 235, 274 (see also Ceanothus Americanus) "Reed," 213, 235, 250, 261, 274 "Reed-grass,*' 252 Rhamnus, 198, 341 Rhapidophyllum, 198, 214, 261, 263, 307 Rhexia Alifanus, 206, 236, 246, 251, 263, 299, 323, 333 ciliosa, 237 glabella (see R. Alifanus) lutea, 251, 333 Mariana, 287 stricta, 208 Rhododendron (see Azalea) Rhus copallina, 198, 206, 213, 220, 235, 261, 263, 274, 284, 293, 306, 317, (318), 323, 332, 340 radicans, 197, 205, 213, 235, 250, 261, 273, 274, 292, 306, 332 Toxicodendron, 206, 227, 236, 274, 284, 293, 317 Vernix, 235, 262, 274, 299 Rhynchosia (see Dolicholus) Rhynchospora alba, 237 axillaris, 237 Baldwinii, 238 capitata (see R, Tracyi) cephalantha (see R. axillaris) Chapmani, 237, 246, 252 corniculata, 207, 252 dodecandra, 246, 324 Grayii, 207. 236, 286, 294, 299 leptorhyncha, 246 miliacea, 307 rariflora, 238 semiplumosa, 252 Tracyi, 237 Richardia (Richardsonia) scabra, 275, 293 Rosa Carolina, 251, 262, 293, 306 laevigata, 273 "Rose," Cherokee, 273 wild, 251, 262, 293, 306 "Rosemary," 236, 245, 317, 323, 333, 341, 362, 384 "Rosemary pine," 218, (see Pinus echinata) "Round-leaf black-jack oak," 230, 287, 402 (see also Quercus Marylandica) Rubus cuneifolius, 198, 206, 220, 235, 261, 274, 284, 293, 317, 323, 332 trivialis, 273 Rudbeckia, 199 foliosa, 307 Ruellia humilis, 287
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INDEX OF PLANT NAMES. 433 Rumex hastatulus, 220, 263, 275, 318 "Rush," 220, 236, 246. 275, 334, 339, 341 Rynchospora (see Rhynchospora) S. Sabal Adansonii (same as next) glatira, 198, 206, 213, 220, 236, 250, 261, 263, 323, 332 Palmetto, 249, 259, 263, 278, 295, 304. 316, 322, 331, 340, 382, 401 (see also Cabbage palmetto) Sabbatia campanulata, 252 decandra, 300 macrophylla, 238, 251 stellaris, 342 Sabina (see Juniperus) "Sage," 227 (see also Salvia) Sageretia, 306, 341 Sagittaria lancifolia, 237, 251, 300, 308, 312, 334, 341, 378 latifolia, 276 natans lorata? 199, 294 variabilis (see S. latifolia) Salicornia, 342 Salix, 287, 295, 324, 342 Floridana, 401 humilis, 274 longipes? 250, 278, 292, 305, 331, 340, 401 nigra 197, 204, 212, 219, 235, 249, 259, 26Z, 272, 308, 316, 334, 401 Salomonia (see Polygonatum) Salvia azurea, 237 lyrata, 198, 276, 307 Sambucus, 220, 261, 263, 274, 323 "Samphire," 342 "Sand-spur," 276, 277, 285, 294, 308 Sanguinaria, igg, 214 Sanicula gregaria, 198 Mary]andica, 199, 276 Sapindus, 405 Sarothra. 199, 285, 294 Sarraoenia Drummondii, 236, 252 flava, 199, 206, 236, 251, 348 minor, 324, 333 psittacina, 207, 237, 246, 251, 313 'purpurea, 237 variolaris (see S. minor) Sassafras, 186, 197, 199, 238, 273, 277, 291, 293, 295, 316, 405 Saururus, 208, 215, 24O, 252, 263, 276, 307. 333, 342 "Savin," 400 (see Tumion) "Saw-grass." 173, 236, 246. 251, 299, 307, 312, 323, 333, 358, 364, 398 'Saw-palmetto," 198, 206, 221, 227, 235, 24s, (246), 247, 250, 253, 255, •256, 261, (263), 271, 284. 287, 293, 298, 306, 312, 313, 317, 318, 323, 330, 332, 340, 362, 364, 368, 397 Schizachyrium (see Andropogon) Schizandra, 213 Schmaltzia (see Rhus) • Schrankia (see Morongia) Scirpus Americanus, 341 lacustris (see S. validus) pungens (see S. Americanus) validus, 252, 294, 364 Scleria glabra, 227, 237, 286, 299, 318 triglomerata, 341 Scrophularia, 199 "Scrub oak," 231 Scutellaria multiglandulosa, 286, 318 "Sea oats," 246, 339, 341 "Seaside morning-glory," 380 "Seaweeds," 243 Sebastiana, 198, 206, 213, 262, 307 "Sedges," 177, 199, 207, 221, 227, 236238, 246, 251, 252, 263, 286, 287, 294, 299, 300, 307, 308, 318, 324. 341, 342 Selaginella apus. 214, 215 Septilia (see Monniera) Senecio lobatus, 214, 252 obovatus, 199 Serenoa, 198. 206, (221), 227, 235, 245, 246, (247), 250, (253, 25s, 256)! 261, 263, (271), 284, 287, 293, 298, 306, 312, (313), 317. (318), 323, (330), 332, 340, 362, 368 Sericocarpus bifoliatus (tortifolius), 208, 252, 276, 285, 294, 300, 308, 318, 324 "Service-berry," 205, 219 Sesbania vesicaria (see Glottidium) "Seven-bark," 198, 213 Seymeria (see Afzelia) "Short-leaf pine" (Pinus echinata), 196, 204, 212, 218. 222, 234, 246, 253, 258, 268, 269-272, 277, 287,
PAGE 440
434 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY— SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. ''Short-leaf pine"— Continued 291, 305, 308, 324, 334, 342, Zl^, 374, 400 (Pinus Taeda), 196, 204, 211, 212. 218, 224, 234, 246, 249, 255, 258. 272, 283, 291, 298, 304, 312, 316, 322, 331, 342, 352. 356, 400 Sida acuta (carpinifolia), 276 rhombifolia, 275 Silphium compositum, 318, 324, 334 "Si'.ver maple," 404 (see Acer saccharinum) Siphonychia. 246 Sisyrinchium, 299 Sitilias, 275 "Slash pine," 196, 203, 204, 209. 219, 226, 233234, 244, 245. 249, 258, 272, 283, 295, 298, 304, 309. 311, 316, 322, 330, 331, 336, 340. 358, 400 (see also Piuus Elliottii) "Slippery elm," 212, 348, 403 "Smartweed," 220, 276 Smilax auriculata (Beyrichii), 245, 322, 340 glauca, 273 lanceolata, 197, 213, 219, 260, 263, 273, 279 laurifolia, 205, 213, 235, 245, 250, 260, 284, 298, 306, 312, 322, 332, 335 pumila, 199, 214, 220, 263, 276, 293, 342 rotundifolia? 274 Walteri, 205, 235, 250, 260, 284, 306, 312, 332, 335 "Smilax," wild, I97, 213, 219, 260, 273, 279 "Snake-root," 215 (see also Eryngium, Laciniaria, Sanicula) Solanum Carolinense, 275 Solidago amplexicaulis, 198 Chapmani, 342 odora, 208, 276, 285, 293, 300 pauciflosculosa (see Chrysoma) tenuifolia (see Centhamia) Soncbus. 276 Sorghastrum Linneanum, 277 nutans, 277 secundum. 208, 230, 236, 277, 286 Sorghum Halepense, 199 "Sorrel," 220, 263, 275, 3^8 "Sourwood," 212, 218, 234. 245, 253, 259, 273, 295, 309, 324, 342. 405, 408 (see also Oxydendrum) "Spanish bayonet," 340, 401 "Spanish moss," 179, 207, 214. 220, 227, 236, 251, 262, 274, 279, 285, 293, 295. 299, 307. 3^2, 317, 323. 333, 34^, 372-376 (see also Tillandsia usneoides) "Spanish needles," 276, 294 "Spanish oak," 194. 196, 268 "Sparkleberry,". 197, 205, 213. 219, 234, 245, 260, 273, 284, 292, 305, 316, 322, 340, 405. 408, 409 Spartina Bakeri, 308. 324, 334, 34i, 360 glabra (see S. stricta) gracilis (juncea), 246 junciformis, 360 maritima (see S. stricta) patens (see S. gracilis) stricta, 334, 34i, 388 Specu^.aria. 275 Spermolepis, 275, 294 "Spider-lily." 199, 208 Sporobolus ejuncidus (see next), gracilis, 237, 285, 295, 299, 3o8, 318, 324 Indicus, 274 junceus (see S. gracilis) "Spruce pine" (Pinus clausa), 234, 244, 245, 249, 258, 322, 331. 342. 362, (384), 400 (Pinus glabra), 196, 204, 212, 218, 234. 249, 272, 292, 308, 316, 324, 334. 342, 400 Stel'.aria (see Alsine) Stenophyllus ciliatifnlius, 285, 324 Floridanus, 263, 286, 293 Warei, 246. 318. 324 Stewartia (see Stuartia) Stillingia aquatica. 206, 250, 306 ligustrina (see Sebastiana) sylvatica, 207. 220, 237, 286, 293, 299, 308. 318 "Stink-bush," 214, 220, 235 "Stinking cedar," 212, 354400 (see also Torreya. Tumion) "Strawberry bush," 198, 214 (see also Euonymus)
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INDEX OF PLANT NAMES. 435 Stuartia, 220, 221 Stylisma (see Breweria) Stylosanthes, 208, 286, 295, 300, 409 Styrax Americana, 206, 274, 284, 306 grandifolia, 213, 220 "Sugar-berry," (see Celtis) ' "Sugar-maple," 196, 205, 212, 219, 404 "Sumac," T98, 206, 213, 220, 235, 261, 274, 284, 293, 306, 317, 323, 332. 340 poison, 235, 262. 274, 299 "Summer farewell," 207, 236, 246, 252, 263, 285, 294, 299, 307, 317, 3^3, 408 "Sundew,'' 252 (see also Drosera) Svida (see Cornus asperifolia, C. stricta) "Swamp chestnut oak," 197, 204, 212, 219, 259, 272, 292, 305, 402 "Swamp hickory," 204, 213, 401 "Swamp post oak," 197, 204, 212, 249, 316, 402 "Sweet bay," (see Persea, Red bay) "Sweet gum," 194, 196, 204, 212, 218, 234. 246, 249, 258, 268, 272, 277, 283, 291, 298, 304, 312, 316, 322, 331, 335, 340. 348, 354, 370, 403 (see also Liquidambar) "Sycamore," 204. 212, 238, 249, 403 (see also Platanus) Symplocos. 197, 205, 213, 219, 234, 260, 263, 273, 292, 405 Syndesmon, 214, 215 Syngonanthus, 246. 251, 285, 308, 313 Syntherisma sanguinale, 275, 294 Tamala (see Persea) "Tan bay," 400 (see Gordonia) Taxodium, 305, 324, 342 (see also Cypress) ascendens (see T. imbricarium) distichum, 196, 204, 212, 219, 234, 238, 246, 249, 259, 263, 273, 278, 283. 292, 304, 312, 316, 322, 331, 364. 378, 382, 400 imbricarium, 178, 197, 204, 226, (232, 233), 234, 245. 249, 258 (271), 272. 283, 295. 298, 304, 311, 3t6, 322. (330), 33T, 350, 352, 368, 372, 376, 380, 386, 400, 406 Taxus Floridana, 213, 215, 401 "Tea-weed," 275 Tecoma, 197, 213, 219, 250, 261, 263, 273, 306, 332 Tephrosia (see Cracca) Teucrium, 334, 342 Thaspium, 198 "Thistle." 341 Thyrsanthema (see Chaptalia) Tiedemannia (see Oxypolis) "Tietie, tighteye," (see Tyty) Tilia, 199, 212, 238, 334, 342 Floridana, 205, 405 pubcscens, 259, 263, 272. 291, 305. 40s Tillandsia tenuifolia, 307, 334 usneoides, 198, 207, 214, 220, 227, 236, 251, 262, 264, 274, 285, 293, 299, 307, 312, 317, 323, 333, 341, 372, 374, 386 (see also Spanish moss Tipularia, 215, 221 Tithymalopsis, Tithymalus (see Euphorbia) "Titi," (see Tyty) Tofieldia, 207, 2:^7 Torreya, 215, 411, 412 (see Tumion") Toxicodendron (see Rhus) Trachelospermum, 205 Tracyanthus, 251 Triadenum petiolatum, 199 Trichelostylis (see Fimbristylis) Tricuspis (see Triplasis) Trifolium Carolinianum, 274, 408 Trilisa odoratissima, 207, 220, 230, 237, 251, 263, 286, 313, 333 (see also Deer-tongue) paniculata, 252, 307 Trillium Hugeri, 199, 214, 221 lanceolatum, 215 Triplasis Americana, 285 Tubiflora, 307 Tumion, 21/2, 215. 354. 400, 412 ".Tupelo gum," 196, 204, 205, 209, 219, 23s, 238, 249, 253, 259, 260, 272, 284, 292. 298. 324, 331, 334, 342, 405 (see also Nyssa Ogeche, N. uniflora) "Turkey oak," 197, 204, 212, 219, 226, 234, 245, 249, 259, 282-284, 291, 298, 305, 309, 312, 316, 331, 402
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436 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Typha, 252, 308 "Tyty," 197, 205, 206, 213, 219, 226, 227, 233, 234, 244, 245, 250, 253, 260, 261, 2-72>, 284, 287, 292, 298, 305, 309, 312, 316, 331. 360, 404 U. Ulmus, 278, 287, 324, 342 alata, 205, 305, 403 . Americana, 197, 212, 249, 403 Floridana, 197, 205. 249, 305, 316, 331, 403 fulva, 212, 348, 403 Uniola nitida, 308 paniculata, 246, (339), 34i "Upland willow oak," 402 (see Quercus cinerea) Urticastrum, 199 Utriciilaria cornuta, 246 inflata, 276 Vaccinium arboreum (see Batodendron) Myrsinites (see next) nitidum, 206, 227, 235, 250, 261, 284, 293. 299, 306, Z'2Z, 332, 341. 408 stamineum (see Polycodium) virgatum? 206, 220, 221, 262, 307, 408 "Vanilla," 230 (see Trilisa odoratis•sima) Verbena carnea (Carolina), 207, 237, 287 Vernonia angustifolia, 207, 227, 237, 28s, 294, 299, 318 Viburnum acerifolium, 224 densiflorum, 220, 224 nudum, 235, 251, 262, 299, 332 obovatum, 198, 206, 208, 214, 261, 284, 306, 317 prunifolium (see next) rufidulum (rufotomentosum), 197, 205, 213, 273, 292, 406 semitomentosum, 198, 206, 220 Vicia acutifolia, 308, 409 Viola afifinis? 199 lanceolata, 308 muUicaulis, 214 villosa, 214 "Violet," 199, 214, 308 "Virginia creeper," 197, 205, 213, 219, 250, 260, 273, 292, 306, 316, 322, 2,Z'2, 340 Vitis aestivalis, 213, 250, 261, 273, 284, 292, 306, 316, 332, 340 bipinnata (see Ampelopsis ar'borea) rotundifolia, 198, 213, 219, 235, 260, 263, 2-7^, 284. 292, 306, 316, 332, 335, 340 W. "Walnut," 197, 213, 401 "Water chinquapin," (see Nelumbo) "Water-grass," 286, 293 (see also Stenophyllus Floridanus) "Water-hyacinth," 324, 333 "Water-lily," 207, 262, 275, 286, 313, 324 "Water oak," 196, 204, 212, 234, 249, 258, 272, 277, 283, 292, 305, 312, 316, 322, 331, 402 "White cedar," 238 (see Chamaecyparis, Juniper) "White oak," 196, 205, 212, 218, 238, 239, 272, 291, 402 "White violet," 308 "Wild bean," 276 "Wild canna," 234 "Wild carrot," 199, (276) "Wild cherry," 197. 259, 272, 277, 292, (309), 342 "Wild goose plum," 404 (see Prunus Americana) "Wild grape," 213, 250, 261, 2Ti, 284, 292, 295, 296, 306, 317, 332, 340, 380 "Wild oats," 208, 230, 236, 286 "Wild plum," 197, 205. 212, 213, 219, 260, 273, 277, 316, 322 "Wild rice," 252 "Wild rose," 251, 262, 293, 306 "Wild, smilax," 197, 213, 260, 273, 279 "Wild yam," 214. 276 Willoughbya, Willugbaeya (see Mikania)
PAGE 443
INDEX OF PI-ANT NAMES. 437 "Willow," 197204, 212, 219, 235, 238, 246, 249, 250, 259, 272, 274, 287, 292, 295, 300, 305, 309, 316, 324, 340, 342, 401 "Willow oak," 197, 208, 402 "Wire-grass," 179, 206, 209, 214, 220, 226, 227, 230, 231, 236, 247, 251, 262, 271, 28s, 293, 299, 307, 312, 317, 323, 326, 327, 330, 333, 350, 397, 398 "Winkapin," 276 Wistaria, "Wisteria," 250, 317, 407, 408 "Witch-hazel," 214, 220, 245, 262, 293 Woodwardia angustifolia, areolata (see Lorinseria) Virginica (see Anchistea) X. Xanthorrhiza, 214, 215 Xanthoxylum, 260, 263, 340, 404 Xolisma, 405 (see ChoHsma) Xylopleurum (see Hartmannia) Xyris, 237, 287 Elliottii? 308 fimbriata, 208, 313 Xyris — Continued flexuosa, 251, 334 pallescens, 252 torta (see X. flexuosa) "Yankapin," 276 "Yaupon," 205, 234, 250, 260. 284, 298, 312, 316, 331, 404 "Yellow jessamine," 197, 205, 213, 219, 235, 260, 273, 284, 332 "Yellow pine," (see Long-leaf pine, Pinus paluistris) "Yellow poplar," (see Liriodendron. Poplar) Yucca aloifoHa, 340, 342, 401 Zamia, 317 Zanthorhiza (see Xanthorrhiza) Zanthoxylum (see Xanthoxylum) Zephyranthes (see Atamosco) Zizania, 252 Zygadenus angustifolius (see Tracyanthus)
PAGE 445
General Index A. Acid soils, 313, 328, 335 Adams, J. S., pamphlet by, 410 Agassiz, L., cited, 42 Agricultural developments, possibilities, etc., 173, 189, 201, 238, 246, 253, 27S. 288, 309. 319. 336, 342, 393 Alabama, 92, 93, 177, 184, 185, 193, 200, 201, 208, 217, 221, 223, 224, 229, 239. 267, 277, 279, 401, 406 Alachua, 264. 370 " clays (Alachua formation), 161, 162, 314 " County, 58, 119, 120, 134, 146, 25s, 265, 317, 319, 327. 329, 370, 384, 386, 398, 401, 476, (see also Archer, Gainesville, Micanopy, Payne's Prairie) " Lake, 120, 134-146, 154 " Sink, (t35, 136, 141), 145, 405 Alapaha Kiver, 47 Alaqua Creek, Walton Co., 217, 230, 233, 240 Algeria, phosphates of, 95 AlHgatoi Lake, 120, 133, 134, 138, 155 Alluvial bottoms, soils, swamps, 200, 210, 211, 247, 278, 300, 324, 400, 401, 404, 406 Altamaha Grit, 201, 210, 229, 326, 409 Altitude, 183, 210, 226, 232, 244, 248, 257, 270, 282, 303, 311, 3 IS, 328, 329, 338 Alumina in soils, 123, 195, 230, 269, 270, 281, 303, 328, 39S, 399 Alum Bluff, 211, 213, 232, 401 Alum Bluff formation, 34, 76-78, 89, 108, 156, 158, 210, 217 Amelia Island, 339, 340 Analyses of peat, 59-63 Analyses of soils (chemical), 195, 230, 269, 270, 281, 302, 328, 398 " mechanical or physical, 194, 225, 232, 243, 248, 256, 268, 281, 289, 311, Z-2-7 Anastasia Island, 40, 338-340, 388-391, 412 Anguar Island, phosphates of, 97 Animals (see Cattle, Fiddler crabs, Hogs, Insects, Subterranean animals) Annual plants, 282, 286, 335 Annuttalagga Hammock, 173 Anticline of Coffee Mill Hammock, 43 Ant-lion (see Doodle-bug) Ants, 181, 243, 248, 257, 282, 297, 314, 362 Apalachicola bluffs, 191, 210-216, 277, 352, 355, 395, 399, 400, 404, 405, 411 •' flatwoods, 191, 247-253, 297, 310, 364, 394, 395, 397, 398 " River, 202, 210, 215, 2ZZ, '2X7-'2a^% 253, 354, 364, 395, 401-406, 411, 412 Apatite, TZ Apiaries (see Honey) Archer, 183, 384 Arid climates or regions, 1.76, 339 Argillaceous limestone, 210 " sandstone, 201 Arkansas, 30, ZZ, 87, 88, 175 Artesian wells, 106-113, 203, 229, 271, 3T5, 330, (339), 414. (see also Wells) Aruba Island, phosphates, of, 98 Aspalaga Bluff, 210, 211, 352-355 Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, methods of analysis, 397, 398 Atlantic Refining Co., 34, 35 Attapulgus, Ga., fuller's earth at, Z2s Automobiles, 301, 338 B. Bagdad, 240 Baker County, (see Macclenny. Trail Ridge) Ball, John, cited, 95 Ball clay or plastic kaolin, 23, 24, (320) Barbour, G. M., book by, 410 Bartow Junction, clays, 23 Bartram, William, cited, 136, 410 439
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440 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Basins, 121, 124-131, I33-I37. 146-148, 151, 202, 282, 297, 314, 320, 339 Baygalls, 248 Bayous, 364 Bays, 202, 203, 225, 227, 233, 244-246, 248, 257, 264, 283, 297, 304, 311, 319, 330, 350, 364, 366, 380, 400, 403, 40s Beaches, 242, 243, 304, 338, 339, 360, 390 Beans, 253, 256, 265, 337 (see also Velvet beans) Bear Head, 232 Beef, 309 (see also Cattle) Bee-keeping, Beeswax, 253 (see also Honey) Beets, 265 Belden, H. L., soil surveys by, (229), 242, 302, 310, (41S) Belgium, phosphates of, 96 Bellair sand region, 28Q-288, 297, 314, 319, 376, 395, 399 Benhaden, altitude of, 282 Bennett, H. H., quoted, 255 Bibliographic references explained, 180 Bibliography, 410-416 Bjystra (Bystra), H. 149 Blackwater Bay, 239, 240 " River, 240, 358 Blowers Lime and Phosphate Co., 37 Blue Springs, 123, (i95), 202, (257, 303, 31s) Bluffs, 135, 158, 210, 232, 352-354, 404, 405 Boating, 301 Botanists, 174, I79, 187, 215, 253, (412) Bottoms, 210, 25s, 352, 37o, 400, 402404 Brackish marshes, 242, 244, 246, 298, 299, 304, 330, 338 Bradford County, 326-328, 370, 386, 415 Branches, branch-swamps, 202, 217, 232, 233, 256, 271, 272, 311, 360, 403, 404 Branner, J. C, cited, 88, 175 Brick and tile, 25, 255 Bristol, 210, 214 British Thermal Unit, 62 Britton, J. C, soil survey by, 193, (194, 201, 225, 415) Building stones of Florida, 40, 41, 193 Burchard, E. P., quoted, 37-39 Burnett, W. I., 329, 410 Burrowing animals, 182 (see also subterranean animals) Bush, B. F., cited, 247, 410 Buttgenbach, J. & Co., 95, 100 Byers, W. C, soil survey of Bradford Co., (326-328, 415) Bystra, H., (see Bjystra) Cabbage, 209, 241, 253, 256, 265, 325, 337 Calcareous soils or water, calcium, 123, 176, 177, 193, 238, 242, 255, 266, 280, 282, 300, 303-305, 307-309, 319, 336, 398, 400, 402-404, 406 influence on vegetation, 176, 177, 238, 243, 300, 302, 304, 305, 307309, 319, 335, 336, 339, 342, 393, 398, 400, 402-404, 406 Calhoun County, 248, 253 California, fuller's earth of, 33, 34 Caloosahatchee marl, 42, 58 " River, 41, 42, 161 Camel, fossil, 162 Cameron, W. W., 136 Campbellton, soil near, 194 Canals for logging, 239 Cane (see sugar cane) Cantaloupes, 253, 265, 337 Capitola, scene near, 368 Carbonic acid in marl, 302 Caribbean Sea, phosphates of islands of, 98 Carrabelle, climate of, 183 Carse, G. B., cited, 411 Car window notes, (178), I79, (226, 403, 412) Cattle, 145, 188, 209, 222, 279, 288, 309 (see also grazing) Caves. 195. 210, 257, 270, 303, 315321, 415 Cedar Keys, sand from, 47 Census figures or reports, 172, 174, 188, 194, 230, 239, 264, 268, 296, 302, 313393, 394, 414 Centerville, Leon Co., 272 Chapman, A. W., writings of, 210, 411 Chattahoochee formation, 54, 57, 76, 77, 147, 158, 193, 201, 210 " River, 202, 211, 215
PAGE 447
GENERAL INDEX 441 Chemical analyses of soils, etc., 195, 230, 268-270, 281, 302, 303, 328, 397, 398 comments on, 175, 176, 181, 256, 264, 290, 304, 335393, 397-399 Cherrapongee, rainfall of, 184 Chert, occurrence of in Florida, 57 Chief Engineer, State Drainage Commission, 41 Chimney rock, chimneys, 40, 193, 296 Chione cancellata, 42, 44 Chipola River, 193, 195, 248, 402, 403, 405 Chlorides, amount removed by solution, 123 Choctawhatchee formation. 217, 223 " National Forest, 240 " River, 239, 240, 247, 249, 397, 405 Christmas decorations, 279 Christmas Island, phosphates of, 98 Chuhb (see Bartow Junction) Cisterns, used in lime-sink region, 315 Citrous fruits, 256, 265, 325 Citrus County, 47, 60 Civilization, effects of, 185, 187 Civil War, 221, (415) Clapp, F. G., 193, 201, 210, 217, 225, 254, 266, 329, 358. 388, 413 Clarke, F. W., cited, 72, 74, 75 Classification of soils, 173 " of streams, 233 Clay and clay products, paper on, 23-36 Clay County, 50, 320, 325, (329), 384 Cleared land, clearings, 178, (241), 257, 264, 295, 324, 414 (see also Improved land) Cliffs. 195, 109 Climate, 173, 182-I184, 325, 412 Coast line, permanence of, 242 Coastal plain, 176, 181, 182, 2tl, 291, 303 Coffee-colored water, 23^,, 248, 257, 282, 290, 29T. 297, 303, 311, (321), 329 Coffee Mill Hammock, geology of, 43, 44 Cold, effects on soils, 176 Colluvial soils. 254 Colorado, fuller's earth of. 33 Columbia County, 57, 120. 133. 134, 257, 327 (see also Alligator Lake, Lake City) Commerce, 246, 343 Common names of plants, 187 Concrete, 48, 57, 58 Co-operation between State Geological Survey and U. S. Government, 16, 17, 416 Coquina, 40, 48, 338, 339-341. 343, 388 Corduroy roads, 217 Corn, 145, 17s, 177, 200, 209, 222, 224, 241, 253, 255, 264, 279, 296, 309, 319, 325, 337 Cory, C, soil analyses by, (195), 268 Cotton, 14s, 172, 175, 177, 188, 200, 209, 222-224, 241, 253, 25s, 264, 279, 290, 296, 309, 319, 325, 337, 414 Coville, F. v., cited 175, 336 Cowpeas (see Field peas) Cox, N. H., 155 Crabs, 182, 338 Crawfish, 182, 248 Crawfordville, 296, 378, 396-398 Croom, H. B., 210, 408, 411, 412 Crops, 172, 1S8, 189, 200-237, 394, 398 Cross-ties, 209 Crustacea, 182 Cucumbers, 265 Cuestas, 210, 223 Cultivated plants, 185 (see also Crops) Curacao Island, phosphates of, 98 Curtiss, A H., writings of, 338, 411, 414 Cuspate forelands, 339 Cypress ponds (see Cypress in plant index, and Ponds) D. Dade County, 52, 60 Dairymen, 278 Dall, W. H., writings of, 136. 145, 161. 210. 329, 411 . Dana, J. D., 410 Davis, Chas. A., 62-64 Dead Lakes, Calhoun Co., 248 Deciduous trees, 175, 176, 189, 195, 221, 352-354. 396 DeFuniak Springs, 183. 232. 240. 360 Delaware, 255 Density of population, 172, 200-336, 394. 395 Depressions, 226, 244, 303. 31 1, 315 Deserts, 339 DeSoto County, 23, 60 Devil's Millhopper, Alachua Co., 329
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442 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Diatomaceous "earth," 26-27 Dickey, J. B. R., soil survey of Bradford Co., (326-328, 415) Distribution of fuller's earth, 23; 34 Distribution of reports, 10 Dog Island, Franklin Co., 360. 362 Doodle-bugs (ant-lions), 282 Drainage wells, 148 Drains, 131, 282, 304 Drake, J. A., soil surveys by, (229), 242, (247, 254), 266, (267, 280, 415) Drying of phosphate rock, 84, 319, (384) Dunes, 229, 242-246, 282, 330, 333, 335, 338, 339, 342, 362, 388-391, 400402, 413 Dunnellon formation, 161, 162, 314 Durrett, J. B, soil analysis by, 327 Dust as plant food, 176 Duval County, 60, 63, 327, 336, 338, 388, 413 (see also Jacksonville, Mayport) E. Eagan, D., pamphlet by, 289, 411 Earthworms, 181, 269, 270, 398, 399 East coast strip, 191, 338-343, 388-391, 395, 404 East Florida flatwoods, 191, 256, 320, 326-337, 386-387, 395, 396 Economic aspects or features, 172, 200343, 395 Edgar, kaolin mined at, 23, 24, (320) Egypt, phosphates of, 95, 96 Elevations (see Altitude) Elliott, Stephen, 288 Encyclopedias, 171, 412 English peas, 265 Environment, 173 Epiphytes, 176 Erosion, 122, 202, 217, 232, 257, 270, 282 Errata, 170 Escambia Bay, 232, 239, 240, 362 County, 50, 183, 229, 230, 231, 242, 255, 415 (see also Pensacola) " River, 233, 236 Escarpments, 210, 233 Estimating timber, 177 Estuaries, estuarine swamps, 249, 330, 358, 364. 400, 405 Eucheeanna, 217, 221 Everglades, 41-46, 57, 60, 62, 173 Evergreens, percentage of, 174, 176, 184, 187, 188, 200-342, 394-396, 400, 406 Evergreens, relations to soil, 175, 177, 184, 396 Evinston, 58 Exceptions, 171 Exhibition of geological material, 12, 14 Exports of lumber, 239, 264 F.. Fallowing, 295 Farmers, farms, 173, 178, 224, 241, 257, 279, 296, 32S, 335, 393, 396 Fences, 197, 200, 279 Ferguson, J. E., soil survey of "Jacksonville area," (326, 327, 415) Fernandina, 340, 343 Ferruginous concretions, pebbles, sandstone, soils, 200, 201, 230, 231, 254, 255, 266 (see also Iron) Fertile regions insalubrious ? 224, (288) Fertilizers, use of, 189, 209, 231, 253, 255, 279, 290, 295, 393-395, 397, 398 Fiddler-crabs, 338 Field peas, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, 296, 319, 325, 337 Figs, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, 337 Financial statement, 17-19. Fippin, E. O., soil survey of Gadsden Co., 210, (229, 254, 415) Fire, influence of on vegetation, 184185, 196, 200, 203, 204, 211. 218, 224, 226, 231, 233, 244, 257, 271, 273, 274, 282, 283, 286, 291, 29s, 304, 311, (314), 315, 318, 321, (328), 334, 339, 362, 384, 405, 413 Fishing, fishermen, 246, 301, 343 Flatwoods, 191, 242, 244, 245, 254-256, 264, 290, 291, 29s, 296, 302-304, 320, 321, 325, 326, 339, 340, 341, 364,368, 382, 394, 396, 398, 400 Flint and chert in Florida, 57, 58, 90 Flint River, 210, 211 Flomaton, climate of, 183, 231 Florida Brick Co., kiln of, 25 Florida Keys, soil and vegetation. 336 Floridin Co., 34, 35 Floristic studies, 174 (see also Qualitative studies)
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(;i:.\ i:i^\i. i.\"1)J-:x. 443 Fluctuation of water, 157, 202, 203, 211. 226, 248, 271, 282, 283, 288, 297, 315, 329, 330, (372, 376), 403 Folded strata, 223 Fort Meade, depth to Vicksburg limestone at, 46 Fort Thompson, geology, 42, 43, 52, 56 Fossils, 12, 42. 76, 90, 162, 223, 229, 247, 266, 326 France, phosphates of, 96 Franklin County, 60, 242, 247, 249, 360365, 413 (see also Apalachicola, Carrabelle, Lanark, St. James Island) Freeze of 1895, 256 Frost, 182 Fuel, 188, 200, 279, 288, 319, 384 Fuller's earth, 28-36, 210, 414 Gadsden County, 30, 34, 35, 210, 229232, 254, 255, 256, 264, 265, 352354, 394, 405, 414, 415 (see also Aspalaga, River Junction") "Gadsden sand." 254, 268 Gainesville, 135. 154. 156, 183, 264. 328, 411 'Gainesville sand," 255, 256, 321 "Galveston sand," 242, 243 Garber, A. P., cited, 254, 411 Gardner, J. H., cited, 91 Geib, W. J., soil surveys by, (247, 254), 266, (267, 280), 314, (326, Z27. 41.0 Geographers, 174 Geographical divisions, 171, 190, 191 Geographical significance of vegetation, 173 Geological material, exhibition of, T2 Geology of Everglades, 41-46 Geomys, 182,412 (see also Salamander) Georgia, 2>?>, 93, 184, 193, 200, 201, 208, 2 TO, 215, 224, 229, 254, 255, 264, 266, 277, 280, 281, 288, 309, 314, 326, 329, 338, 339, 401, 409, 412 Gilbert. F. S.. well drilled by, no Gillmore, Q. A., cited. 302, 310, 311, 326. 411 Girty, G. H., cited. So Gophers (Gopherus Polyphemus), 182, 1 230, 243, 248, 282, 297, 314. 320, ?i~ Gray, Asa, cited,210, 412 Grazing, (188, 209), 238, 243, 301, 309, 313, 336 (see also Cattle) Green Cove Springs, 104, 329 Greene, E. P., 63, 140 ''Greenville'' soils, 198 (iriffen, A. M., soil survey by, (229), 242, (41S) Ground-water level, 155, 157, 202-203, 248, 271, 280, 282, 304, 311, 315, 321, 330, zz(>, 413, 414 (Growing season, 182-183 Guano, 80-81 Gulf of Mexico, 302 Gulf hammock region, 173, 191, 302309, 319, 330, 336, 339. 382, 395, 398, 400, 402, 404, 412 Gullies, 267, 372 Gulliver, F. P., cited, 304 Gunter, H., cited, 201, 210, 217, 221, 225, 229, 254, 266, 297, 320, 326, 329. 414 H. Habitats of plants, 174. 175, 187, 203342, 400, 407, 409 Hamilton County (see Jasper, White Springs) Hammocks, 134, 173, 185, 203, 226, 227, 22,Z, 244, 245, 254-257, 282, 283, 291, 302, 304, 309, 315, 321, 330, 334. 335, 370, 382, 390, 396, 399, 400-406, 413 Hardison, R. B., soil survey by, 193 (194, 201, 22s, 415) Hardwoods, 185, 196, 211, 216, 218, 224, 256, 264, 272, 290, 291, 295, 346, 348. 370. (378), (see also Deciduous trees) Harper, R. M., paper by, 163 . photographs by, 27, 53 (f. 12), 59, 139 (f.32), 141 (f.26), 347-391 quoted, 59-64. Harshberger, J. W., cited, 412 Hawthorne, sands near, 24 Hay, 200, 209. 241, 253. 265, 279, 296, 3T9, 325, ZZ7
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444 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Hayes. C. W., cited, 79 Heilprin, A., cited, 42 Heimburger, L., analyses by, (193). 269, 281, 397, 398 Henry, A. M., photograph by, 139 Hernando County, 60, 120 Highland, altitude of, 329 High pine land, 173, 203, 257, 297, 301, 321, 384, 399 Hilgard, E. W., cited, 174, 176, 268, 336, 396, 398 Hilliardville, altitude of, 282 Hills, 171, 202, 211, 217, 223, 229, 254, 256, 257, 266, 270, 314. 320, 350, 352, 372 Hillsborough County, 76 Hogs, 222, 279 Hogtown Prairie, 146, 147 Holland, 343 Hollows, 244, 339 (see also Basins, Depressions) Holmes County, 103, 120, 239, 397 Holmes Valley, 191, 218, 223, 224, 295, 356, 395, 399, 403 Honey, 188, 209, 253, 313 Horse, fossil, 162 Horse-cass, 301 Howe, C. D., cited, 185 Hughes Specialty Well Drilling Co., 109 Humus, 194, 210, 211, 215-218, 221, 238, I Key West, 46, 112 Iron in soils, 123, 195, 230, 268-270, 277, 281, 303, 310, 328, 398, 399 (see also ferruginous soils) influence on vegetation (200), 277 Islands, 97, 98, 182, 229, 242, 243, 338, 360-364. J. Jackson County, 52, 147, 193, 200, 225, 346-348, 405, 415 (see also Marianna) Jacksonville, 109, no, 183, 336, 394, 411 Jasper, 264. 328 Jefferson County, 120, 126, 130, 254, 255, 264, 266, 302, 310, 397, 404, 412, 415 Johnson, L. C, cited, 412 Jones, B. D., cited, 303, 413 " G. B., soil surveys by, 193, (194. 201, 225, 247, 254), 266, (267, 280), 302, 310, (326, 327, 415) K. Kaolin or ball clay, 23, 24, 320 Karst topography, 314 Katz, F. J., quoted, 26-27 Kearney, T. H., cited, 396 Kentucky, 91, 176 Key Vaca, well on, 112 269, 270, 272, 281, 301, 319, 398, 399 Hunting, 279 Huntington, climate of, 183 Hydrated lime, 36, 38, 39 Hydraulic mining of phosphate. 82, 93 Ichetucknee Spring, 123, 291 Illinois, 176, 277 Illustrations explained, 189 Improved land, 188, 189, 200-336, 393, 394 Impurities of phospliate rock, 69-71 Indiana, 176, 415 Indians, 48, 136, 145, 278, 410, 416 Infusorial earth, 26-27 Insects, 182 (see also .A.nts, Doodlebugs, Mosquitoes) Irish potatoes, 209. 24T, 253, 265, 325, 22>7 Keys of Florida, 336 Keyster, H. R., sample of phosphate contributed by, 85 Kirk, N. M., soil survey of Bradford Co., (326-328, 415) Knox Hill country, 191, 217-223, 356, 395, 399, 403 Kolbe, L. A., soil survey by. C229), 242, (41S) Krome, W. J., 63 L. Lafayette County, 303, 313, 382 Lafayette formation, 193, 194, 201., 210. 229, 230, 267 Lagoons, 338 Lake Alfred, (see Bartow Junction) Lake Butler, 386 Lake Chipola, 248 Lake City, 183, 264, 328
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GENERAL INDEX. 445 Lake County, 22, 26, 50, 60 Lake Hicpochee, limestone near, 43 Lake lamonia. 120, 125-127, 148 Lake Jackson, 120, 128-129, 138 Lake Kingsley, 320, 329, 384 Lake Lafayette, 120, 129-130, 140, 271, 272, 372 Lake Miccosukee, 130-133. I37 Lake Okeechobee, 41, 43-45, 54 Lake regions, (see Peninsular and West Florida) Lake Weir, sand from, 47 Lakes, 225, 226, 232, 256, 257, 266, 271, 282, 321, 330, 358, 387, 412, 414 Lakes and lake basins, paper on, 115159 Lanark. 243, 360, 362 Land pebble phosphates, 78 Lanier, S., book by, 413 Largest spring in the world? 290 Leaching of soils, 182, 184, 243, 244, 338 Ledoux, A. R., cited, 81 Lee County, 52 Leeds, B. F., cited, 338, 413 Leesburg. sand near, 24 Leguminous plants (see Leguminosae in plant index) Leon County, 60, 119, 120, 1125, 126, 128-130, 247, 248, 254, 266-268, 280, 288, 366-368, 372-2,77, 402, 415 (see also Bellair, Lakes lamonia, Jackson and Lafayette, Tallahassee) "Leon sand," 247-248, 397 Lettuce, 256, 265, 337 Levy County, 47, 120, 310 Liberty County, 211, 238, 254, 354 (see also Alum Bluff, Bristol) Library of the State Survey, 13 Life-zones, 173 Lightning, 184, 203 Lime, limestone, 36, 37, 39, 40, 45, 176, 177, 184, 193, 195, 201, 202, 230, 243, 25s, 256, 269, 270, 280, 281, 289, 296, 302, 303, 309, 310, 314, 315, 319, 328, 335, 336, 339, 342, 346, 348, 393, 397-399 (see also Calcium) Lime-sinks, 195, 202, 203, 210, 256, 290, 303, 321, 348, 370 (see also sinks) Lime-sink regions (see Peninsular and West Florida) Lingula, phosphate in shell of, 7i Live Oak, 57, 264 Lloyd, J. U., (Lloyd's reagent), 28 Lobster, phosphate in shell of, 73, 74 Long, Mrs. E. C, cited, 185, 413 Long Moss Spring, 195, 348 Lower Oligocene, 76, 90, i6r, 193 (see also Vicksburg) Lumber, lumbering, lumbermen, 172, 177, 178, 188, 200, 208, 209, 228, 238-241, 246, 253, 264, 279, 288, 295, 309, Z'^2, 325, 336, 342 M. Macclenny, climate of, 183 Madison County, 60, 64, 120, 264, 266, 313, 368 Magnesia, magnesium, in soils and water, 123, 195, 217, 230, 269, 302, 328, 397 Makatea Island, phosphates of, 97, 98 Malaria, 224, 288, 411 Manatee County, 34, 35, 60 ]\Ianganese in soils, 195, 230, 269, 303, 328, 397 Mansfield, G. R., cited, 80 Map of northern Florida, 190 Marbut, C. F., information from, 397 Marianna, climate of, 183 Marianna red lands, 190-200, 278, 346349, 395, 397, 399, (401) Marion County, 47, 58, 120, 123, 254, 290 (see also Dunnellon, Ocala) ]\Iarl, 42, 43, 46, 58, 247, 302, 310, 312, 321, 323, 326, 329-331, 333-335, 339, 382, 400, 401 Marshes, 242-246, 257, 298, 304, 321, 330, 334, 335, 338, 339, 342, 343, 368, 388-391 Massachusetts, fuller's earth of, 33 Mastodon, fossil, 162 Materials for mortar and concrete, 4648 Matson, G. C, cited, 193, 201, 210, 217, 223, 229, 247, 254, 266, 291, 302, 314. 320, 326, 329. 338, 413 Mattress-making, 279, 295 Mayer, A. G., cited, 338, 413
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446 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. May-haw ponds (see May haw in plant index, and Ponds) Mayport, 340, 388 McAtee, W. L., cited, 242, 413 McCalley, H., soil analysis by, (230) McCallie, S. W., cited, 93, 154 McMeekin, ball clays near, 23 Mechanical analyses of soils, 194, 225, 230-232, 243, 248, 254-256. 267-268, 281, 289, 310-31 1. 314. 3-27, 393 comments on, 181, 194, 232, 243, 255, 256, 267, 393 Medicine from plants, 288 Megatherium, 162 Methods of draining lakes, 148-150 Methods of quantitative analysis of vegetation, 177-180 Mexico, 339 Miami, 41, 42 " Oolite, 4L 45. 52 " River, 42 Micanopy, 58, 256, 264 Michigan, 280, 396 Middle Florida, 310, 400, 404, 411, 413, 414, 416 Middle Florida flatwoods, 191, 310-3 '3, 395397, 412 Middle Florida hammock belt, 191, 254265. 328, 366-371, (394). 395397 Middleton, Jefferson, cited, 34 Millet, 337 Milton, 240, 358 Mineral industries and resources of Florida, 23-104, 172, i8r Mineral water, 104 Minerals of phosphate rock, 67-69 Mining of phosphate rock, 81, 82 Miocene, 46, 161, 162, 217, 223, 229, 326 Mississippi, 176, 193, 217, 229. 242, 255 Mohr, Charles, writings of, 239. 240, 396, 413, 414 Moles, 182, 270, 282 Monticello, 264 Mooney, C. N., on Payne's Prairie, (415) Mortar, materials fbr, 46 Mosquitoes, 224, 288, 319 flossy Head, 232 Mt. Pleasant, soils near, 230, 231 Muck, 326, 338 Mud, 203, 321, 354 Muddy streams, 211, 248, 255, 257, 282, 401 Munroe, Hersey, 145 Munson's Lake or Pond, 271, 376 Museum of State Geological Survey, 14 N. Nash, G. v., on Florida plants, 210, 280, 288, 413 Nassau County, 338 Natural bridges, 195, 202, 270-271, 303, 314, 321 Natural divisions of northern Florida, 171, 172, 190, 191, 412, 414 Naura Island, phosphates of, 97 Naval stores, 188, 209, 222, 228 (see also turpentine) Navassa Island, phosphates of, 80 Neal, J. C, on Florida weeds, 185, 413 Needs of the Geological Survey, 13 Negroes, 1.89, 224, 264, 279, 288, 296, 395 (see also Population) Newland Springs, 123 Newnan's Lake, 135, 136, 145 New York libraries, 181, 416 Nitrogen in soils. 175, 177, 238, 270, 281, 397, 398 Nodules, 201, 266 Non-alluvial swamps, 233, 311, 319, 321. 400, 401, 403, 405 "Norfolk" soils, 194, 202, 225, 231, 232, 255-257, 268, 310, 314. 397 North Carolina, 92, 267, 2yj, 280, 281 North New River Canal, limestones along, 44, 45, 54 Norton, C. L., handbook of Florida. 303. 399 Number of plants enumerated, 417 Oats, 200, 209. 241, 253, 265. 279, 309, 319, 325. 337 Ocean Islan
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(;i-;.\ iCKAi. i.\i)i-;.\. 44; Oligocenc formations, 46, 193, 217, 229, 254, 266, 280, 289, 302, 310 (see also. Lower and Upper) Onions, 241, 253, 265, 337 "Orangeburg" soils, 194, 231, 232, 255, 267, 269 Orange County, 63, 120 Oranges, 175, 177, 241, 253, 265, 325, 337 Organic matter in soils, 195, 230, 232, 255, 256, 269, 328 Osceola County, 60 Oxen, 279 P. Pablo Beach, 413 Palatlakaha Creek, 23 Palatka, flowing well at, 105 F^alm Beach, deep well at, 46, 112 Palmetto Phosphate Co., well samples from, no Panacea country. Panacea Springs, 104, 191, 288, 297-30 1(, 380, 395 Parsons, Charles L., cited, 32 Pasco County, 314 Pasturage, 188, 209, 288 (see also Grazing) Payne's Prairie, 134-136, 140, I45. (154), 156, 173, 415 Peaches, 200, 209, 241, 253. 265, 279, 296, 319, 32s, 337 Peanuts, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, 296. 309, 319. 32s, 337, 370 Pears. 209, 241, 253, (265), 279, 296, 32s, 337 Peas, 256, 265 (see also field peas) Peat, peaty soils, .S9-64, 175, 176, 242 246, 311, 320. 321, 324, 326, 338. 358, 368, 412 Pecans, 200. 209, 241, 253. 265, 279, 296, 319. 325, 337 Pencil wood, 200, 309 Peninsular lake region, 191, 320-325, 384. 395, 402, 403, 405 Peninsular lime-sink region, 191, 280, 3 14-3 1 9, 321, 324, 32s, 384, 395, 398, 399 Peninsulas, 242, 244, 362 Pensacola. 183, 229. 239, 246, 394. 410, 416 Peppel, S. v., cited, 36 Peppers, 265, 337 Perdido River, 239 I'ftcr, K., method of soil analysis, 268 Plialen. W. C, cited, 86, 94 Phosphate rock, distribution, origin, mining, production, etc., 65-101. 266, 314, 319, 384, 399 Phosphatic soils, phosphoric acid, phosphorus, 123. 175, 195. 217, 223, 230, 264, 266, 267, 269, 270, 277, 281, 302, 314, 328, 335, 336, 370, 397399, 402-405. influence on vegetation, 217, 223, 264, 270, 277, 324, 335, 336, 339. 342, 370, 402-405 Physical analyses of soils, 181 Piedmont region, 211, 224 Pierce, James, cited, 136, 413 Piles, cypress, 209 "Pimply land," 201, 266, 350 Planorbis, 42 Plant ecology and sociology, 176, (335) Pleistocene formations, 42, 162, 229, 242, 247, 302, 326 Pliocene formations, 42, 45, 90, 162, 229 Plums, 253, 325 Poles, cypress, 209, 217 Polk County, 23, 26, 59, 60, 76, no Ponce de Leon Spring, 103 Pond snails, 42 Ponds, 196, 202, 203, 223, 224, 232. 233. 244, 257, 271, 280, 282, 283, 288, 290, 291, 297, 304, 311, 315, 330, 352, 372, 386, 400, 402, 404. 405, 412 Population, 172, i88j 189, 200-243, 393395 Porter, John T., cited, 29, 32 Portland (Walton County), 240, 360 "Portsmouth" soils, 255, 256, 310, 326328, 397 Potash, potassium, in soils, 175-177, 184, 194, 195, 203, 2n, 216, 230, 231, 238, 243, 246, 255, 269, 270, 281, 290, 295. 302, 313, 328, 335, 336, 393. 394. 397-399 Potash, influence on vegetation, 175177, 184, 203, 211, 216, 238, 243, 246, 290, 295. 302, 313, 335, 393 Potatoes, 177, 200-337 Prairies. 129, 134. 136, 145-147, I73. 177. 256, 257. 298, 304, 321, 324, 368 Preparation of phosphate for market. 82-84
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448 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Production of phosphate for 1913, 86 Psychological factors, 395 Publications issued by the Survey, 9-10 Pumps, 202, 203, 314, 330 Purdue, A. H., cited, 87 Pure water, 229, 238 Putnam County, 23, 60, 183, 320, 325, 403 Quadrat method of studying vegetation, 177 Qualitative st-udies of vegetation, inadequacy of, 173. I77> 396 Quantitative analyses or studies, 173, 175-180, 185, 217 Quincy, 34, 35, 254, 264 Rafting timber, 239 Railroads, 171, 172, 185, 223, 226, 228, 230, 232, 240, 266, 267, 270, 272, 280, 282, 285-287, 29s, 303, 309, 320, 394, 403 Rain, rainfall, 131, 133-136, 151, I55, I57, 158, 182-184, 243, 315 Rangia cuneata, 44 Ranson, Robert, 59, 63 Ravines, 211, 217, 218, 354 Recent formations, 242, 338 Red, Bay (Walton Co.), 217 Red hills, 254, 266, 288 Reef rock. Lake Okeechobee, 43 Reese, Chas. L., cited, 71, 72 Relation of vegetation to soils, 173^n, 393, 396 Resorts, 301, 315, (see also Summer and Winter) Reynolds, Miss M. C, cited, 414 Rhinoceros, fossil, 162 Rice, 325 Rice, T. D., soil survey by, (254), 314, (326, 327, 415) Richards, R. W., cited, 80 River Junction, 54, 412 Road materials of Florida, 101-102 Roads, condition and statistics of, 102, 201, 203, 217, 247, 267, 270, 280, 380 Rock Hill, Washington Co., 201, 412 Rock outcrops, 193, 195, 196, 198, 200, 201, 229, 247, 254, 266, 280, 302, 314, 320, 348, 400 Rocky shoals, 303 Rogers, Austin F., cited, 68, 79 Rolfs, P. H., 403 Root, A. S., soil survey by, 210, (229, 254, 415) 'Round timber," 240, (351) Rowe, R. W., soil survey by, 193, (194, 201, 225, 415) Russia, phosphates of, 96 Sabin, L. S., cited, 48 St. Andrews, climate of, 183 St. Andrews Bay, 228, 246, 401 St. Augustine, 40, 48, 112, 183, 340, 343, 411, 415 St. George's Sound, 360, 362 St. James Island, 242, 244, 246, 364 St. John's County, 338, 388, 390 (see also Anastasia Island, St. Augustine) St. John's River, 48, 320, 329, 330, 412 St. Mark's, 309, 398 St. Mary de Calves Bay, 239, 240 St. Mary's River, 329 St. Stephens limestone, 193 St. Vincent Island, 413 Salamanders, 182, 226, 230, 231, 243, 248, 257, 270, 282, 290, 297, 314, 320, 328, 338, 362, 412 Salt marshes, 242, 244, 298, 338, 339, 342, 388-391 Salubrity (?) of fertile regions, 224. 288 Sand and gravel, production of, 102, 103 Sand-hills, "Sandhill" soil, 242, 280, 281. 288 Sand-lime brick, companies producing, 103, 104 Sandstone, 201, 229 Sanford, Samuel, 42, 1,12, 193, 2or, 210, 217, 229, 247, 254, 266, 291, 302, 314, 320, 326, 338, 413 San Pedro Bay, 173, 310, 311, 313 Santa Fe River, 315, 370 Santa Rosa County, 60, 238, 358, z(>'2 Santa Rosa Soimd, 239
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GENERAL INDEX. 449 Sargent, C. S., cited, 414 Savannas, 134. 298, 304, 307, 3o8 Sawmills, 239, 240, 247, 264, 319 (see also Lumber) Scenery, 325 (346-391,) Scotchmen in Walton Co., 221 Scrub, 173, 320-324. 330, 384. 396, 400, 402, 40s Sea-island cotton, (188), 209, 241, 255, 265, 309, 319, 325. 337 Seasonal distribution of rain, 182-184, (195), 211, (238) Seasonal tluctuation of water (see Fluctuation) Sellards, E. H., cited, 201, 210, 217, 223, 225, 229, 247, 254, 257, 266, 271, 297, 302, 310, 314, 320, 326, 329, 339, 397, 398, 414 " papers by, 9-165 Shantz, H. L., cited, 396 Shell fragments in beach soils, 243, 338 Shell mounds, 48, 242 Shingles, 209 Ship-building, 247 Shoals in Gulf hammock region, 303 Silica in soil or water, 123, 195, 230, 269, 303, 328 Silver Spring, 122, 123, 290 Sink-holes, sinks, 57, 121, 124, 126136, 140, 146, 147, 151, 155, 156, 158, 161, 162, 195, 2or, 254, 257, 271, 282, 289, 315, 328, 329 (see also Lime-sinks) Sloughs, 196, 223, 224, 2.^2, 282, 288, 290, 291, 292, 302, 304-306, 403-405 Small, J. K., cited, 187, 400, 404, 407 Smith, Buckingham, cited, 42 Smith, Eugene A., 93, 136, 172, 189, 193, 194, 201, 217, 223, 229, 247, 254, 266, 268, 270, 289, 302, 320, 326, 327, 411, 41,5, 416 Smith, J. D., cited, 193, 415 Soda, sodium, in soils, 195, 230, 269, 302, 328, 397 Soil fauna, 181, 244 (see also Subterranean animals) Soil maps, soil surveys, 17 (see also U. S. Bureau of Soils) Soils (see Analyses) Solid matter removed by solution. 122123 Solution topography, 202, 203, (217), 257, 271, 282, 314, 315, 320 Sopchoppy, 297, 301 Sopchoppy River, 247, 248 Sounds of West Florida coast, 242, 360, 362 South Carolina, 86, 87, 267, 280, 281, 412 Souith New River canal, limestone from, 44, 45 Spanish grants, 264 Spouting well near Orlando, 143, 154 Spring flowers, 211 Spring Hill, Leon Co., altitude of, 282 Springs, 123, 195, 202, 211, 218, 229, 244, 257, 271, 282, 290, 303, 315, 320, 321, 329, 339, 412 Squashes, 265 Stanky-Brown, J., cited, 210, 411 Stanton, F. M., peat analyses, 59 State Board of Health, 113 State Chemist (and assistants), analyses by 44, 45, 63, (193, 266), 269, 281, 397, 398 State Drainage Commission, paper prepared for 41-46 State Supreme Court, decision on lakes. 120 Statistical information, collection of, 12 Statistical sumjnary for northern Florida, 393-397 Steep-heads, 211, 232 Steep slopes, 202, (217), 226, 315, 338 Steinhatchee River, 303 Stephensville, climate of, 183 Stickney, L. D., cited, 415 Stock laws, (188), 279 Stock-raising (see Cattle, Hogs) Stockmen, 278 Stose, G. W., cited, 92 Strawberries, 337 Substitutes for wood, 241 Subterranean animals, 181, 182, 243, 257, 282, 314, 338 (see also Ants, Crabs, Crawfish, Crustacea, Doodle bugs. Earthworms, Gophers, Insects, Moles, Salamanders Sugar-cane, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, 296, 309, 319, 2>},y Sulphur, sulphuric acid, in soil or water, 195. 230, 269, 303, 328, 338, 339397
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450 FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY SIXTH ANNUAL REPORT. Summary of mineral production in Florida, 114 Summer rains, 184, 238 (see also Seasonal distribution) Summer resorts, 246, 288, (301) Sumter County, 57-58, 60 Superlicial formations, 193 (see also Lafayette) Suwannee County, 47, 120, 319 (see also Live oak, Welborn) Suwannee River, 47, 310, 315-317, 402406, 410 Suwannee Springs, 123 Swamps, 173, 178, 195-334, 354, 358, 364, 366, 395, 400-406 Sweet potatoes, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, 296, 309, 319, S2S. 337 Synopsis of geographical divisions of northern Florida, 191 Synopsis of regional descriptions, 180 Syrup (see Sugar-cane) Tallahassee, 183, 271, 276, 303, 415 Tallahassee red hills, 191, 223, 254, 266279, 295, 372-375, 395, 397, 399, 402 Tapirus, fossil, 162 Taxonomic studies of plants, 173 Taylor, A. E., soil survey of Bradford County, (326-328, 415) Taylor County, 183, 303, 309, 313, 382 Technical names and terms explained, 172, 187, 196 Temperature, 182-183 Tennessee, 79, 80, 88, 89, T76 Terraces, 202 Tertiary formations, 201, 210, 223, 256, 320 (see also Miocene, Oligocene, Pliocene) Testudo Polyphemus, 182 (see also Gopher) Texas, 267 Tharp, W. E., soil survey by, (254), 302, 310, (415) Thickets, 390 Thnmpson, Maurice, cited, 266, 303, 415 Tidal channels, 338 Tiger Bay, record of well at, 110-112 Tomatoes, 241, 253, 265, 325, 337 Topographic maps, need of, 14-16 Topography, 172, 173, 183, 185, 195-339, 393, 412 Torrey, B., book by, 266, 415 " John, 412 Tourists, 343 Trail Ridge, 190, 326, 329, 330, 335, 402, 405, 414 Tropical soils, 176 Truck-farming, 152, 394, 396 (see also Crops, Vegetables) Tunis, phosphates of, 94 Tuomey, M., cited, 42 Turpentine, turpentining, 177, 200, 222. 238, 240, 253, 264, 279, 288, 295, 301. 309, 3^3, 319, 325, 336, 348 Turtle (see Testudo) U. Ulrich, E. O., cited, 79 Underground water, 172, 181 (see also Ground water UniS, R. D., 152, 153 United States Army Engineers, 415 U. S. Board on Geographic Names, 145 U. S. Bureau of Mines, 32 U. S. Bureau of Chemistry, 397 U. S. Bureau of Soils, 17, 181, 193, 194, 201, 210, 225, 229, 247, 254, 255, 266-268, 280, 302, 310, 326, 393, 397, 415 U. S. Bureau of Standards, 37 U. S. Department of Agriculture, 177, 203 Division of Forestry, 413 U. S. Geological Survey, 16, 23, 26, 27, 29, 34. 37, 59, 63, 72. 74, 75, 79, 80, 86. 88, 92, 94, 99, T35, 145, 225, 329, 413 U. S. Weather Bureau, 182 Upland cotton (see cotton) Upper Oligocene, 34, 76, 126, 131, 161, 193, 214, 229, 254, 266, 302 Valleys, 210, 211, 218.' 232, 270, 303, 320, 329 Van Hise, C. R., cited, 125 Variation in ground water level, 157 Vaughan, T. W., cited, 329 Veatch, Otto, cited, 329 Vegetables, 145, , 175, 265, 337
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GENERAL INDEX. 451 Velvet beans, 200, 209, 241, 253, 265, 279, 296, 309, 319, 337 Vernon, 223, 226, 240, 256 Vicksburg formation, 40, 41, 46, 49, 52, 57, 58, 76, 90, 109-112, 135, 147, 154, 158, 193, 201, 314 Vignoles, Chas., book by, 416 Vines, 174, 186, 203, 227, 287, 318 Virginia, 92, 277, 405 Virginia-Florida Lime Co., 37 Volcano, Wakulla, 303 Volusia County, 410 W. Wakulla County, 247, 249, 280, 289, 295-297, 378-380, 393, 397-399, 405, 412 Wakulla hammock country, 191, 289296, 378-381, 393, 395, (396), 397399, 405Wakulla River, 247, 290, 291, 294-296, 378 Wakulla Spring, 289,, 290, (378) Wakulla station, 378 Wakulla volcano, 303, 412 Waldo, 329 Walton County, 60, 217, 221, 230, 232, 348, 356, 360, 404 (see also Alaqua, DeFuniak, Knox Hill) Washington County, 202, 223, 225, 240, 350-352, 356, 358, 412 (see also Holmes Valley, Vernon) Watermelons, 200, 209, 241, 265, 279, 296, 319, 325, 337 Water-power, 195, 232 Wausau, 223 Wave action, 321, 360 Weathering, 125, 193, 210, 217, 229, 256, 326 (see also Leaching) Weeds, 185, 187, 238, 246, 253, 272, 277278, 29s, 300, 309, 313, 324, 335, 336, 370, 407, 409, 413 Weekiwachee Spring, 123 Welborn, altitude of, 328 Well records, utility of, 105-113 Wells, 148-155, 159, 202, 203, 229, 271, 315, 330, 339 Wesson, David, cited, 29 West Florida coast strip, 191, 242-247, 282, 360-363, 395 West Florida lake region, 191, 223, 225-228, 358, 395, 397 West Florida lime-sink region, 191, 201209, 223, 314, 348-352, 395, 397, 398 West Florida pine hills, 191, 229-241, 326, 329, 358-361, 395, 400 Wet summers, 183, 184, (i95, 230, 231), 238, 243 White limestone, 193 White (Sulphur) Springs, 123 Whiting, H., cited, 416 Wilder, H. J., soil survey by, (247, 254), 266, (267, 280, 415) Wiley, H. W., cited, 177, 203 Willcox, Joseph, 42 Williams, J. L., books by, 217, 223, 416 Wind, effects of, 242-244, 282, 314, 338, 390 Winter resorts, 247, (279, 301, 325) Withlacoochee River (of Georgia) 257 World production of phosphate rock, 94 Worms (see Earthworms) Worthington Springs, 370 Y. Yazoo Delta, 176 Yellow River, 233, 236, 239 Yonge, P. K., cited, 239 ^
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