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1 By: Yesenia Castaneda Mentor: Dr. Azza Kamal DCP 42 90 Senior Capstone Figure 1 : Goldsmith Street development in Norwich, England
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2 Table of Contents Table of Figures ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 3 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 4 Literature Review ................................ ................................ ................................ .................. 4 Methodology ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... 9 Selection Rationale ................................ ................................ ................................ .............. 10 Case Study 1: England ................................ ................................ ................................ ........ 13 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 13 Housing Stock ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 13 Sustainability ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 16 ESG for Aff ordable Housing ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 17 Goldsmith Street ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................. 18 Sampson Close ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 19 Case Study 2: Germany ................................ ................................ ................................ ....... 20 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 20 Housing Supply ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 21 Sustainability ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 23 ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 24 ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............ 24 Erlangen, Germany ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 24 Hannover, Germany ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 25 Case Study 3: Croatia ................................ ................................ ................................ .......... 26 Introduction ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ 26 Sustainability ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 28 Smart Eco House ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ................ 30 ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 31 ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 31 Discussion ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 31 Conclusion & Recommendations ................................ ................................ ......................... 35 References ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................... 39
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3 Table of Figures Figure 1: Goldsmith Street development in Norwich, England ________________________________ __________ 1 Figure 2: Housing fever, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, 2020 ________________________________ _______ 11 Figure 3: Home Price Index, Castaneda, Y., 2023, Data from the Federal Res erve Bank of Dallas ____________ 12 Figure 4: Personal Disposable Income Index, Castaneda, Y., 2023, Data from the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas ________________________________ ________________________________ __________________________ 12 Figure 5: Proportion of households occupied by social renters in England from 2000 to 2022, Statista Research Department, 2023 ________________________________ ________________________________ ____________ 14 Figure 6: Private rental housing lost market share during the 20th century, Brookings, 2021 ________________ 15 Figure 7: Passivhaus Strategies, Avenston, 2020 ________________________________ ___________________ 17 Figure 8: Goldsmith Street development in Norwich, E ngland ________________________________ _________ 19 Figure 9: Samp son Close development in the UK ________________________________ ___________________ 20 Figure 10: Average rent price of residential property in selected cities in Germany from 2013 to 2022, StatistaResearch Department, 2022 ________________________________ _____________________________ 22 Figure 11: Greenhouse gas emission trends in Germany by sector 1990 2022, Clean Energy Wire, Wettengel, J., 2023 ________________________________ ________________________________ ______________________ 24 Figure 12: Housing d evelopment in Erlangen, Germany ________________________________ ______________ 24 Figure 13: Housing development in Erlangen, Germany ________________________________ _____________ 25 Figure 14: Housing development in Hannover, Germany ________________________________ _____________ 25 Figure 15: Housing development in Hannover, Germany ________________________________ _____________ 26 Figure 16: Smart Eco House housing options, Smart Eco House, n.d. ________________________________ ___ 31 Figure 17: Housing demand deficits, Castaneda, Y., 2023 ________________________________ _____________ 32 Figure 18: Comparison Table, Castaneda, Y., 2023 ________________________________ _________________ 35
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4 Intro duction The current affordable housing crisis has international implications on the housing market, with increasing market prices and housing inacce ssibility . In this increasing population and with the ongoing climate crisis, increasing energy efficient housing stock is crucial to sustainable development and quality of life. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are benchmarks of what is to be reached globally by 2030 to eradicate poverty and hunger while also promoting sustainability and health initiatives (United Nations Development Programme, 2023). Discussion of the SDGs is important since it is an influential fac tor in the E uropean U nion (EU) goals for sustainability and equity . More precisely, this capstone is concerning G oal 1 to end poverty in all forms, G oal 7 to ensure affordability of clean energy, G oal 11 to reside in sustainable cities and communities, a nd G oal 13 to combat climate change. This capstone will establish the goals and initiatives of specific European countries to provide affordable or social housing that is energy efficient and analyze whether policies and funding tactics in these countries can apply to the United States at a state level to aid its affordable housing crisis. This will aim to answer the research question of w hat can the United States l earn efficient s ocial and affordable housing initiatives that can be imp lemented at a state level . Literature R eview The demand for energy efficient affordable housing is relatively new and it combines two obligations that are necessary for both Europe and the United States mitigating climate change and increasing the supp ly of housing (Taylor, 2022; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
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5 Development, 2023). The need for affordable housing stems from the 2008 housing crisis as well as from the COVID 19 pandemic, especially since more middle income individuals have needed affo rdable housing due to these extreme market events. The U.S. has not constructed enough homes to meet demand being 3.8 million units short in 2020 and has decreased its supply of public housing over time (Freddie Mac, 2021; Bailey, 2022). To be considered c ost burdened in the U . S . , the individual or family has to spend 30% or more of their income on housing costs , and to be severely cost burdened, 50% or more of their income is spent on housing costs (Cromwell, 2022; U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Deve lopment, 2023). In 2022 in the United States, 30% of Americans were considered to be cost burdened and 14% were severely cost burdened. Renters faced higher rates of being cost burdened at 46% (Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University, 2022). This issue has been exacerbated by the pandemic due to a portion of the population being laid off from their jobs, taking pay cuts, and prices of homes and rents continuing to rise. Affordable housing initiatives can occur in two ways, it can be shallow meaning the cost of developing housing is subsidized through governmental incentives or it can be deep meaning rent does not exceed a certain percentage of one's income like public housing and vouchers (Schwartz, 2021, pg.7). It is important to have bo th shallow and deep housing programs, but especially deep subsidy programs as it can allow for more specific low income individuals to reside in affordable places. This is crucial since in 2017, for example, there were eight million rental units that were affordable at 30% or less of income, however, 3.4 million units out of the eight million were occupied by households who contained a higher income meaning that the 11.5 million low inco me renters were missing seven million units since they were used to house higher income individuals (Schwartz, 2021, pg.40). Through affordable
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6 housing incentives to developers and funding for additional public housing, renters can stay and allow blue coll ar workers to live within a city. Some common housing incentives are density bonuses, zoning variances, and fee reductions/waivers (Grounded Solutions Network, n.d.). Although these incentives can be helpful, they also contain negative aspects that need to be taken into consideration. For this reason, the right policies, incentives, and regulations must be utilized to then solve the issue efficiently and equitably. In the United States, affordable housing is funded in part by government grants and non profi ts. The federal government has decreased funding for housing assistance programs, such as Section 8, public housing, homeless assistance, and other various programs (Grounded Solutions Network, n.d. ). This sets low income individuals up for failure and red uces the opportunity for individuals to prosper within their lifetime. In terms of the economy, the shortage of affordable housing costs the United States $2 trillion annually due to slowing GDP growth (National Low Income Housing Coalition, 2023). When in dividuals are burdened to pay for housing, overall productivity is decreased, and they do not have the personal disposable income to participate in the economy. To determine what the United States can do to better its policies, make cities more equitable, and implement affordable housing, we can look at European cities and see what they have done to introduce more energy efficient housing that is affordable and even incorporate energy efficiency in their social housing stock. In Europe in 2021, 10% of the p opulation within the EU member states spent 40% or more of their income on housing (Housing Europe, 2021). The percentage of the population that is cost burdened within each member state in 2020 ranged from Austria having 1.5% of their population spending 40% or more on housing and 27% in Bulgaria (Eurostat, 2023). Compared
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7 to the United States, Europe uses 40% of income spent on housing as an indicator compared to the U.S. using 30% for being considered cost burdened, with 10% of the population spending 40 % of their income on housing in Europe and 30% spending 30% or more on their income in the U.S, Europe has less population that are cost burdened by housing costs. (OECD Social Policy Division, 2022). In Florida, as a statewide example, about 10% of its po pulation of 21.78 million are considered cost burdened and 6% are considered severely cost burdened in 2022 (Florida Housing Coalition, 2022). Although the rates are different, they are indicators that the affordable housing crisis is occurring both in the United States and Europe and it can be beneficial to know what Europe is doing to combat this crisis more sustainably . Sustainability is an important aspect of affordability since low income households living in old or low efficiency homes face higher ene rgy costs compared to higher income households (Shahyd, 2019). For low income households to be able to live in homes with less burden from energy costs, the money once used for expensive bills can be used elsewhere, like purchasing food, healthcare, school supplies, and buying clothes. Essentially, spending less on energy bills can provide an individual or family with more freedom and can present them with additional opportunities to gain wealth. It is also important to note that the crisis between Ukraine and Russia has threatened the , so less reliance on fuel is a critical factor to each country's sustainability , especially regarding the energy efficiency of buildings (European Commission, 2023; Sustainability for Housing, 2 021). The EU also has ambitious climate goals to reduce their carbon emission by at least 55% and to become carbon neutral by 2050 (European Commission, 2023). Whether this climate goal seems realistic or not, Europe is actively pursuing initiatives and le gislation to meet these measures.
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8 To understand the literature regarding affordable and social housing throughout Europe, and especially the difference between them, it must be understood that affordable and social housing is defined in different ways thr oughout the continent, especially in terms of development and determining what is affordable to who (Rosenfeld, 2017; Braga, M., & Palvarini, P., 2013). Braga and Palvarini (2013) explain that there is no common term for social housing as well as no common definition, but all current definitions among the EU member states contain a mission that describes a general interest, an objective (increasing supply or purchasing social housing), and a target which identifies groups by their income or vulnerabilities. The authors explore how each country's definitions contain similarities when defining social housing, for example, they identify four which include tenure (renting or owning), provider of the service, beneficiaries, and funding. Social housing can also be characterized to have four dimensions such as being universalistic which refers to decent quality and affordable housing as a primary responsibility of the government, targeted which can refer to satisfying the housing demand not otherwise satisfied by th e market, generalist which is usually determined by income, or residual which is allocated by vulnerability measures. The author concludes that a single definition between the EU member states would be problematic due to the differences each country faces, but a broader definition that does not exclude any groups, especially the more vulnerable ones, would be the best option. (Braga, M., & Palvarini, P., 2013). Rosenfeld (2017) suggests that affordable housing can fall into the following categories of inter pretations which include ratio measures such as price/income ratio measurements, tenure related interpretations that distinguish between renting and owning the home, housing affordability as an integrative concept, population groups, funding for the housin g, and the cost of supply. The author found this information by utilizing a questionnaire that was sent to certain
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9 definition, it is essential to refer to the the addition of affordable housing. Methodology For this capstone, the methodology consist s of researching each country, analyzing the best recommendations that come from their initiatives, and applying it to the United States at the state level. The first step of the methodology is to research goals that came from the EU that have directly affected or influenc ed goals from these countries. This will aid in the broader understanding of why each country is choosing to participate in certain initiatives and determine their importance to the country. After, the goals and initiatives o f each country will be found an d analyzed to gain a perspective of what is being done to incorporate more energy efficient housing . Governmental reports that contain reliable statistics and information on energy efficiency and affordable housing will be utilized while s cholarly articles can offer a more in depth understanding of the topic while also providing information from different cities and projects. In researching these initiatives, a holistic study of energy efficient affordable housing will be conduct ed as a case study for each country. The purpose of the case stud ies is to study the affordable housing crisis within each country as an attempt to gather an understanding of the overall processes and policies of Europe. Since Europe is diverse in cultures, it was essential in this c ase study to explore multiple countries to gather a broader understanding of the continent through a holistic analysis of the specific situation. These case studies will provide a holistic study of the country, its specific housing crisis, energy efficient affordable homes, how they were funded/supported, and conclusions of what made it all work . Once the case studies are
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10 complete, a discussion of the common results in themes on what made each country successful in implementing energy efficient affordable h omes which will then allow for meaningful recommendations for the United States at a state level. The reason for developing recommendations at a state level is due to the organization of planning in the U.S. Urban planning in the U.S. controls housing at a local level, but they are only required to do what the state allows them to do , known as the Dillon Rule (MRSC, 2017; Moore, 2020) . Therefore, each local j urisdiction can operate in their ways and have different characteristics which are allowed as long as they meet the state's basic requirements. For example, some states like New Mexico , Louisiana, and Ohio do not require their city to have a comprehensive plan, however, Albuquerque, New Orleans , and Cincinnati have a comprehensive plan anyway (American Planning Association, 2022) . With everything that is learned from these countries, the aim is to make recommendations at the state level which will allow for more planning requirements for each jurisdiction and will incentivize more building energy efficient affordable homes. If these recommendations become law, then each jurisdiction would have to implement energy efficient affordable homes. Another reason is population size. It is more comparable to analyze Germany, for example, to specific states rather than the U.S. as a whole continent. Lastly, there is a lower probability of change , which woul d most likely require an increase in the housing budget through the federal government compared to the state government. State governments can be more flexible. Selection Rationale The case studies will examine England, Germany, and Croatia due to the s imilar state of their housing economy. In data provided by the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, the United
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11 Kingdom, Germany , and Croatia are experiencing a similar level of housing fever, which can be defined as a popular term to describe an overheated hous ing market or housing price bubble. The graph below depicts how rapidly prices are increasing in different locations. As depicted, The United Kingdom, Germany, and Croatia are not only experiencing a similar level of housing fever but are experiencing it m uch more compared to the United States. Another reason for choosing these countries is their similarities in their Housing Price Index (HPI) and their Disposable Income (PDI). HPI is defined as a broad economic measure of house prices throughout time and PDI is the amount of money individuals ha ve from their income after tax. The purpose of choosing these indexes is to measure the economy more specifically to the housing market and how individuals of those specific countries are experiencing the housing crisis. In the graph below depicting HPI, a ll four countries are Figure 2 : Housing fever, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, 2020
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12 experiencing a higher HPI and are moving in the same direction close together, indicating that the HPI is similar in comparison. In the graph depicting PDI, the U.S. has experienced the most change in PDI but has leveled to the same l evel as the other countries. The graph shows that individuals within this country have extremely similar personal disposable income. 0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 250.00 2017:Q1 2017:Q2 2017:Q3 2017:Q4 2018:Q1 2018:Q2 2018:Q3 2018:Q4 2019:Q1 2019:Q2 2019:Q3 2019:Q4 2020:Q1 2020:Q2 2020:Q3 2020:Q4 2021:Q1 2021:Q2 2021:Q3 2021:Q4 2022:Q1 HPI YEARS IN QUARTERS Home Price Index Croatia Germany UK U.S. 0.00 50.00 100.00 150.00 200.00 2017:Q1 2017:Q2 2017:Q3 2017:Q4 2018:Q1 2018:Q2 2018:Q3 2018:Q4 2019:Q1 2019:Q2 2019:Q3 2019:Q4 2020:Q1 2020:Q2 2020:Q3 2020:Q4 2021:Q1 2021:Q2 2021:Q3 2021:Q4 2022:Q1 PDI YEARS IN QUARTERS Personal Disposable Income Index Croatia Germany UK U.S. Figure 3 : Home Price Index, Castaneda, Y., 2023, Data from the federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Figure 4 : Personal Disposable Income Index, Castaneda, Y., 2023, Data from the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas
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13 Case Stud y 1: England Introduction England is a non EU country as of 2020 and has a population of 55.98 million . As defined by the Department for Leveling Up, Housing and Communities & the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government (2013) in England, affordable housing is housing that is either for rent or for sale and is for those whose needs are not met by the market. It includes different tenures, including social rent, affordable rent, and shared ownership, among others that were not listed. It can be a new build property or a private sector property that has been purchased for use as an affordable home . Social housing, on the other hand, is considered to be different than affordable housing, but they may also overlap in meaning. The biggest difference in England is regarding t enure and that social housing providers are registered by the Regulator of Social Housing, and the developer or provider has received specific grant funding to provide low rent. Affordable housing throughout England, except for London, is provided by Homes England. The Mayor of London, who is currently Sadiq Kahn, is responsible for affordable housing in London only (Department for Leveling Up, Housing and Communities, 2022). Housing Stock housing stock and it has increased by 31,000 in that year (Regulator of Social Housing, 2022). On average in the United Kingdom (UK), the population in 2021 spent 30.5% o f its income to rent their home (Home Let, 2022). As shown in the graph below, the proportion of households that are occupied by social renters has decreased since 2000, furthering the issue of decreasing housing stock, even though the stock is at an alrea dy large number compared to the United States
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14 at 948,000 and Germany at one million (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2021; OECD, 2018) . With social units decreasing, it begs the question of where low income individuals are living if there are not enough social units. The number of homeless in England has overall decreased since 2002 but ha s increased slightly since 2017 along with the number of indiviuals being homeless for one night. This phenomenon is most like ly due to an influx in private market housing in the graph displayed below. Figure 5 : Proportion of households occupied by social renters in England from 2000 to 2022, Statista Research Department , 2023
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15 Homeownership in England is fairly high but has decre ased in recent years. In 2003, 70.9% of the United Kingdom population owned their homes but their numbers have decreased to 63.9% in 2018. Out of those who rent, 59.2% are individuals who have low incomes (Hilber & Schöni, 2021) . The graph below shows the relationship between renters , social renters, and homeowners within the country. As is depicted, homeownership decreased as well as social renters, but private renters witnessed an increase in the market. This is most likely due to the popularity of build to rent buildings and units as a more cost effective way for ordinary individuals to live in desirable cities. Figure 6 : Private rental housing lost market share during the 20th century, Brookings, 2021
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16 income, elderly, and young adults, are not able to adequately afford homes and are relying on renting a unit to be able to have a home. This problem is exacerbated by, as mentioned previously, a shortage of homes being built and even the COVID 19 pandemic as many individuals were laid off from their jobs. During the pandemic, policy interventions were more so focusing on homeowners rather than renters in the working in industries affected. England also introduced a pause to eviction enforcement until 2021 (Hilber & Schöni, 2021). Sustainability In terms of the need for more sustainable housing, England is seeing hotter, dryer summers and warmer winters over time due to climate change. This negatively affects the population o f England since heat waves, just like any other extreme event, can cause deaths, especially in the elderly or those with pre existing conditions ( Ravikumar & Smout , 2022). In the event of a heat wave, low income families residing in low efficiency homes wo uld pay a high cost to decrease their home temperatures to keep them cool and may not even be inclined to lower them at all due to the high costs it generates. The need for more efficient affordable housing is imminent in England as these heat events may b ecome more frequent over time . In reviewing the literature regarding sustainable affordable housing in England, most which is similar to LEED, except, Passive House certification contains an affordability aspect to its projects, so it mainly focuses on ventilation, heating, cooling, thermal comfort, airtightness,
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17 and insulation (Passive House Institute, 2015). All this allows the home to be more energy efficient by c ausing the resident to save on their energy bills and allow for a higher disposable income for other important costs like food, clothes, or healthcare . The graphic below displays the key elements of the Passivhaus certification. With aspects like solar ori entation and exterior shading being elements that naturally cool or warm the home depending on the season, it proves that energy efficiency can be minimal and affordable with simple solutions. ESG for Affordable Housing One innovative funding initiative for sustainable affordable housing in England occurs Sustainability Reporting Standard for Social Housing (SRS). This organization encourages energy efficient affordable housing by educating and connecting with developers, non profits, and banks to adopt the SRS and follow Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) credentials to improve sustainable housing in England. Sustainability for Housing encourages more sustainable construction of homes as well as higher efficiency ratings. Their 2021 report, Figure 7 : Passivhaus Strategies, Avenston, 2020
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18 which is also the first since their initiation in 2020, states that 68 housing providers in England have adopted the SRS, which accounts for 34% or 1.5 million of England's social housing stock . Other groups wh o have adopted the SRS include 36 lenders and/or investors and 20 endorsers . In terms of cost, units are on average rented at a 50% reduction in cost compared to private units (Sustainability for Housing, 2021). The SRS encourages anti fuel poverty, low co st home ownership and affordable rent, energy efficiency, good construction practices, and waste management. They also can provide resident aid like financial literacy, connect residents to food banks, and teach residents skills for employment (Sustainabil ity for Housing, 2021). This is essential to providing a more equitable community that can live more comfortably in their homes. Some specific energy efficiency actions that have been taken to decrease energy bills for tenants and reduce emissions include installing installation, upgrading heating systems, and smart thermostats, installation of solar panels, door and window upgrades, and efficient lighting. These are simple, yet highly effective tools for energy efficiency. Goldsmith Street One sustainable social project in Norwich, England, located northeast of London, called Goldsmith Street is the largest Passivhaus development in the United Kingdom with energy costs from this development being 70% cheaper than average with heating bills b eing about £ 150 per year (Keskeys, n.d.). It was funded by Norwich Regeneration Company, an entity of the Norwich City Council that aims to create affordable and energy efficient homes through Passive House standards and/or certifications (Norwich City Cou ncil, 2020). This project, designed by Mikhail Riches, contains 50 homes and 50 flat units and includes gardens and a children's play area to increase connectedness between residents. It is a great showcase of an architectural high density,
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19 social housing project . Speed limits around the housing are reduced to 20 mph and the project contains walkable areas which create safe and healthy lifestyles (Mikhail Riches, 2023). There is not much information on how affordable the development is, but to be able to li ve in it, one would have to apply online through the City of Norwich website and may have to be placed on a waitlist. Sampson Close Lastly, Braga and Palvarini (2013) share innovative housing projects and more specifically mentioned the Passivhaus at Sam pson Close in the United Kingdom which was developed by the Orbit Group. It provides 23 new affordable, energy efficient homes comprised of 18 units and 5 houses. This project was funded by both the Orbit Group and the Homes and Communities Agency. It is t he first project to obtain a Passivhaus Certification, so it features high performance insulation and windows, solar panels, high efficiency ventilation, and passive and active shading. Residents are monitored over time to record satisfaction rates through the University of Coventry. Figure 8 : Goldsmith Street development in Norwich, England
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20 W ith a decreasing social housing stock and a desire for energy efficiency within the country, energy efficient social and affordable housing has made its place in England as shown by ESG investments in social housing and projects, such as Goldsmith Street. Passivhaus certification has played a dominant role in energy efficiency and has proved to be a cost efficient way to build homes and reduce energy bills. Although the affordable housing crisis has yet to be solved, England has some innovative solutions fo r building homes that could pose to be adequate solutions in the United States. Case Study 2: Germany Introduction Germany , with a population of 83.2 million, has a housing market focused on renting with about 54% of the German population renting their homes and out of those who rent, 90% of those individuals are within multi family buildings (Schmidt, 2021). Housing affordability is Figure 9 : Sampson Close development in the UK
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21 measured using a rent to in come ratio where a rent burden occurs when 20% of income is used to spend on rent. This is a much smaller percentage compared to the United States at 30% and the same as the EU. In Germany, 10.7% of the population reports being overburdened by housing cost s by spending 40% or more of their income on housing ( Statistisches Bundesamt , 2022). Another issue Germany encounters is their social housing stock has decreased from 2.5 million units in 2000 to 1 million units in 2018, a similar issue confronting the U. S. (OECD, 2018). Social housing and affordable housing are differentiated in Germany. Affordable housing is determined using a ratio, but social housing is subsidized housing by the government and developers. Developers can apply for grants and interest fr ee loans to build social housing and are only required to rent the units below market rate for 15 to 25 years and then can later be rent ed at market rate. To reside in a social housing unit, a family or individual must apply to be eligible usually based o n household income (Schmidt, 2021). After, they can then apply for housing but may have to be put on a long waitlist. In an attempt to stop price increases in rents, Germany ective since it applied to only a few municipalities (OECD, 2018). Rental assistance is a way Germany can assist in relieving the 2021, wohngeld supported 550,0 0 0 households, mostly for young adults and the elderly (Schmidt, 2021). This is an integral and most common form of housing assistance to Germans. Housing Supply
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22 lacking labor, materials, and shipments (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2019). In 2021, the German Federal Government pledged to build 400,000 new units every year, with one in every four units being affordable, to beat the housing crisis. By the end of 2021, 293,393 units were built and in 2022, 280,000 units were built. The German Federal government did not only prove unsuccessful in meeting its goal but has witnessed the chal lenges in building new construction and requires a solution to construct more units (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2022; Alkousaa, 2021). In early 2023, it has been determined that to beat the affordable housing crisis, Germany now needs to build a total of 700 ,000 units ( Hansen, H., Lauer, K., Martinez, M., & Chambers, M. , 2023). Due to the shortage of units, the prices of rent have increased in all major cities as displayed in the graph below . This makes it difficult for Germans and incoming immigrants due to most jobs and resources being conveniently located in German cities. Average rent price of residential property in selected cities in Germany from 2013 to 2022(in euros per square meter ) Figure 10 : Average rent price of residential property in selected cities in Germany from 2013 to 2022, Statista Research Department, 2022
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23 Sustainability Drought, floods, and extreme heat are the main climate struggles Germans are facing which are costing the country tens of billions of dollars every year in damages ( Alkousaa, R., Murray, M., & Maclean, W. , 2021; The Climate Reality Project, 2018). The need for more sustainable and affordable housing is crucial for those who may have been displaced by these natural disasters or would like to live in a more resilient home in case of these extreme events. To mitigate the effects of climate change, Germany has pledged to be carbon neutral by 2045. To achieve this ambitious task, Germany will work to decrease their emissions by 65% by 2035 and then the rest of their emissions by 2045 ( Alkousaa, R., Murray, M., & Maclean, W. , 2021 ; Gross, 2021). Sustainable housing, whether it is affordable or not, is just one major way Germany can achieve this goal. Energy efficiency is a top priority for German funds and subsidies due to their ambitious climate goals as well as gaining energy security during the Russian Ukrainian conflict (Ichiyanagi, 2022, pg.1). The graph below building sector in Germany has decreased emissions and increased measures for ensuring e nergy efficiencies such as Passivhaus and smart building techniques. T he graphic below displays where Germany intends to be by 2030, 2040 , and 2045 (Appunn, K., Eriksen, F. & Wettengel, J., 2022).
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24 Erlangen, Germany One example of sustainable and affordable homes is a housing project in Erla ngen, Germany, a medium to small size town just north of Nuremberg, that is funded by the European Investment Bank at $84.3 million in collaboration with the housing association GEWOBAU 42 homes with about 63% being social housing and the rest as affordable housing. Additionally, they plan to renovate 564 existing homes in the city and add 126 social housing units to them (Riedel, 2021; WCN Editorial Team, 2021). Figure 11 : Greenhouse gas emission trends in Germany by sector 1990 2022 , Clean Energy Wire, Wettengel, J., 2023
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25 Hannover, Germany Another housing project in Germany fun ded by InvestEU is located in Hannover, south of Hamburg, to combat affordability and energy issues facing residents. It will be made by Out of all the units, 36% will be social housing units for two person households with a combined income The remaining units will be considered affordable units. From the city of Hannover, 82% of their new buildings will not only be energy efficient but 20% m ore A common theme between these two municipal housing companies and had collaborated with the EU to pursue funding for these energy efficient housing projects that will benefit the residents of their city. Figure 13 : Housing development in Erlangen, Germany
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26 Although Germany is know n to be a progressive country and at the forefront of climate change mitigation, the country still struggles with an affordable housing crisis. With not b uilding enough units to keep up with the population and the construction industry lacking labor and materials, Germany still has not discovered a solution to lower the demand from the housing crisis. Energy efficiency, however, is much more desirable to th e German government which has focused on this aspect of housi ng , especiall y concerning ren ovating old public buildings and social housing stock. This can create a better quality of life for individuals in these renovated homes while also lowering their ene rgy bills. Case Study 3: Croatia Introduction Croatia, an eastern European country that is the newest addition to the EU since 2013, has a homeownership rate of 90.5% with 71% of those homes being single family detached Figure 15 : Housing development in Hannover, Germany
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27 houses (Statista Research Department, 2022; Statista Research Department, 2021). W ith a population of 3.899 million, the smallest out of the three case studies, Croatia contains energy efficiency goals for its housing , especially after a devastating earthquake. Social housing in Croatia has decreased since the 1990s by the efforts of th e government incentivizing individuals to buy their homes instead of renting, which ultimately diminished the supply of social housing (Interegg Europe, 2019). Since receiving its independence in 1991, Croatia does not have many housing policies that speci fically regard affordability, where it has been mostly left to the market until recent intervention. The definitions of social housing and affordable housing for the country of Croatia are not clearly defined within the literature (Interegg Europe, 2019), but it can be assumed that social housing is referred to as housing provided by the government where as affordable housing is housing that is rented at a cheaper rate than the market provides. A report from 2019 states that Since Croatia does not contain many housing indicators and affordability measurements s uch as the rent to income rat io, it is assumed they follow the EU rent to income indicators at 20% of income on housing is considered to be cost burdened and 40% of income spe nt on housing to be severely cost burdened. In 2021, the percentage of the population spending 25% of income on housing was at 13.9% , and spending 40% of income on housing, cost burden was measured at 4.5% of the population (Knoema, 2023). However, the Rep emphasis on assisting displaced families from natural disasters, refugees, and former tenancy rights holders (individuals who had originally resided in Croatia, moved away from, and then later decided to move back). RHP was first established to aid displaced peoples and refugees
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28 following the conflicts in former Yugoslavia during 1991 1995. This program is funded by the EU, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refug ees, the Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe, and the Council of Europe Development Bank (Regional Housing Programme, 2023). Sustainability In terms of climate, Croatia faces a more diverse range of extreme events compared to the countrie s discussed above. Some of these natural hazards include extreme heat, droughts, flooding, earthquakes, and forest fires. Croatia contains coastal communities that are prone to flooding due to sea level rise as well as flooding from rivers (The World Bank Group, 2021). All this contributes to an increased vulnerability of low income residents who may reside in old homes or can't afford to fix their homes after a natural event occurs. In 2020, a magnitude 6.4 (USGS, 2020). Events like these encourage 45% by 2030 and to halt its use of coal by 2033. Their carbon footprint as a country is the 4th smallest per ca pita compared to other EU nations, so as a low contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, Croatia is on the right path to reducing the impact of climate change globally Croatia is beginning to pursue monetary actions toward funding energy efficient homes throughout the country. Funded by the Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) from the EU, 6.3 billion renovations, structural reinforcement for earthquake preparedness, an energy poverty reduction program due to the Russian Ukrainian conflict reducing the energy consumption of heating for
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29 multi family and public buildings by 50%, a framework of skills for jobs promoting green practices, reduction of administ rative burden, green urban renewal strategies, and a new financing model for clean energy (Lakatos, 2022). The renovations, structural reinforcement, and energy consumption are focused on multi family buildings with an emphasis on social housing units. Ene rgy poverty is also a big focus in Croatia due to the threatened fuel supply caused by the Russian Ukrainian conflict. In 2018, 6.6% of the EU were not able to afford their energy bill compared to the 17.5% of Croatians who could not afford it. This issue disproportionally affects Croatians, especially the poor so it is an essential part of the allocated budget from the RRF. (Somani, 2020). Passive House standards have been recognized in Croatia to improve energy standards and reduce energy bills. In a pape r from a University of Zagreb faculty member, he discusses the first 20 Passive House homes that were constructed and how Passive House is a great standard to use to contribute to new construction of homes, however, these homes are single family, detached, and a p aper from Interegg Europe introduces the challenges that occur when trying to make social housing more energy efficient. Some of these challenges include the fact that social housing is within multi family buildings as individual units rather than being the whole building so retrofitting just those single units would not be viable. In many cases, the energy bills from social housing are usually paid for by the local authorities, so the st rain many times does not present itself to the resident. Lastly, the local authorities do not have enough room in their budget for retrofitting these homes, which is a huge blockade that the United States also face (Intergg Europe, 2019). It seems like Cro atia does not have strong enough policies to address the lack of social housing within the country. Starting with a holistic definition of social housing, Croatia can learn from Germany
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30 n ESG investment company, or gather additional money from organizations within the EU. Smart Eco House One example of energy efficient housi ng in Croatia is a company called Smart Eco House that builds energy efficient homes using environmentally friendly materials. These homes are specifically designed in accordance with the urban conditions and seismic standards of Croatia and Montenegro. These homes cost less than traditional homes and can be constructed within 20 da ys. The prices range from 5 bedroom and 4 bathroom home to a 1 . With sustainable materials, double paned windows , and specialized PIR panels used for insulation the cost savings will be 2 3% every year (Smart Eco House, 2020). Although t hese homes are very affordable they require the purchase of land to be built on, so these homes are not meant for individuals with the lowest income.
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31 Discussion Each country, as presented in the case studies, experiences the current housing crisis, and implements energy efficient housing in different ways. It is essential to synthesize the dat a and ideas presented in the case studies to display the data accurately and visually in comparison to each country. First, a look into the demand in association with the housing market can portray information regarding the market and the missing housing n eeded for the population. As portrayed in the graph below, it is evident that the United States requires more units of housing to be built, more specifically 3,800,000, in comparison to the European countries (Habitat for Humanity, 2022). England requires 1,000,000 housing units to meet demand and Germany requires 700,000 units (Barton & Wilson, 2022; Hansen, H., Lauer, K., Martinez, M., & Chambers, M. , 2023). The state of Florida, on the other hand, requires an additional 570,000 units. The purpose of this statistic is to show how even though each country is facing an affordable housing crisis, the number of units need to ease the crisis is much less compared to the United States which shows that given the different policies, the European countries have set up their housing policies in a way that the crisis is not as severe as the United States. Figure 16 : Smart Eco House housing options, Smart Eco House, n.d.
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32 The table be low depicts a further visual comparison of each country as provided by the case studies. The difference between the United States and the European countries is stark when comparing statistics. England contains the most social housing units yet does not have a nationally recognized indicator to distinguish between the housing cost burdened and severely burdened individuals. England has a high budget set aside for housing and a considerably high percentage of the populaiton who own their homes . Germany, the largest populat ion out of the three European countries, has 5% of their housing stock as social housing , and 10.7% of the Figure 17 : Housing demand deficits, Castaneda, Y., 2023 *No data was found for Croatia ClickOrlando. (2022, December 19). Report: Florida Will Need 570K Housing Units by 2030 . Florida Realtors. Retrieved April 8, 2023, from https://www.floridarealtors.org/news media/news articles/2022/12/report florida will need 570k housing units 2030 Habit at for Humanity. (2022). 2022 State of the Nation's Housing report: 4 key takeaways for 2022 . Habitat for Humanity. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.habitat.org/costofhome/2022 state nations housing report lack affordable housing Hansen, H., Lauer , K., Martinez, M., & Chambers, M. (2023, February 14). German housing shortage hits highest level in 20 years ZIA . Reuters. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/german housing shortage hits highest level 20 years zia 2023 02 14/ Wilson, W., & Barton, C. (2022, February 4). Tackling the under supply of housing . Research Briefings. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP 7671/CBP 7671.pdf
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33 population is severely cost burdened . Most of their population rents and they receive little funding from the European Union to build affordable hous ing, but as of 2022, has released an initiative to spend $ 65 billion on tackling the affordable housing crisis which is more than what the entire United States is funding for all 50 states (Arons & Jennen, 2022). of about $360 million, aims at spending on rental assistance and home purchasing assistance programs (Florida Housing Coalition, 2022). The Inflation Reduction Act of the U.S. is directing $1 billion for the whole country to increase energy efficiency within HUD housing and ince ntive green power within homes, however, does not explicitly aid in fixing housing affordability issues (Enterprise Community Partners, 2022). owns their homes but is more recently implementing a housing policy for the first tim e since its independence due to the ongoing housing crises that have occurred since. Croatia receives a fair amount of money from the European Union, much more compared to Germany due to their particular needs, to complete their housing efforts and initiat ives.
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34 United States Florida England Germany Croatia Total Population 331.9 million 21.78 million 55.98 million 83.2 million 3.899 million % Social/Public Housing Units < 1% 1 < 1% 13 16.6% 2 5% 3 2.9% 4 % Population Burdened by Housing Costs Cost burdened: 30% Severely Cost burdened: 14% Cost burdened: 10% 12 Severely Cost burdened: 6% 12 Cost burdened: N/A Severely Cost burdened: N/A Cost burdened: N/A Severely Cost burdened: 10.7% Cost burdened: 13.9% Severely Cost burdened: 4.5% Rent to Income Ratio 30% = Cost burdened 50% = Severely Cost burdened 30% = Cost burdened 50% = Severely Cost burdened N/A = Cost burdened N/A = Severely Cost burdened 20% = Cost burdened 40% = Severely Cost burdened 20% = Cost burdened 40% = Severely Cost burdened Tenure Own: 64.1% 8 Rent: 35.9% 8 Own: 66 % 13 Rent: 34% 13 Own: 62.5% 9 Rent: 37.5% 9 Own: 49.5% 10 Rent: 50.5% Own: 90.5% 11 Rent: 9.5% Funds for Housing U.S. Government: $68.7 billion 5 Inflation Reduction Act: $1 billion State of Florida: $362,725,000 12 Government of the United Kingdom: ~ $21 billion 7 European Union in total: ~ $99 billion European Union to Germany: ~ $296.4 million German Government: ~ $70 billion European Union in t otal: ~ $99 billion European Union to Croatia: ~$1.3 billion
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35 Figure 18 : Comparison Table, Castaneda, Y., 2023 1 Dreier, P. (2018, April 16). Why America Needs More Social Housing. The American Prospect. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://prospect.org/infrastructure/america needs social housing/ 2 Statista Research Department. (2023, January 11). England: social rented households 2022 . Statista. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/286509/engl and number of social rented households/ 3 Housing Europe. (2010, March 27). Social Housing in Europe . Housing Europe. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.housingeurope.eu/resource 107/social housing in europe 4 7). S OCIAL HOUSING AS A RESIDUAL PART OF SOCIAL CARE . University of Zagreb. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/hlm/prgm/hmm/social%20housing/2008_budapest/session_3_bezovan.pdf 5 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (2022 ). 2022 Budget in Brief . HUD.GOV. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.hud.gov/sites/dfiles/CFO/documents/2022_Budget_in_Brief_FINAL.pdf 6 Urban Institute. (n.d.). Housing and Community Development Expenditures . Urban Institute. Retrieved March 31, 20 23, from https://www.urban.org/policy centers/cross center initiatives/state and local finance initiative/state and local backgrounders/housing and community development expenditures 7 Booth, R. (2022, December 6). England's affordable housing scheme falls 32000 homes short of target . The Guardian. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/dec/07/englands affordable housing scheme falls 32000 homes short of target 8 Craft, D. (2022, November 30). 69+ Homeowners vs. Renters Statis tics (2022) . Worth Insurance. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.worthinsurance.com/post/homeowners vs renters statistics 9 Waddington, B. (2023, January 5). Housing, England and Wales: Census 2021 . Office for National Statistics. Retrieved March 31 , 2023, from https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/housing/bulletins/housingenglandandwales/census2021 10 Statista Research Department. (2023, March 13). Germany: share of homeowners 2010 2021 . Statista. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https:// www.statista.com/statistics/543381/house owners among population german 11 Statista Research Department. (2022, November 22). Homeownership rate in countries in Europe 2021 . Statista. Retrieved March 31, 2023, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/246355 /home ownership rate in europe/ 12 Florida Housing Coalition. (2022). Home Matters Report . Florida Housing Coalition. Retrieved April 8, 2023, from https://flhousing.org/wp content/uploads/2022/08/Home Matters Report 2022.pdf 13 Shimberg Center for Housing Studies. (n.d.). OVERVIEW OF HOUSING IN FLORIDA . Shimberg Center for Housing Studies. Retrieved April 8, 2023, from http://www.shimberg.ufl.edu/publications/tab2.pdf As depicted in the data, although European countries have a much smaller population, they have a higher percentage of their housing stock designated for social housing. Although their stock is decreasing, it is important to understand why their stock was high in the first place. It is due to the relaxed zoning laws that allow for more mixed use buildings in their urban cities and their existing multimodal transportation options. Dense living through semi detached and detached homes in England and apartments in Germany as the most popular home types are instrumental to making affordable housing more accessible and less of a taboo, as most of the European population do not live in the traditional style of single family housing . Conclusion & Recommendations
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36 In conclusion, the findings from this Capstone report are that social housing projects a re primarily funded by individual cities, as shown in Norwich, England , and both German examples. In the United States, a city may have housing planners and they may also have their own housing authorities so in this case, both the U.S. and Europe are the same. These housing authorities could be funded by the city and by the U.S. Department of Housing and Development, but I believe a difference that the U.S. could potentially incorporate is more direct federal funding. With the Inflation Reduction Act, this has become more possible (The White House, 2023) and more funding from cities to their housing agencies can prove to be beneficial, although, still difficult to accomplish. To have more incentives for energy efficient and affordable homes to developers, non can adopt the SRS and follow ESG requirements (Sustainability for Housing, 2021). ESG investments are already utilized in the United States by private invest ment companies , however, it can prove to be more beneficial if larger stakeholders were involved in investment , such as banks, big developers, and investors, and if the United States could produce a sustainability standard for homes built using ESG funds . In England, investors include housing organizations , non profits, banks, and developers. These investors not only provide funds but are a part of the new housing development and ensure its success, which is measured by the standard . S ince 2022, measures fr om the developments have be en recorded every year for energy efficien cy , affordability, and equity. These groups increase the supply of homes and are providing affordable housing options in England. This solution would be best taken up by a group of companies or developers who care about low income affordable housing and can invest money on the side while contributing to the betterment of society through housing. Although this
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37 solution is not meant fo r a state to adopt, it would be beneficial for states to encourage ESG investment in affordable housing from a reliable source that is similar to or even better than the Sustainability for Housing initiative in England. Social or affordable homes that are more energy efficient in terms of heating and cooling, as learned from Passivhaus in Europe, are a more feasible way to ensure sustainability compared to another standard like a LEED certification which requires more components. This will help residents to secure cheaper energy bills and live more comfortably in terms of health and money. Passivhaus would be the better solution for developers to build rather than LEED due to the simplicity of the design and the ability to rent to lower income individuals wh ereas LEED gravitates to rent towards more affluent individuals. Following the Passivhaus standard in all 50 states is not feasible since Passivhaus requires tree coverage and specific shading to cool a home. Places like Florida and Arizona have hot temper atures and little to no shading for homes. For places like these, they can follow more stringent building codes. States could adopt more stringent building codes that require homes to be built for energy efficiency. An example of this would require all new multifamily homes to have a certain standard of windows, insulation, and an efficient HVAC system that would lead to lower energy costs and healthier living. Energy costs burden Americans as a part of their overall housing costs. The difference in lower e nergy costs can mean a difference in statistics. Lower spending on money unloads the burden of these individuals and can reduce the percentage of Americans cost burdened by housing costs. An example could be that all new multifamily dwellings must have dou ble paned windows, a specific standard of HVAC system with options listed in the code, and a specific standard of insulation with options. Some states may already implement this code,
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38 such as Florida for energy conservation building code, however, it only applies to commercial buildings , single family homes, or townhomes . The code emphasizes fire protection on multi family buildings but not energy efficiency. Although Europe appears to contain a higher standard of housing, they still struggle with solutions to the current affordable housing crisis. Additionally, states can learn from the European housing process of implementation to secure more affordable housing within the state. Additional research opportunities can be planning challenges such as the count NIMBYism, and a deeper analysis of the planning process between each country. The U.S. can achieve equity through the right housing practices, and it depends on having enough funds to grow these projects to fruition. With these recommendation s, funding can be more adequate, and more energy efficient homes can be built to break the cycle of the housing cost burden and allow more Americans to live in peace knowing they live in a sustainable and affordable home.
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39 References Alkousaa, R., Murray, M., & Maclean, W. (2022, July 18). Climate change extreme weather costs Germany billions of euros a year study . Reuters. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us germany politics climate idAFKBN2OT0IT American Planning Association. (2022, September 26). 2022 Survey of State Planning Laws . ArcGIS StoryMaps. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/142eec1a e7fe42be915b6767ac811e40 Appunn, K., Eriksen, F., & Wettengel, J. (2023, March 15). Germany's greenhouse gas emissions and energy transition targets . Clean Energy Wire. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.cleanenergywire.org/factsheets/germanys green house gas emissions and climate targets Arons, S., & Jennen, B. (2022, September 4). Germany Unveils $65 Billion Relief to Tame Cost of Living Crisis . Bloomberg.com. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022 09 04/german go vernment agrees on energy relief plan worth 65 billion#xj4y7vzkg Bailey, P. (2022, July 21). Priced Out: The State of Housing in America . Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.cbpp.org/research/housing/priced out the state of housing in america National strategies to fight homelessness and housing exclusion . EUROPEAN SOCIAL POLICY NETWORK. file:///Users/yeseniacastaneda/Downloads/ESPN_HR_homelessness%20and%20housing %20exclusion_2019%20(2).pd f
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40 Braga, M., & Palvarini, P. (2013, January). Social Housing in the EU . European Parliament. Retrieved January 25, 2023, from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/492469/IPOL EMPL_NT(2013)492469_EN.pdf Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. (2021, June 16). Policy Basics: Public Housing . Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Retrieved April 1, 2023, fro m https://www.cbpp.org/research/public housing The Climate Reality Project. (2018, March 16). How Climate Change Is Affecting Germany . Climate Reality Project. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.climaterealityproject.org/blog/how climate change a ffecting germany Cromwell, M. (2022, December 8). Housing Costs a Big Burden on Renters in Largest U.S. Counties . U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/12/housing costs burden.html Department for L evelling Up, Housing & Communities. (2022, November 17). Affordable housing supply in England: 2021 to 2022 . GOV.UK. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/affordable housing supply in england 2021 to 2022/affordable hous ing supply in england 2021 to 2022 Department for Leveling Up, Housing Communities & the Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local Government. (2013, June 11). Affordable housing supply . GOV.UK. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.gov.uk/governme nt/collections/affordable housing supply Enterprise Community Partners. (2022, October 18). Maximizing the Inflation Reduction Act Benefits for Affordable Housing . Retrieved April 3, 2023, from
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41 https://www.enterprisecommunity.org/blog/maximizing inflation reduction act benefits affordable housing#:~:text=The%20Inflation%20Reduction%20Act%20directs,most%20vulnerable %20low%2Dincome%20communities. European Commission. (n.d.). Secure gas supplies . En ergy. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://energy.ec.europa.eu/topics/energy security/secure gas supplies_en Eurostat. (2023, January 9). Living conditions in Europe housing Statistics Explained . European Commission. Retrieved February 4, 2023, fro m https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics explained/index.php?title=Living_conditions_in_Europe_ _housing#Key_findings Florida Housing Coalition. (2022). Home Matters Report . Florida Housing Coalition. Retrieved April 8, 2023, from https://flhousing.org/w p content/uploads/2022/08/Home Matters Report 2022.pdf Freddie Mac. (2021, May 7). Housing Supply: A Growing Deficit . Freddie Mac. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.freddiemac.com/research/insight/20210507 housing supply Gross, S. (2021, May 28) . Germany is becoming ground zero for the challenges of deep decarbonization . Brookings. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/planetpolicy/2021/05/28/germany is becoming ground zero for the challenges of deep decarbonization/ Gro unded Solutions Network. (n.d.). Incentives . Inclusionary Housing. Retrieved April 2, 2023, from https://inclusionaryhousing.org/designing a policy/land dedication incentives/
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42 Habitat for Humanity. (2022). 2022 State of the Nation's Housing Report : 4 key takeaways for 2022 . Habitat for Humanity. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.habitat.org/costofhome/2022 state nations housing report lack affordable housing Hansen, H., Lauer, K., Martinez, M., & Chambers, M. (2023, February 14). German housing shortage hits highest level in 20 years ZIA . Reuters. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/german housing shortage hits highest level 20 years zia 2023 02 14/ Hilber, C., & Schöni, O. (2021, April 20). In the United Kingd om, homeownership has fallen while renting is on the rise . Brookings. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.brookings.edu/essay/uk rental housing markets/ Home Let. (January 7, 2022). Ratio of household rent to income in the United Kingdom (UK) May 202 0 and May 2021, by region [Graph]. In Statista. Retrieved March 22, 2023, from Housing Europe. (2021). State of Housing in Europe 2021 . Housing Europe. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.stateofhousing.eu/#p=8 Ichiyanagi, E. (2022, July 21). Germ any Strengthens Energy Efficiency in the Building Sector in the Wake of Ukraine Crisis | Column | Renewable Energy Institute . . Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.renewable ei.org/en/activities/column/REupdate/20220721.php Interreg Europe. Social Green , 1 17. https://projects2014 2020.interregeurope.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_tevprojects/library/file_1565702957.pd f
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44 Moore, T. (2020, February). Dillon Rule a nd Home Rule: Principles of Local Governance . NebraskaLegislature.GOV. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://nebraskalegislature.gov/pdf/reports/research/snapshot_localgov_2020.pdf Municipal Research & Services Center of Washington. (1999). Local Governmen t Policy Making Process . MRSC.org. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://mrsc.org/getmedia/e46223b6 f3ac 4afb b7d9 b2362edf6890/Local Government Policy Making Process.pdf.aspx?ext=.pdf National Low Income Housing Coalition. (2023). Why We Care . National Lo w Income Housing Coalition. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://nlihc.org/explore issues/why we care Norwich City Council. (2020, October 8). High demand for homes built by Norwich City Council housing company . Norwich City Council. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.norwich.gov.uk/news/article/389/high_demand_for_homes_built_by_norwic h_city_council_housing_company OECD. (2018, June). Germany Policy Brief . OECD Orgnanization for Economic Co Operation and Development. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.oecd.org/policy briefs/Germany plicy brief housing.pdf OECD Social Policy Division. (2022, October 13). HC1.2. HOUSING COSTS OVER INCOME . OECD. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.oecd.org/els/family/HC1 2 Housing costs over incom e.pdf Passive House Institute. (2015). Passivhaus Institut . Passivhaus Institut. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://passivehouse.com/02_informations/01_whatisapassivehouse/01_whatisapassiveho use.htm
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45 Croatia will redu ce CO2 emissions by 45% by 2030, our coal phase out year is 2033 . Vlada Republike Hrvatske. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://vlada.gov.hr/news/croatia will reduce co2 emissions by 45 by 2030 our coal phase out year is 2033/33278 Ravikumar, S., & Sm out, A. (2022, October 7). England's heatwaves see highest ever excess deaths among elderly . Reuters. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.reuters.com/world/uk/englands heatwaves see highest ever excess deaths among elderly 2022 10 07/ Regional Hou sing Programme. (2022). RHP | Croatia . Regional Housing Programme. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://regionalhousingprogramme.org/croatia/ Regulator of Social Housing. (2022, October 25). Social housing sector stock and rents statistics for 2021/22 show small net increase in social homes . GOV.UK. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.gov.uk/government/news/social housing sector stock and rents statistics for 202122 show small net increase in social homes Riedel, D. (2021, November 22). Germany: EIB supports affordable energy efficient housing in Erlangen . European Investment Bank. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.eib.org/en/pre ss/all/2021 416 eib supports affordable energy efficient housing in erlangen Urban Agenda Partnership for Housing, European Commission, DG REGIO, Brussels. Retrieved January 25, 2023, from
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46 https://ec.europa.eu/futurium/en/system/files/ged/briefing_note_2017_interpreting_ the_te rm_affordable_housing_ _march_2017.pdf Schmidt, C. (2021 , April 20). Strong tenant protections and subsidies support Germany's majority renter housing market . Brookings. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.brookings.edu/essay/germany rental housing markets/ Schwartz, A. F. (2021). Housing Policy in the United States . Routledge Books. Shahyd, K. (2019, August 23). Why Affordable Housing Matters for Environmental Protection . Energy Efficiency for All. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.energyefficienc yforall.org/updates/why affordable housing matters for environmental protection/ Shimberg Center for Housing Studies. (n.d.). OVERVIEW OF HOUSING IN FLORIDA . Shimberg Center for Housing Studies. Retrieved April 8, 2023, from http://www.shimberg.ufl.edu/pub lications/tab2.pdf Smart Eco House. (n.d.). Smart Eco House . Eco Houses in Montenegro and Croatia | Smart Eco. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://smartecohouse.me/en/ Somani, A. (2020, October 14). Facing Energy Poverty in Croatia . The Borgen Project. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://borgenproject.org/energy poverty in croatia/ Statista. (2021, July 5). Housing conditions by dwelling type in Croatia 2016 . Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/536 542/distribution of the population in croatia by dwelling type/ Statista. (2022, November 22). Homeownership rate in countries in Europe 2021 . Statista. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/246355/home ownership rate in europe/
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47 Statistisches Bundesamt. (2022, August 26). Housing costs: 10.7% of the population regarded as overburdened in 2021 . Statistisch es Bundesamt. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.destatis.de/EN/Press/2022/08/PE22_N054_61.html Statista Research Department. (2023, January 11). England: social rented households 2022 . Statista. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.statista.co m/statistics/286509/england number of social rented households/ Statista Research Department. (2022, January 12). Household rent to income ratio by region UK 2021 . Statista. Retrieved April 1, 2023, from https://www.statista.com/statistics/752217/household rent to income ratio by region uk/ Sustainability for Housing. (2022, May). The Sustainability Reporting Standard for Social Housing . Sustainability for Housing. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://sustainabilityforhousing.org.uk/wp content/uploads/2 022/10/SRS_Annual Report_2022.pdf Taylor, C. (2022, July 6). Affordable Sustainable Housing Can Bring the Green Deal Home . Green European Journal. Retrieved January 30, 2023, from https://www.greeneuropeanjournal.eu/affordable sustainable housing can bring the green deal home/ United Nations Development Programme. (n.d.). Sustainable Development Goals . United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved January 20, 2023, from https://www.undp.org/sustainable development goals U.S. Department of Housing and Urba n Development. (n.d.). Rental Burdens: Rethinking Affordability Measures | HUD USER . HUD User. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.huduser.gov/portal/pdredge/pdr_edge_featd_article_092214.html
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48 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (n.d .). Sustainable and Inclusive Housing Initiative | HUD USER . HUD User. Retrieved February 4, 2023, from https://www.huduser.gov/portal/pdredge/pdr_edge_featd_article_080211.html USGS. (2020, December 29). Magnitude 6.4 Earthquake in Croatia | U.S. Geological Survey . USGS.gov. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.usgs.gov/news/featured story/magnitude 64 earthquake croatia WCN Editorial Team. (2021, November 23). EIB approves an $84.3m loan for a housing project in Germany . World Construction Network. Retrieved February 3, 2023, from https://www.worldconstructionnetwork.com/news/eib approves 843m loan for housing project in germany/ The White House. (2023, January). Building a Clean Energy Economy: A Guidebook to the Inflation Reduction Act's Investments in Clean Energy and Climate Action (2). Cleanenergy.gov. Retrieved January 25, 2023, from https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp content/uploads/2022/12/Inflation Reduction Act Guidebook.pdf Wilson, W., & Barton, C. (2022, February 4). Tackling the unde r supply of housing . Research Briefings. https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP 7671/CBP 7671.pdf The World Bank Group. (2021). Croatia Vulnerability | Climate Change Knowledge Portal . Climate Change Knowledge Portal. Retrieved Febru ary 3, 2023, from https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/croatia/vulnerability
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mods:abstract lang en The current affordable housing crisis has international implications on the housing market, with increasing market prices and housing inaccessibility. In this increasing population and with the ongoing climate crisis, increasing energy-efficient housing stock is crucial to sustainable development and quality of life. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are benchmarks of what is to be reached globally by 2030 to eradicate poverty and hunger while also promoting sustainability and health initiatives (United Nations Development Programme, 2023). Discussion of the SDGs is important since it is an influential factor in the European Union’s (EU) goals for sustainability and equity. More precisely, this capstone is concerning Goal 1 to end poverty in all forms, Goal 7 to ensure affordability of clean energy, Goal 11 to reside in sustainable cities and communities, and Goal 13 to combat climate change. This capstone will establish the goals and initiatives of specific European countries to provide affordable or social housing that is energy efficient and analyze whether policies and funding tactics in these countries can apply to the United States at a state level to aid its affordable housing crisis. This will aim to answer the research question of what can the United States learn from Europe’s energy-efficient social and affordable housing initiatives that can be implemented at a state level.
mods:accessCondition Copyright Yesenia Ivelesse Castañeda. Permission granted to the University of Florida to digitize, archive and distribute this item for non-profit research and educational purposes. Any reuse of this item in excess of fair use or other copyright exemptions requires permission of the copyright holder.
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mods:note Awarded Bachelor of Science in Sustainability and the Built Environment, summa cum laude, on April 29, 2022. Major: Sustainability and the Built Environment
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Advisor: Azza M. Kamal. Advisor Department or School: Sustainability and the Built Environment. Advisor: . Advisor Department or School:
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