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Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas June 1987 NTIS order #PB87-205829
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Recommended Citation: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas, OTA-F-325 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1987). Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 86-600595 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325 (order form on p. 443)
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Foreword The United States has political, economic, humanitarian, and strategic interests in sustained economic development of U.S.-affiliated Caribbean and Pacific islands. Despite a U.S. commitment to support the economic vitality of these islands, most have become less selfreliant in food and fiber production, and now depend increasingly on Federal funding for jobs, public welfare, and food and other goods and services to the islands. Interest in the development of increased self-reliance in U.S.-affiliated islands has grown significantly in the last two decades. After 16 years of negotiation, the Congress, the United Nations and three governments emerging from the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands the Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islandsapproved agreements redefining their relationships with the United States. The remaining agreement, with the Republic of Palau, is expected soon, thus terminating the only remaining trusteeship created by the United Nations after World War II. Concomitant with the interest in development of island self-government has been concern over development of self-reliance. Similarly, the economic well-being of the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands has come under increasing scrutiny due to the growing strategic importance of the Caribbean Basin, and the implementation of the Caribbean Basin Initiative, Several factors contributing to the growing dependence of U.S.-affiliated islands include: scant natural resources and long distances between islands and sources of inputs, products, or markets; rapidly growing populations; tropical resource characteristics with generally high natural productivity but extreme vulnerability to disruption; and common histories of significant resource degradation. Despite the latter, the economic constraints posed by size and isolation of many of these islands dictate that much of the productive sector be based on renewable resourcesagriculture, aquiculture, fisheries, and tourism. Renewable resource development can help foster self-sufficiency, but certain approaches are not compatible with sustained development (e. g., harvesting resources until long-term productivity is lost, resources are depleted, or the environment is degraded). Similarly, policies, programs, and projects that seriously conflict with local cultures and customs are likely to be counterproductive. The Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, in 1984, requested the Office of Technology Assessment to conduct an assessment of the constraints to development of insular resource-based enterprises, and the opportunities to improve sustainable renewable resource development and management on the U.S.-affiliated islands. The House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs endorsed the request. The assessment identifies and discusses in-depth some constraints and opportunities to integrated management of renewable resources on these islands. OTA greatly appreciates the contributions of its advisory panel and workshop participants assembled for the study, and the authors of the commissioned papers. We are especially grateful for the time and effort donated by the numerous contributors who served as reviewers and as liaisons from the insular governments and other government agencies. In addition, we would like to thank those from within OTA who provided assistance, particularly Dr. Gordon Law of the International Security and Commerce Program. As with all OTA studies the content of the report is the sole responsibility of OTA. iii
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Integrated Renewable Resources Management for U.S. Insular Areas Advisory Panel Fernando Abruna Soil Scientist (retired) Puerto Rico John S. Corbin Aquiculture Development Program Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources Eric Dillingham Farmer U.S. Virgin Islands Lucius G. Eldredge Micronesian Area Research Center University of Guam Sam Falanruw Department of Resources and Development Yap State Government Michael J. Gawel Chief of Marine Resources Federated States of Micronesia Michael Hamnett Pacific Islands Development Program East/West Center Stanley Hosie Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacific Carolyn Imamura planning and Programs Pacific Basin Development Council Robert E. Johannes Division of Fisheries Research CSIRO Marine Laboratories Shelley M. Mark Department of Agriculture and Resource Economics University of Hawaii John Matuszak VI Cooperative Extension Service College of the Virgin Islands Jerome McElroy Department of Business Administration and Economics Saint Marys College Dieter Mueller-Dombois Department of Botany University of Hawaii Robert Owen Chief Conservation Officer (retired) Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Maria T. Pangelinan Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association Frank Peterson Department of Geology and Geophysics University of Hawaii Allen Putney Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Program West Indies Lab Ralph Schmidt Forest Division Food and Agriculture Organization Rome, Italy Ace Tago Pacific Management and Research Associates Edward Towle Island Resources Foundation Patrick Williams Commissioner of Agriculture U.S. Virgin Islands Adrian Winkel Former High Commissioner Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the reviewers. The reviewers do not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility for the report and the accuracy of its contents. iv
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OTA Project Staff on Integrated Renewable Resource Management of U.S. Insular Areas Roger Herdman, Assistant Director, OTA Health and Life Sciences Division Walter E. Parham, Program Manager Food and Renewable Resources Program Alison L. Hess, Project Director Analytical Staff Patricia J. Durana, Research Analyst 1 David S. Liem, Analyst 2 Eric Passaglia, Special Assistant and Spanish Translator Meriwether Wilson, Research Analyst 2 Susan J. Wintsch, Contracted Editor Benjamin Yarofmal, Research Assistant 4 Clerical Staff Patricia Durana 5 Rebecca Erickson 6 Sally Shafroth 7 Administrative Assistants Carolyn Swann Nellie Hammond Secretaries 1From August 1985. 2From January 1985 to May 1986. 3From June 1985 to September 1985. 4From May 1986 to August 1986. 5From October 1984 to August 1985. 6From August 1985 to November 1986. 7From November 1986.
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CONTENTS Page Chapter l. Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . 3 Chapter 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Chapter 3 Island Structure and Resource Systems . . . . . 49 Chapter 4. Island Renewable Resource History and Trends . . . 83 Chapter 5. Islands As Integrated Systems . . . . . .......131 Chapter 6. Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry . . . . . . . . .......185 Chapter 7. Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture. . . . . . . . . . . . . .221 Chapter 8. Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development . . . . . . . . . .275 Chapter 9. Resource Development Planning for U.S.-Affiliated Islands ... ..3l9 Chapter 10. Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress ..................347 Appendix A. Maps of the U.S.-Affiliated Islands . . ..............369 Appendix B. Other U.S. Island Possessions in the Tropical Pacific ....... 373 Appendix C. U.S. Military Presence in U.S.-Affiliated Islands ...........377 Appendix D. Integration of Traditional and Modern Law.... ....,...... 381 Appendix E. Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Carribbean and Pacific Islands .. ....384 Appendix F. Summary of Regional Workshops . . . . . ...406 Appendix G. Commissioned Papers . . ..........................426 Appendix H. Glossary of Acronyms and Terms . . . . . ....429 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 437
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Chapter 1 Summary
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CONTENTS Page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Insular Resource History and Trends. . . . . . . . Insular Renewable Resources . . . . . . . . . Islands as Integrated Resource Systems. . : . . . . . Constraints to the Sustainable Development of Renewable Resources . Opportunities for the Sustainable Development and Use of Renewable Resources . . . . . . . . . . Development Goals and Strategies . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agriculture, Agroforestry and Forestry . . . . . . . Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture. . . . . . . . Technologies To Support Resource Development . . . . . Preharvest Control Technologies . . . . . . . . . Food Preservation and Processing . . . . . . . . Market Development . . . . . . . . . . . Cooperatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical Integration of Operations . . . . . . . . Technologies To Support Resource Sustainability . . . . . Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technologies To Support Resource Recovery. . . . . . . Integrating Technologies . ........ . . . . . . Planning/Policy Considerations . . . . . . . . . Summary of Issues and Options for the U.S. Congress . . . . Congressional Oversight and Federal Agency Coordination Issues . Data Collection and Information Management Issues . . . . Research Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . Education, Extension, and Training Issues . . . . . . Incentive Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . Table 2 6 7 9 10 11 13 13 13 18 21 21 22 22 22 22 23 23 23 26 26 28 30 30 32 33 35 36 Table No. Page l-1. Population, Land Areas, and Estimated U.S. Federal Expenditures in U.S.-Affiliated Islands. . . . . . . . . . . 5 Figure s Figure No. Page l-1. U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands and Neighboring States . . . 3 l-2. U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands and Neighboring States . . . 4 l-3. Micronesia and the United States: A Comparison of Size . . . 5 l-4. Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands . . . . . . 10
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Chapter 1 Executive Summary INTRODUCTION The U.S.-affiliated tropical islands include of Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of Palau Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) in the Pacific (figure 1-2). All of these islands, in the Caribbean (figure l-l) and American Saexcept Puerto Rico, are very small (table l-l); mea, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Norththe Micronesia island groups are distributed ern Marianas Islands (CNMI), the Republic of over an area as large as the conterminous the Marshall Islands (RMI), the Federated States United States (figure I-3) but have an aggregate Figure 1-1 .U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands and Neighboring States Jamaica Republic CARIBBEAN SEA Aruba Curacao ATLANTIC OCEAN Miles 1 I I I 1 0 200 LESSER ANTILLES Virgin Puerto Islands Rico U.S. \ Anguilla ,*%I % St. Martin O Antigua St. Kitts t ? ;Dominic a St. Lucia h St. Vincent l Q Barbados l a. SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1986
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4 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Figure 1-2. U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands and Neighboring States State of Hawaii Tropic of Cancer .- -- North Pacific Ocean SOURCE Adapted from a map prepared by the State of Hawaii Department of Planning and Economic Development, 1984 land area less than that of Rhode Island. The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands also are distant from major foreign population centers. As commonwealths, Puerto Rico and the CNMI have autonomous governments, but are voluntarily associated with the United States. The USVI, American Samoa, and Guam are unincorporated territories with semi-autonomous governments. The FSM and RMI, which (along with the CNMI and Palau) comprised the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, have recently signed compacts with the United States to become Freely Associated States. This status allows the islands free control of internal affairs, assures them fiscal aid, and makes them eligible for some international aid; the United States retains responsibility for national defense. The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands have developed dependence on Federal funding to provide jobs, to support public welfare, and to import food and other goods and services to the islands. Several factors common to the U.S.-affiliated islands have contributed to this 1. 2. 3. dependence: lack of full political status and benefits of States; scant natural resources and large distances between islands and sources of inputs, products, or markets; rapidly growing populations;
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Ch. 1Executive Summary l 5 Tabie 1-1. Population, Land Areas, and Estimated U.S. Federal Expenditures in U.S.-Affiliated Islands 1984 Land area Approximate number Estimated U.S. Federal Insular area Populatio n a (sq. mi.) b of islands b expenditures, 1984 C Puerto Rico. . . . . . ............3,270,000 3,425 4 $5,420 million U.S. Virgin Islands. . . . . . . 107,500 132 66 $ 387 million Guam . . . . . . . . . 119,800 209 1 $ 768 million American Samoa . . . . . . . 35,300 77 7 $ 61 million Northern Mariana Islands. . . . . . 18,600 182 21 $ 103 million Marshall Islands. . . . . . . . 34,900 70 1,225 Federated States of Micronesia . . . . 88,400 279 607 $ 163 million Palau . . . . . . . . . 13,000 179 350 SOURCES a Land Use Planning Report, 13(46):365, November 25, 1965; U S. Department of State, 1984 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, report to the United Nations on administration of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1965 b U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1976); U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, The Virgin Islands Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1979); US Department of State, Annual Reports for American Samoa, Guam, and the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1980. C U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Federal Expenditures by State, FY 1985 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government printing Office, 1986) Includes: 1) Grants to State and local governments, 2) Federal salaries, 3) payments to individuals, 4) procurement, and 5) other Figure 1-3.Micronesia and the Contiguous United States: A Comparison of Size NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDS \ < 4 I MARSHALL ISLANDS \ Truk l Kolonla l Majuro Yap 9 Colonia = Kobor. FEDERATED STATES OF MICRONESI A Kosrae I PALAU ,. SOURCE Adapted from H F Nufer, Micronesia Under American Rule: An Evaluation of the Strategic Trusteeship (1947-1977) (Hicksville, NY Exposition Press, 1978)
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6 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas 4. tropical resource characteristics with generally high natural productivity but extreme vulnerability to disruption; and 5. common histories of resource degradation. Despite the United States past and present commitment to the economic vitality of the U.S.-affiliated islands, most have become less self-sufficient in food production over the past several decades. This dependence amounts to a complete reversal of precontact tradition. Before European discovery, the inhabited Pacific and Caribbean islands were self-supporting. People subsisted on the available marine and terrestrial natural resources and extended family systems provided for members unable to provide for themselves. Changes occurred with colonization and the increasing influence of foreign cultures. Colonial policies and practices over several centuries, the introduction of new fishery and agricultural technologies and cash economies, military occupation and use, and the advent of tourism, all have affected island resource systems and uses. Growing populations on many islands represent an added stress on an already limited resource base. High levels of financial aid from the United States during the last two decades have not fulfilled the intention of fostering modern, selfsufficient island economies. Largely directed toward social support programs, generous aid packages may have reduced local incentives to pursue that goal. A self-sufficient economy meets as many domestic needs as possible, and generates export revenue to pay for the imports required for a desired or acceptable standard of living. Development of an active productive sector on the islands may foster increased self-sufficiency. The economic constraints posed by size and isolation of many of these islands dictate that much of the productive sector be based on natural resourcese.g., agriculture, fisheries, and tourism. Renewable resource development can help foster self-sufficiency, but sustainable development precludes certain approaches. For example, harvesting resources to the point where long-term productivity is lost, resources are depleted, or the environment is degraded is ultimately counterproductive. Similarly, policies, programs, and projects that seriously conflict with local cultures and customs are likely to be counterproductive. Insular Resource History and Trends Although the histories of the peoples and settlement of the U.S.-affiliated island areas are diverse, certain common factors exist: 1. 2. 3. on most islands, relatively large indigenous populations were sustained by island resources before western contact and remnants of traditional agriculture and fishery practices still exist on many islands; all of these islands were colonized or administered by foreign nations whose activities primarily were designed to exploit island resources; and all of the islands have been of some strategic importance to the United States and most remain so. The islands share common renewable resource problems, including both natural (e.g., flooding, landslides, and other natural hazards) and manmade resource degradation. Deforestation and soil-moving for agriculture and construction have caused heavy soil erosion on many islands and adversely affected the surrounding coral reefs. Numerous island species are near extinction, and others have already gone extinct, due partly to habitat loss (e.g., removal of mangroves), to overexploitation (e.g., hunting of fruit bats), and to introduction of exotic competitive or predatory species (e.g., brown tree snake, mongoose). Increasing human population density, combined with inadequate sewage treatment, and introduction of agricultural and industrial chemicals has reduced freshwater and nearshore water quality on many islands. Oil spills have damaged nearshore environments in both the Pacific and the Caribbean. Turtles, nearshore fish and shellfish, and certain tree species have been overexploited in
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Ch. 1Executive Summary l 7 many island areas. Despite attempts to recover declining populations, poaching by local inhabitants and foreign nationals continues. Dynamite and chlorine bleach used by Pacific fishermen to fish have long-term destructive effects on the reef and lagoon areas. Dredging and mining in nearshore areas has resulted in the loss of many mangrove areas and coral reefs, which in turn may adversely affect nearshore fishery potential. Shipwrecks, heavy sedimentation, and anchor gouges have caused significant degradation of coral reefs and seagrass beds near many islands. Puerto Ricos nearshore waters have been heavily exploited and very nearly overfished. Similarly, even modest increases in fishing effort could surpass the natural capacity of waters around the USVI. While good data on harvest levels and production capacities in the Pacific are lacking, there is evidence of depletion in the nearshore environment, particularly around urban centers. More exotic resource problems remain in the Pacific islands, American and Japanese military ordnance from World War II still litter some of the islands, presenting a hazard to humans and inhibiting the use of some lands. Chemical repositories on Johnston Island have leaked military chemicals into the groundwater. Nuclear testing in the Marshalls has rendered several islands virtually uninhabitable. Efforts are being made to restore these islands to habitable conditions. Although surface nuclear tests have been banned; other islands still are used as nonnuclear practice bombardment targets. Concerns have increased over adverse trends in resource use resulting in efforts to maintain or enhance resources on many of the U. S.affiliated islands. These concerns have been expressed in a variety of ways, including: l l l efforts to maintain the resource base (e. g., coastal resource management); efforts to restore the renewable resource base (e.g., reforestation, captive breeding of endangered populations); efforts to redirect use to underused resources (e.g., outer reef fisheries); l l efforts to culture species (e.g., aquiculture, culture of crops currently gathered from the wild); and efforts to enhance existing renewable resources (e.g., artificial reefs, enrichment planting of forests). Sustainable renewable resource management depends not only on the capability of the ecological resources, but also on the availability of skilled labor and willingness to engage in resource management and development activities. Many young adults seek education and employment opportunities in the U.S. mainland. Despite substantial outward migration, remaining populations are rapidly growing. Many of those who remain depend on extended family relationships and social support programs to supply their needs. Most formal labor is captured by local governments and services for the public sector and its employees. Wages, security, and prestige are higher in government employment. Skilled labor, training, and interest in the agriculture and fisheries sectors are low on all the islands. Insular Renewable Resources Characteristics of island resourcessoil, water, vegetation, and wildlifedetermine the uses and technologies that may be implemented productively and sustainably. U.S.-affiliated islands may be categorized into four groups with common resource characteristics: 1. 2. 3. 4. high volcanic islands: peaks of undersea volcanoes (both active and dormant), often surrounded by fringing reefs; low-lying atolls: composed entirely of coralline reef limestone enclosing a lagoon; raised limestone islands: primarily limestone, originally formed in waters surrounding older volcanic islands and now above sea level; and continental islands: geologic extensions of continents or parts of certain undersea mountain ranges. All of the islands are within the tropical climatic region characterized by warm, relatively stable temperatures and commonly high humid-
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8 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment A low-lying atoll island in the Marshall Islands, built on the inside edge of an encircling coral reef. ity. Precipitation levels vary widely among the islands. Rainfall has high kinetic energy and, thus, greater ability to erode soils than in temperate regions. Further, the islands are vulnerable to major disturbanceshurricanes and typhoons (e.g., the western north Pacific receives an average of 26.3 typhoons per year), which can have devastating effects on resources, infrastructure, and populations. Freshwater availability is determined largely by island structure. Atolls have no natural surface water and retain little groundwater due to highly permeable soils. On the other hand, flash flooding and heavy erosion is common on high islands where slopes are steep. Hydrologic systems are much more complex on continental islands, corresponding to their more complex geology. Chemical weathering of soils predominates on tropical islands causing accelerated leaching of soil nutrients. Resultant soils generally are nutrient-poor regardless of parent rock type. Further, the chemical composition of the resulting soils often is imbalance so that many food or tree crops will exhibit stunted growth or will not survive. Because of differing histories of formation and geology, the nature and extent of renewable resources on the islands vary. However, their insular ecology leads to certain commonalities among resource systems: l richness in endemic species, l species-richness of forests, l value to science disproportionate to their size,
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are infertile, barren, and actively eroding. l vulnerability to l vulnerability t o disruption, and overexploitation. Islands as Integrated Resource systems Island ecosystems are closely interrelated. Island terrestrial ecosystems, structured topographically from highland forests to coastal vegetation, sequentially buffer the erosive forces of heavy tropical rainfall and rapid runoff and protect nearshore marine ecosystems from excessive freshwater intrusion and sedimentation (figure 1-4). Similarly, the combination of coral reefs, seagrass beds, and littoral vegetation serve to reduce the erosive energy of wave action, thereby protecting shorelines from erosion and providing the basic conditions for island expansion. Organic matter also is transported among these ecosystems via water flow and movement of animals, allowing recolonization and recovery of degraded areas. Thus, the value of individual ecosystems includes not only the particular resources they contain, but also their essential functions in the insular ecology. Unmodified island ecosystems generally are at equilibrium. However, environmental manipulation or modification generally is necessary to accommodate human populations. If such modifications allow the natural flow of energy, freshwater, and nutrients through the system the natural equilibrium still may be maintained. Options exist in the methods and types of modifications to be enacted; selection of a development approach which mimics or acts in concert with the desired natural process will result in fewer impacts on associated ecosystems.
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10 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Figure 1-4. Erosive Energv Buffer Svstems on Islands SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment, 1986 Traditional island societies demonstrated a keen sense of the interrelated nature of the island ecosystems: activities were designed to mimic natural ecosystems and preserve related environmental functions. Damaged areas were left fallow allowing natural recovery processes to restore productivity. Present population pressure coupled with human economic desires preclude most resource uses which rely on time for recovery. Alternative methods include abandoning degraded lands, or expending considerable money, energy, and effort to reclaim sites (e.g., reforestation). The U.S.-affiliated islands renewable resources still provide many goods and services, however, they have not become the basis of viable, modern economies. A variety of factors constrain efforts to achieve this goal. I Saltwater and storm surge buffer system Constraints to the Sustainable Development of Renwewable Resources A number of physical, biological, geographical, and socioeconomic factors constrain sustainable renewable resource development and management on U.S.-affiliated islands. Physical constraints that particularly affect small island agriculture and land-based aquiculture are limited availability of land and water resources. Low fertility of tropical soils, occasional torrential rainfall, distinct dry seasons on some islands, and mountainous topography of high volcanic and continental islands may preclude some types of agricultural activity. Physical constraints to fisheries development include low productivity of offshore tropical waters and limited extent of productive nearshore areas. Many nearshore resources already are being
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Ch. 1Executive Summary 11 exploited near or beyond sustainable levels. Marine ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to natural and human disturbance, often requiring long recovery periods. Added to these constraints are the lack of reliable data on the status of island terrestrial and marine renewable resources, and incomplete understanding of the mechanics of tropical ecosystems. The development strategies and technologies designed for temperate fisheries and agriculture are not readily transferable to tropical settings. Failure to appreciate this may explain why many western attempts to manage and develop resources in tropical settings have not been successful. Geographically, the Pacific islands are extremely isolated. Transportation in general is difficult and unreliable. These factors, combined with small size or lack of formal markets for export products, and proximity of major Asian competitors, make it difficult or impossible to achieve economies of scale. Such constraints are much less severe in the Caribbean. Sustainable resource development is limited not only by the inherent nature of tropical resources, and island geographic settings, but also by several socioeconomic characteristics of the islands. In the Pacific, certain resource ownership and use traditions constrain access to resources by outsiders, including other islanders, who may be interested in developing the resource. Commercial development of resources, in particular, is contrary to traditions of harvesting for immediate subsistence use only, and of sharing any harvesting excess with needy relatives or friends. The skills and knowledge needed for sustainable resource development is also scarce on these islands. Environment and resources play a minor role in school curricula, or are entirely neglected. Education at all levels is primarily oriented toward liberal arts. A preference exists for government employment rather than in the fisheries and agriculture sectors which are perceived as lower status. Many who do not find government jobs, migrate to the mainland United States, and many who leave the islands to pursue higher education never return. Outmigration and reluctance of the islanders to work in some types of employment creates a demand for alien immigrant workers, whose presence may create social tensions. Opportunities for the Sustainable Development and Use of Renewable Resources Opportunities exist for expanding the role of renewable resources in the economic development of the islands, and for reducing the islands heavy dependence on imports and U.S. aid. Warm temperatures and generally favorable climates characterize most of the U.S.-affiliated islands in both the Pacific and Caribbean regions. The islands are capable of sustaining high agricultural and aquatic productivity. The mangrove, seagrass, and coral reef ecosystems of these islands are highly productive and rich, and interactively support populations of economically valuable marine organisms. Nearshore marine resources show signs of stress in both regions. However, the success of the Japanese in Micronesia during the mandate period suggests there is unrealized potential in the Pacific for marine resource development, particularly through expanded use of underexploited and migratory species. Aquaculture may have some potential in the U. S.affiliated islands to supply both local and export markets. Both regions have appropriate sites for pond, estuarine, or offshore culture systems. However, significant constraints to aquiculture development exist, including high cost of inputs, difficulty in obtaining juveniles, and lack of aquiculture extension services. Thus, aquiculture has not been developed to any great degree in the U.S.-affiliated islands. The high islands of the Pacific and Puerto Rico also have significant terrestrial resources. There is potential for making traditional agricultural methods more productive and for introducing new crops and technologies to the U.S.-affiliated islands. Agroforestry, a landuse system that integrates or rotates growth of woody perennials and nonwoody crops or ani-
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12 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: Off/cc of Technology Assessment Growing numbers of tourists visit the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands to enjoy their natural beauty and explore cultural and historic sites. (Pictured here: Truk Lagoon.) reals was traditionally practiced on many U. S.affiliated islands. Incorporating trees into more productive agricultural systems can optimize landuse while retaining the advantages of a forest (watershed protection, erosion control, wildlife habitat). Commercial agriculture still is considered desirable for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Even small islands may become successful producers of specialty crops attractive to world markets. Pohnpei black pepper, for example, has penetrated U.S. gourmet markets. Coffee, nuts, spices, essential and perfume oils, cacao, and certain ornamental plants, fruits, and vegetables are all high-value crops which have market potential. The natural resources of tropical islands also may contribute to economic development through tourism. Tourists are attracted to the islands because of their warm climates, coral reefs, beaches, flora and fauna, and spectacular scenery. Tourism and related industries currently comprise the major economic sector of the USVI, and tourist presence in the Pacific region is growing rapidly. Tourists provide revenue by purchasing food, services, and island handicrafts. Although tourism has created environmental and social problems in the past, it has the potential to contribute significantly to the economic self-sufficiency of the U. S.affiliated islands. Ideally, the tourism industry would be planned and developed to maximize economic benefits to the islanders and mini-
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Ch. lExecutive Summary l 1 3 mize negative environmental and social ing reduced unemployment and outmigration, impacts. improved lifestyles for islanders, and mainteSuccessful and sustainable renewable renance of biological diversity. If development source development may assist in increasing is sensitive to island traditions and practices, the self-sufficiency of the U.S.-affiliated islands. it can also contribute to the retention of rich There are many other potential benefits, includcultural heritages. DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND STRATEGIES Introduction Imports constitute the bulk of island consumption, thus, to increase self-sufficiency territories must either produce enough to satisfy local consumption, or generate export earnings to balance imports, or both. In view of the constraints to agricultural development and increasing depletion of nearshore marine resources on many islands, total self-sufficiency is probably not attainable. A more attainable goal may be to improve the islands long-term productive capacities through optimal use of land available for food production (taking into account other land use requirements), redirecting marine harvest to include certain underexploited species and offshore areas, and further development of culture techniques. Strategies for agriculture or fisheries development could be tailored to nonmarket, semicommercial or full commercial production as appropriate. What is appropriate may vary among islands and will depend on many geographical, ecological, and socioeconomic factors. The integrated management of renewable resources for sustained yields requires a blend of strategies for resource development as well as for resource conservation, recovery, and replenishment. Strategies simply to increase harvests of already overexploited resources may raise yields initially, but will ultimately lead to depletion that may be irreversible. Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry Traditional forms of agriculture remain on many islands, especially in the Pacific. These forms evolved to be productive while retaining many natural ecosystem functions. Common Pacific island systems are: l culture of wetland tare, l atoll pit taro culture, l mixed tree gardening, l intermittent tree gardening, l lanchos (weekend farms) and backyard gardening, and l traditional open canopy culture. In the U.S. Caribbean, little indigenous agriculture remains, but traditional agriculture systems have been brought into Puerto Rico and the USVI by down-island migrants such as the French herb farmers from neighboring St. Barthelemy who practice a specialized form of polyculture of herb and tree crops. Despite the success of traditional systems, most modern attempts to develop agriculture on the islands largely have followed the U.S. example of consolidated, capital-intensive monoculture requiring imported fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation or drainage systems, and mechanization. Although efforts to develop agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands have been introduced as small-scale projects for limited-resource farmers, many have been unsuccessful for reasons including: l lack of markets, l low market prices, l technologies dependent on imported inputs, l lack of management skills among farmers, diseases and pests, and l a general lack of commitment by the U.S. and local governments. Agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands historically centered around major
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14 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: C Hodges Eighty percent of American Samoan households engage in small-scale agriculture, commonly an indigenous polyculture as pictured here. export crops including such commodities as sugar, tobacco, and coffee. Most of this type of agriculture was abandoned as markets declined and soils became degraded. Development of modern agriculture in the U.S. Caribbean has seen some success, especially in dairy and beef production, and vegetables and fruits. Still, Puerto Rico annually imports about 1.2 billion dollars worth of food. Most farm operators in the USVI and Puerto Rico also engage in offfarm wage-earning activities. Many lands have been abandoned, and agriculture has adapted to resource loss by reducing farm size and effort, replacing capital-intensive inputs, and changing the composition of output from export crops to domestically consumed products. Major constraints to agricultural development which apply to all of the U.S.-affiliated islands generally fall into the following categories: biophysical, economic, infrastructural, and sociocultural. Major biophysical constraints are low soil fertility, limited or irregular water resources, and limited arable land of suitable soil types and level topography. Land tenure systems, characterized by fragmented landholdings and clan influence over use rights, are primary cultural constraints. Economic constraints include the small size of domestic markets for agricultural products, availability of high-paying alternate employment, low social esteem of farming, high cost of imported livestock feed and other inputs, and in tourism-
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Ch. 1Executive Summary c 15 dominated islands, the relatively low value of agricultural lands compared to other uses (i.e., commercial real estate). Undeveloped infrastructure on some islands (i.e., lack of rural farm roads, scarcity of transportation to markets) also pose constraints. Successful tropical island agricultural systems generally exhibit characteristics which mimic and extend natural ecosystem processes by providing for water and nutrient flow, and maintaining a canopy to protect and enhance soil quality at critical periods. An agricultural system which incorporates a diversity of crop species and varieties strengthens the systems resilience to disruption from pests and disease outbreaks and, further, provides a variety of products throughout the year despite erratic weather patterns. For such systems to be readily adopted, they should be based on traditionally used systems and require minimal exotic, nonrenewable inputs such as fossil fuel energy or derived chemicals. Major characteristics of ecologically and economically sustainable systems include: l mimicking natural systems through polycultures that incorporate perennial species, l optimization of agroecosystem components (e.g., maximizing recycling of locally available plant nutrients and natural maintenance of soil moisture) rather than maximization of total yield, provision of farmer and consumer security in areas prone to natural disaster and in areas with small and erratic markets, and l emphasizing incremental changes from traditional agricultural systems to ease and speed adoption. Although farm size, type of technologies applied, and farming goals are not directly related, agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands can be classified into four general types that comprise a continuum of farming systems: 1. Subsistence smallholder: Family (or clan) member(s) producing solely for family con2. 3. 4. sumption, although surplus commodities may be sold. Traditional cropping or gathering techniques commonly are used, and the number of crops produced usually is greater than in commercial smallholder systems. Semicommercial smallholder: Individual or family members regularly producing commodities for the market, but only on a part-time basis. Farming mayor may not be regularly directed to home consumption (the farmer may have a full-time wage job in the money economy). Commodities sometimes are produced using modern technology, Commercial smallholder: Individual or family member(s) producing solely or substantially for the market. Commercial smallholders typically are full-time producers who derive their principal livelihood from farming. Commodities are normally produced using modern technology. The range of crops is much narrower than for the subsistence smallholder, The commercial smallholder may have a few wage employees, but most would rely solely on unpaid family labor. Large-scale commercial farming: Usually characterized by significant investment in operation, and use of paid wage and salary workers. Ownership commonly would be corporate in form, with production using modern, high-input technology. Output per unit of land or labor would tend to be much higher than for smallholder agriculture. Large-scale commercial farming on the islands is not large by continental U.S. standards. Commonly, field farming of over 20 acres or annual gross sales over $20,000 is considered a large-scale operation for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Most farming in the U.S. Pacific is subsistence and semicommercial; in the U.S. Caribbean islands, small-scale commercial and semicommercial farming is prevalent. In Puerto Rico, several large-scale enterprises exist, but the most recent of these (a large rice project
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16 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas on the north coast and one Israeli-sponsored vegetable and fruit development on the south coast) have failed. For the most part, island ecologies and economies are not conducive to largescale farming. Strategy: Support and Protect Nonmarket Agriculture Nonmarket (subsistence and part-time) agriculture provides the basis for good nutrition and a cadre of people who will retain the interests and skills allowing future upgrading to semicommercial and commercial systems. Most subsistence agricultural systems are characterized by high crop diversity, are well adapted to natural conditions, are strongly rooted in local culture, and make maximum use of local resources. These systems generally are stable, sustainable, and ecologically benign. They often provide beneficial environmental services, such as soil stabilization and habitat protection. Without a conscious effort to preserve such food production systems, even relatively stable systems may become rare or disappear along with the rich genetic heritage they represent. Most traditional systems already are declining. Potential mechanisms to support nonmarket agriculture include: l l consideration of the impacts of development on traditional agriculture (e.g., as a component of environmental impact statements); provision of research and extension services for backyard gardeners; and enhanced game management to protect traditional agriculture and provide an alternate source of protein for low-income families. Development projects that might have adverse impacts on traditional agricultural systems could be redesigned. Strategy: DeveIop Smallholder Agriculture Development of smallholder agriculture could generate cash income for subsistence farmers in the pacific, and increase income for small-scale or semicommercial farmers in both the Pacific and Caribbean areas. Modest acreage is required for smallholder operations, which rely heavily on family labor. Policies and technologies which would raise subsistence sector productivity and strengthen urban markets for local farm products could assist in gradually expanding nonmarket production to semicommercial production. Several common characteristics of traditional systems might be integrated with modern practices to achieve more productive agricultural systems with commercial potential. Improved cultivars of traditional crops, as well as the introduction of new crops and technologies may be appropriate for development efforts. Trees could be incorporated with crops in new, more productive versions of traditional agroforests, space would be used as efficiently as possible, and crop combinations designed to maximize overall productivity on a sustainable basis. Similarly, livestock could be penned and fed agricultural wastes, thus providing a supplementary protein or income source and a supply of organic matter to re-apply to fields. Commercial small-scale operations may be handicapped by small and unstable markets or inadequate transportation services. Moreover, small producers commonly are not able to produce uniform quality products, do not have access to adequate capital, and lack marketing skills. Thus, development of small-scale farming systems probably would require strong government and private sector support for credit, identification and extension of appropriate technologies and crops, and identification and creation of market outlets. Development of smallholder agriculture is likely to benefit the large number of subsistence farmers (Freely Associated States), semicommercial, and part-time farmers (American Samoa, Guam, the CNMI, Puerto Rico, and the USVI) in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Further, it is likely to be more compatible with the present land tenure systems than would large-scale farming. Smallholders tend to produce a large range of commodities which may alleviate marketing constraints in small size markets.
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Ch. 1Executive Summary l 1 7 Photo credit Office of Technology Assessment This semicommercial mixed polyculture on St. Thomas, USVI, provides more than 30 crops, including tree crops, for the farmers subsistence and for sale in a roadside stand. Strategy: Develop Intensive Commercial Farming Although subsistence and semicommercial farms may satisfy many local food needs, additional commercial and competitive operations are needed to generate cash to pay for imports. The high input requirements of large-scale commercial agriculture limit its applicability on most of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Large parcels of land with uniform soil types are scarce in the Pacific territories; where they occur in the Caribbean, they are expensive. Local markets to absorb large product volumes are also lacking, export potential is difficult to achieve, and transportation is poor. Although these factors all constrain the development of large-scale commercial farming, particularly in the Pacific, selective opportunities for such development exist. On Puerto Rico some large-scale farming is possible. New technologies, including drip irrigation and improved pasture technologies, may be needed to increase productivity and raise the quality of crops and livestock with large-scale commercial potential. In some cases, improvements in management alone may increase yields. Highly productive, commercial agriculture could be developed on a smaller scale in other island areas. Certain carefully selected crops and modern technologies could be adapted to tropical island ecology. Where appropriate, increased mechanization for tillage, seeding, spraying, and harvesting could be made available as agriculture develops. An alternative to improved pasturage and more intensive field farming is cultivation in controlled environments. Various types of container and site-controlled agriculture, ranging from small containers to permanent greenhouses, offer potential for development of intensive agriculture in the smallest U.S.-affiliated islands. Controlled-environment cultivation may overcome some constraints posed by land and freshwater availability, high land prices, unproductive and highly erodible soils, and pest and disease outbreaks. Such technologies (hydroponics, greenhouses, and shadehouses) already have been implemented on some islands with varying degrees of success. Yields
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18 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas from container agriculture commonly are very high although labor and water requirements also are high. Tropical greenhouses permit growth of crops that cannot withstand heavy rainfalls typical of the tropics. Shadehouses are used throughout the islands for tree and perennial crop propagation and may also be used to grow coolseason crops sensitive to high temperatures and long day lengths. Hydroponicsa totally controlled system with artificial growth media, and high capital requirementsis probably feasible only for certain high-value herbs and vegetables. Such systems have been successful in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands and on Guam, and are technically suitable for other islands where water supplies are adequate. Very high-value specialty crops offer another possible commercial agricultural opportunity for many islands: spices, essential oils, specialty fruits and vegetables all have development potential and some (e.g., Pohnpei black pepper) have already penetrated world gourmet markets. High returns to labor and management are possible from small plantings. Strict quality control would be necessary which may initially require private joint ventures or government management. Strategy: Develop Commercial Forestry Commercial forestry development may be possible on some lands unsuitable for other uses. The forestry program in Puerto Rico, a cooperative operation with the U.S. Forest Service, has had considerable success in species enrichment of forests and in increasing total forest cover. The USVI Urban Forestry Program provides mahogany culled from roadside plantings to small-scale furniture and crafts producers. Forests in the Pacific islands commonly are used for construction materials, charcoal, and fuelwood, but little forest maintenance, enrichment, or reforestation is practiced. Reforestation or afforestation of severely degraded lands may renew soil productivity to allow profitable use of these lands. Strategy: Develop Rese a rch Programs Relevant to Island Needs In order to accelerate agriculture development, research programs need to be directed to specific goals relevant to island development, Although the need for research is widely recognized, the research capacity of many U.S. island institutions is limited. Research is hindered further by inadequate or unavailable baseline data and skilled research staff. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has designated research institutes for tropical agriculture (the Tropical Agriculture Research Station in Puerto Rico and the Tropical Fruit and Vegetable Research Laboratory in Hawaii) and for tropical forestry (the Institute of Tropical Forestry in Puerto Rico and the Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry in Hawaii). However, funding for these institutions has declined in recent years. Research performed by local institutions could be supplemented by taking advantage of research performed by other regional institutions. Research performed by the University of the South Pacific, the South Pacific Commission, the Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute, and other regional research institutions can provide useful information. It probably would be to the advantage of small island governments to establish cooperative relationships with appropriate international research institutions or major universities that can assist in basic research. Nearshore Fisheries an d Aquaculture Islanders have harvested tropical aquatic organisms for a tremendous range of utilitarian, symbolic, and ornamental functions since prehistoric times. The sea was important as a food source in the Caribbean and supplied an estimated 90 percent of the Pacific islanders animal protein. Fishing was an integral part of traditional high island socioeconomy and essential to life on atolls. Today, as in the past, marine resources still supply a large percentage of consumed protein.
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Ch. 1Executive Summary l 1 9 Photo credit: C. Wahle Nearshore fishing takes place primarily in the vicinity of coral reef ecosystems, a major feature of atolls and tropical nearshore waters. Tropical nearshore environments are biologically complex and variable. Ecologic structure and composition vary widely within and among islands, even over short distances. Nevertheless, nearshore ecosystems in the islands generally comprise three distinct, but intimately interrelated habitats: 1) mangrove forests, 2) seagrass meadows, and 3) coral reefs. Many animals migrate among the habitats during different times in their life cycle, and nutrients are efficiently captured, retained, and recycled. However, these systems are highly susceptible to disruption and degradation by natural or manmade stresses. Natural recovery processes can take decades once the source of stress is removed. Nearshore resources effectively are the social security reserve and unemployment insurance of many island people. Further damage to these resources and/or resource depletion through overcapitalization of fisheries may have an extremely high opportunity cost in terms of public assistance, food imports, and social costs of diminished self-esteem. The major constraints to nearshore tropical fisheries development include inadequate knowledge of complex ecosystems, inherently limited productivity of offshore waters, and vulnerability of tropical fisheries to natural and human disturbances. Equipment maintenance and servicing, and problems of transporting inputs and exports also hinder development. Scientific information on the current status of nearshore marine resources is fragmented and inconclusive. Without concise data on resource distribution and abundance, the concept of op-
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20 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas timum sustainable yield is mere technical jargon. Most research and classical models of marine biological systems have been based on continental shelf areas of the Northern Hemisphere. The physical differences between reef slopes of oceanic islands and continental shelves, and the diversity and complexity of tropical sea fisheries reduce the value of these biological and bioeconomic models. The effects of selectively fishing certain species, fishing the same species at different depths, the relationships between nearshore and offshore stocks, and fish population dynamics, are less well understood in tropical than in temperate waters. Strategy: Support Subsistance and Small=Scale Commercial Fisheries Nearshore marine resources are susceptible to overexploitation, thus, technologies that simply increase nearshore harvests probably will have long-term negative impacts on fisheries potential. The productive capabilities of nearshore systems have already been exceeded in many areas and are being approached rapidly in others. Therefore, little potential exists for significant, sustainable expansion of these fisheries. Subsistence and small-scale fisheries are nonetheless important for their food-, income-, and employment-generating potential. As nearshore resources have come under greater pressure, fishermen have increasingly moved offshore and/or made more use of migrating pelagic species sometimes found in lagoons and at reef edges. Such resources, as well as other underexploited species (possibly shark, deepwater shrimp, and other species beyond reefs) probably offer opportunities in the U.S. Caribbean and Pacific for expansion of small-scale fisheriescommercial, recreational, or subsistence. Development policies in both areas emphasize underused marine resources. In some cases, it might be possible to develop fisheries for species not desired locally, but valuable as export commodities. However, even underexploited resources can become quickly depleted without careful management. Strategy: Develop Aquaculture Aquiculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms in fresh, brackish, or marine waters, began over 2000 years ago in China. Interest in aquiculture is apparent in the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. Aquiculture offers a potential mechanism to supply fishery products to local markets, increase job opportunities and income in rural areas, generate export dollars, and supplement marine resources through reseeding programs. Systems range from low maintenance marine enclosures to intensively managed hatcheries and raceways, and from subsistence production to production for commercial markets. Applicability of these techniques may depend on many factors: including availability of appropriate sites; technology, capital, and labor requirements; and market potential. Sea ranching involves collecting and growing wild or cultured stockusually sessile or sedentary speciesunder managed natural conditions. This carries the benefit of a secure food source, but also the risk that natural stocks will be collected too rapidly, reducing natural productivity. Control and conservation measures may mitigate this problem, Culture in natural waters includes bottom and near-bottom intertidal and subtidal culture of sedentary species (clams, oysters, conch, seaweed). This is practical only where natural supplies of phytoplankton are sufficient to serve the food needs of cultured speciesgenerally these areas are restricted to larger islands. Seaweed cultivation, on the other hand, may be well suited to small, remote islands, since the thalli can be sun-dried and stored for many months. Culture of marine fish in floating net pens or cages is possible where space is available in protected estuaries and bays. Several species of finfish could form the basis for mariculture in the Pacific and Caribbean. A variety of crustaceans (prawns and shrimp) and fish (rabbitfish, milkfish, mullet, redfish, tilapia) are suitable candidates for fresh or saltwater pond culture on U.S. islands. Commer-
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Ch. 1Executive Summary 21 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Techniques have been developed at the Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center in Palau for culture of giant clams unique among farmed animals in that they derive their nutrition from symbiotic algae embedded in their mantles and thus require no supplemental feeding. cial ventures based on pond aquiculture have been developed on Guam and Puerto Rico. These have had mixed success, but interest in this form of aquiculture remains high. There is potential for expansion of pond farming in both regions not only to raise food species, but also high-value species for the aquarium trade, and bait fishes to supply tuna fisheries. All of these forms of aquiculture are possible in tropical environments, however, adaptive research is required to test the applicability of specific culture systems to local environments and species. Technologies must be socially acceptable and economically feasible. Logistical constraints such as difficulties in supplying inputs and delivering products should be considered. Land availability constrains the development of extensive pond aquiculture on most islands. However, semi-intensive commercial operations may have some potential. Such operations, which are already being developed in Puerto Rico, are characterized by smaller, more engineered and managed ponds, more supplemental feeding, and higher stocking densities than extensive systems. Intensive culture involving even higher degrees of environmental control and technical expertise probably is not yet feasible for most U.S. islands. Aquiculture development in many island locales may be most successful where simple methods are used to produce high-value species to supply hotel and tourist facilities. Several constraints to resource development might be addressed through appropriate technologies for food storage, processing, distribution, and marketing. In general, reduction of crop losses and maintenance of product quality is easier than expanding and intensifying sustainable production. Tropical diseases, pests, and spoilage all take a toll on crops and livestock before and after harvest. Nearly 30 to 40 percent of island crops may be lost to a combination of these factors. Preharvest Control Technologies Appropriate pest, disease, and weed control can contribute to reduction of losses and damage, and thereby, effectively increase yields and marketability of crops and livestock. Use of pestand disease-resistant crops is a traditional strategy that might be more widely applied on the islands following development and field trials. Certain traditional cropping systems also serve to control pests, i.e., polyculture (with some plants serving as pest barriers), field and crop rotation, and careful timing of plantings. Chemical controls are easily applied and immediately effective, but may destroy the natural balance between pests and their natural predators, leading to more severe problems in the future. The effectiveness of chemical controls generally is short-lived and environmental contamination poses a serious risk. Biological control employs the use and manipulation of natural predators to control pests, and may be preferable to chemical controls.
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22 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas However, considerable research, experimentation, and field trials will be necessary to identify appropriate control agents. A balance of biological and chemical controls, and polyculture may offer the best long-term pest/disease control strategy. Highly skilled and motivated agricultural extension services will be integral to the success of this strategy. Strong quarantine programs to prevent reinfestation could complement such efforts. Food Preservation and Processing Improved storage and transportation could greatly reduce postharvest loss of agriculture and fishery products to spoilage, insects, rats, and other pests. Refrigeration can achieve these results, but generally it is constrained by lacking or irregular power supplies. Newly developed solar-powered refrigeration systems offer some promise for cold storage at remote localities; however, development costs would be high initially. Other methods of food preservation and processing range from traditional sun-drying and smoking of fish and coconut meat to modern freeze drying and canning technologies. Some processing and preservation methods are practiced on the islands, and others which are not yet practiced might be applicable. However, most modern processing technologies are energy-intensive and therefore expensive. Establishment of regional or local cooperative food processing centers may make processing more affordable. Market Development Steps to develop local markets for island products could include gradual increases in the use of locally produced commodities for federally funded programs, for U.S. military personnel, and for tourists. Currently, only limited amounts of island products enter into these markets. Several factors hinder greater reliance on local products by these sectors, including irregular and limited supplies, and irregular product quality. There is potential for development of regional markets in the Pacific, but this will depend on strengthened transportation services, and establishment and/or revision of quarantine regulations. In the Pacific, Guam and the CNMI have better export potential because of air transport links with Japan. Currently, Japanese markets remain closed to Micronesia exports because of strict quarantine regulations. Removal of import tariffs from Caribbean basin countries has seriously reduced the potential for export of fresh produce from Puerto Rico. To increase exports under these conditions, Puerto Rico probably will need to both reduce production costs and improve product quality to become more competitive. Cooperatives Cooperatives seem to be a practical way of organizing and mobilizing capital and people in developing communities. Local producers might be encouraged to expand crop production if cooperative processing and/or marketing facilities guaranteed sale of surplus produce. Agriculture and fishery cooperatives can also competitively purchase supplies, services, and equipment that individuals cannot afford. The more highly organized cooperatives provide fully integrated programs for their members, and cover equipment purchases, offer assistance in processing and marketing, and even research and development. While some cooperatives are successfully operating on the islands (e.g., Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association), others have struggled or failed. Local governments might encourage their development through investing in infrastructure and providing tax benefits and technical assistance. Vertical Integration of Operations Contract farming to vertically integrate small farmers with large agricultural production/ processing and marketing operations is likely to help increase food production on U.S.-affili-
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Ch. 1Executive Summary l 2 3 ated islands. Small farmers contract with a large company to raise products, which the company purchases at a guaranteed price, processes, and markets. The company may also provide farmer-contractors with some agricultural inputs and production assistance. Such enterprises are capable of economies of scale and benefit both producers and consumers. There are several successful, vertically integrated agricultural enterprises in Puerto Rico. Black pepper production on Pohnpei is also integrated, although the processing and marketing unit is government run. TECHNOLOGIES TO SUPPORT RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY Agriculture cannot be a productive sector of island economies if soils become too nutrientdepleted or if soil erosion is uncontrolled. Maximum economic yield cannot be attained offshore if marine resources are harvested indiscriminantly. Many technologies supportive of resource sustainability are aimed at minimizing depletion, and at regulating use of resources. Agriculture Soil Conservation Soil erosion and degradation is greatest in conventional clean-tilled row-cropping, particularly when fallow periods are short, Prevention might include lengthening fallow periods to take advantage of the natural regeneration capacity of the ecosystem, restricting and controlling burning, and applying soil-conserving cultivation and culture practices (i.e., terracing, contour farming, mulching, conservation tillage, and planting of soil-conserving crops and hedgerows). Each technology has advantages and disadvantages. For example, conservation tillage contributes to reducing soil erosion and labor and equipment requirements, and increases soil moisture retention. However, this technique relies heavily on herbicides for weed control and creates potential habitat for pests. Contour farming is inexpensive, but becomes less effective as the inherent potential for erosion increases. Steep lands can be terraced, but surface compaction and pending may result. Terrace construction is expensive and may require removal of topsoil from large areas. Considerable expertise will be needed to determine which soil-conserving technology is appropriate for application in a specific area. The development of local soil amendments may be necessary to offset the nutrient draining effects of commercial agriculture technologies. Most soils in the islands are relatively nutrient poor due to a variety of factors, thus, the need for fertilizers (organic or commercial) to produce and sustain commercial yields is imperative. Despite evidence that tropical soils respond much differently to such fertilizers than temperate soils, and despite the potential adverse impacts of fertilizers on groundwater and marine ecosystems, commercial fertilizers are commonly used on the islands. Research is needed on other methods of maintaining soil fertility such as green manuring, intercropping with legumes, fallow periods, and crop rotation. The possibility of using municipal wastes as compost also might be explored. Evidence suggests that the efficiency of commercial fertilizers may be increased if they are used in combination with organic fertilizers and/or mycorrhizae, or with zeolite minerals. Fisheries For many Pacific islands, management of resources to ensure sustained yield is even more imperative in the marine than in the terrestrial environment. These resources provide for many subsistence needs and represent a food reserve in the event of natural calamities.
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24 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Plastic mulches, applied here on St. Croix, USVI, serve to inhibit weed growth and enhance soil moisture retention. Modern Regulatory Measur e Although marine resource management was traditionally practiced by islanders, rigorous scientific efforts to manage these resources are relatively recent. These commonly involve regulatory measures to restrict harvest methods and seasons in order to conserve individual stocks and to restrict access to critical habitats. The Caribbean Fishery Management Council has placed restrictions on types of gear that may be used for harvest and has established minimum permissible sizes for some species. Other restrictions on seasons or areas are also possible, but have not been enacted. Modern management efforts in the Caribbean and the Pacific are also limited in that they focus on single species or groups of species rather than on entire ecosystems. Parks Ultimately, some extremely sensitive ecosystems may have to be given special status as marine parks or reserves. Ecosystems such as coral reefs and mangrove forests which are important habitat for many marine species and are highly vulnerable to degradation are prime candidates. As yet there are few protected marine areas in the U.S. island territories. If successfully sited, established, and managed, marine parks and reserves could protect critical areas, and also provide a source of recruitment for restocking exploited surroundings. Traditional Management Methods While fishing efforts might be limited by any or all of the above methods, enforcement is dif-
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C/I. IExecutive Summary 25 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment The Ngerukewid Islands Wildlife Refuge in Palau, encompassing 640 acres, includes considerable open marine areas and unique marine lakes. ficult in tropical areas where species numbers are high, and catch and market data are scarce. Biologists also know less about tropical than temperate fisheries. Despite attempts to protect overexploited resources, western cultures largely have been unable to manage tropical reef fisheries efficiently. Traditional management measures are a part of village lore in some Pacific islands. Some management measures, reveal a sophisticated knowledge of ecological relationships. Traditional use rights in fisheries (TURFS) of the Pacific islands are based on the principle of limited entry and other conservation strategies. TURFS continue to play a major role in some island cultures. On some islands, they have been seriously disrupted by western technologies and by economic pressures of commercialization. Existing TURFS may contribute to fisheries conservation in the U.S. Pacific islands. Management schemes and regulations recognizing traditional marine tenure in the islands could be established. Private enterprises, such as seaweed and giant clam farming, pearl culture and trochus fisheries, would be likely to respond well to exclusive ownership. In areas where TURFS have lapsed, local management and enforcement responsibilities could be instituted. TURFS cannot, however, guarantee successful conservation. TURF systems are diverse and some are more useful in fishery management
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26 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas than others. TURFS pose an impediment to commercial tuna fishermen who obtain bait fish from these areas, often with great difficulty. TURFS may also impede nearshore harvest of migratory pelagic species. Artificial Habitats Management of marine resources for sustained yields might also involve use of artificial reefs and fish aggregation devices (FADs). Artificial reefs range from scrap automobiles and tires to specially designed and engineered structures. Whether the introduction of artificial reef habitats enhances overall fisheries productivity or merely increases local populations by attracting fish from elsewhere is not knownthere is evidence for both results. FADs are anchored buoys placed beyond reefs to attract pelagic fish. Although catch rates are significantly increased by their deployment, the impact of FADs on regional fish stocks and the sustainability of high catch rates have not been evaluated. Until such questions are answered, artificial reefs and FADs probably cannot be determined to contribute to fisheries management for sustained yields. Extensive degradation of terrestrial resources and overexploitation of nearshore marine resources is apparent in many insular areas. Programs aimed at resource restoration and recovery will likely be important to long-term ecologic and economic stability of the U. S.affiliated islands. A primary cause of soil and land degradation has been forest clearing, thus, revegetation programs represent a potential strategy for improving terrestrial productivity. Traditional and commercial agroforestry, short or long rotation forestry, or growth of ground cover in the form of nitrogen-fixing legumes all offer possible options. Selection of plant species and of rotational strategies is critically important to the creation of stable and productive ecosystems. Reforestation or afforestation of degraded lands brings many benefits aside from products. Forests contribute to reducing wind erosion, protect and improve soil fertility, regulate soil water and contribute to flood control. They also provide wildlife habitat. Agroforests provide the additional benefits of mixed cropping. Like terrestrial forests, mangrove and seagrass habitats have suffered extensive damage. Success of natural or induced recovery schemes is variable, but recovery programs represent management options. Few attempts are currently being made to restore such habitats. From an ecological viewpoint, the best strategy is probably to protect these habitats from adverse impacts. They are valuable resources that may take up to 100 years to recover naturally, if at all. Where possible, restoration is costly and success is not guaranteed. As the nearshore resources of the Pacific and Caribbean regions are becoming overfished or degraded, the idea of enhancement and reseeding of these resources is gaining attention. Restoration of marine resources generally means restocking of selected species. Farming, or aquiculture of marine organisms may become important to restock or reseed depleted fishery stocks. However, without appropriate controls on subsequent harvests, a reestablished population may be exploited at a greater than optimal rate and possibly reextinguished. Integrating Technologies Many technologies for renewable resource development can be integrated with technologies for energy production and conservation, waste treatment, or with each other. Potential exists for development of energy integrated farms, and operations that integrate aquiculture with agriculture, waste treatment, and energy production. Energy Integrated Farms Energy integrated farming offers a means of transforming animal and crop wastes into use-
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Ch. 1Executive Summary 2 7 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Slurry from biogas digesters can be directed through aquaculture here, tilapia and water hyacinth culturebefore being discharged through agricultural irrigation systems, providing numerous additional benefits to energy generation. ful products. Organic matter is fermented into biogas (a methane-rich gas mixture) and a thick slurry in oxygen-free digesters. Completely fermented slurry is virtually odorless, has reduced harmful organisms, and retains the fertilizer value of the original materials. It can be used as a livestock feed additive, potting soil, and fertilizer. Biogas can be used to generate light, and to operate stoves, refrigerators and even modified gas engines. The quantity of useful products depends on the amount and type of organic matter, digestor capacity, and ambient temperature. Abroad scope of applications are possible, ranging from small, single-household digesters, to huge high-tech complexes requiring corporate backing. Widespread application is constrained by lack of large livestock operations, design and operation expertise, and capital. Use of energy-integrated farming technologies in the near term will probably be limited to a few farmers with large manure supplies and sufficient water resources for system operation. Within 8 to 10 years, small-farm biogas units could probably be implemented more widely. Energy derived from animal and crop wastes, wood, and other plant materials offer a potentially important substitute to imported oil for many islands. Aquaculture/Energy Production Systems Considerable energy is needed to pump seawater to mariculture farms. If such farms could be integrated with powerplants, which pump and discharge large quantities of water for cooling, considerable savings might be realized. Powerplants and mariculture systems could be 63-222 0 87-2 OL. 3
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28 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas designed to maximize benefits. Water pumped from under the thermocline is relatively rich in nutrients for aquiculture and would provide cooling for the powerplant, Integration of aquiculture with innovative forms of energy production that exploit the energy of the sea (i.e., ocean thermal energy conversion systems, wave energy systems and hypersaline solar ponds) may also be possible once such systems become more readily available. Integration of aquiculture with these technologies may enhance their economic feasibility for some islands. Waste Treatment Systems Cultivation of seaweeds or other aquatic plants has been integrated with water treatment in the United States and has potential for application on tropical islands. There may also be opportunities for increasing agricultural productivity with land application of sewage sludge, treated wastewater, and municipally derived compost. Planning/Policy Considerations Improved resource management planning requires careful consideration of development constraints and opportunities as well as numerous other factors: information needs, possible sources and management, choice of strategies for plan implementation, and the role of traditional law and local people in management planning and implementation. Each of the U.S.-affiliated island governments has designated a Planning Office to compile information on factors affecting economic development and to present a framework for rational development planning. A number of plans analyzing resource management and development activities have been prepared in each island area either by these offices (e.g., Coastal Zone Management plans) or by the United Nations. However, different plans are rarely centralized or aggregated. The 5-year comprehensive development plans prepared by the Freely Associated States (under the terms of the Compact of Free Association) tend to be too general to provide real guidance to decisionmakers. Planning processes may go awry for these and other reasons, including: l l l l l l l inadequate in-house planning expertise and heavy demand on existing island planners, inadequate problem specification, lack of understanding of natural processes, inadequate specification of management alternatives, use of planning as a substitute for management, lack of resources for planning, and lack of understanding of the social and political contexts in which plans are to be implemented. Information Procurement and Management A primary obstacle to the development of baseline ecological surveys is the cost of data collection, storage, and retrieval. Since few islands can afford a major data acquisition effort, an initial priority could be to ensure collection of data essential to program implementation. An incremental approach could then be taken to collect desirable data, this could emphasize the use of island residents as sources of resource-related information, Within many governments, data are collected by more than one agency, sometimes resulting in duplication of effort. Data maybe collected in different formats and on different scales making sharing of information difficult. Opportunities to ameliorate these problems include reorganization or centralization of data collection, storage, and processing responsibilities, and ensuring coordination among various agencies that currently share these responsibilities. An island-by-island assessment of data collection could be a first step toward identifying opportunities for data sharing, and for collaboration on new data acquisition. Traveling workshops could provide shortcourse training on information collection and mapping techniques. Distribution of data to
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Ch. 1Executive Summary l 2 9 users may be facilitated with data lists and inventories; reproduction of reports, air photos, and maps; workshops and seminars; and participatory approaches to planning. Analytical Planning Techniques Restriction of resource use to activities with minimal adverse impacts is currently the dominant approach to resource management on the U.S.-affiliated islands. In the short run, therefore, environmental impact statements (EISs) will probably remain the primary technique used for resource and plan assessments. Several off-the-shelf approaches to impact assessment make it a relatively cost-effective and simple procedure. A review of procedures for conducting EISs could help planners develop those most relevant to island environments. Post-project evaluations are one way to reveal the strengths and weaknesses of current EIS procedures. Environmental impact analysis, however, is a short-term investigation of the likely impacts of previously identified policy or project options and, thus, does not permit evaluation of the full range of development alternatives. Other methods are being developed to allow consideration of environmental and resource information early in resource development planning, including resource suitability analysis, carrying capacity analysis, extended benefit/cost analysis and multi-objective analysis. Few of these techniques have been applied to U.S.-affiliated islands. If such methods were fully developed and implemented, however, repeated EISs might be rendered redundant. Resource suitability analyses, which can range from simple map overlays to complicated computerized geographic information systems, provide information about the supply of resources at various levels of suitability for various uses. Such analyses generally comprise a method of delineating landscape or seascape units on a map and assessing the capability of these areas to sustain an array of potential uses without unacceptable degradation and given certain levels of management and technology. Carrying capacity analysis, a method of determining the optimal human population that can be supported at given levels of technology and amenity, also has been used to help identify critical resource use decisions. Benefit-cost and multi-objective analyses both attempt to encompass the array of secondary and intangible benefits and costs from alternative programs or projects. Benefit-cost analysis incorporates value judgments regarding the translation of unquantifiable variables and social preferences into money values. Multiobjective planning does not force all effects into the same measurement units, but relies on decisionmakers assignment of relative or weighted values for each category of impact. Although based in science, interpretations of factors such as custom, skills, innovativeness, likely technology and institutional capability come into play in making the ratings. Thus, each technique depends on expert judgment and public participation as well as on manipulation and interpretation of scientific information, Participatory Approaches to Planning and Management The need to incorporate public participation in resource development planning is based on several factors: 1) local knowledge and understanding of an areas natural systems often complements or exceeds scientific knowledge, 2) public participation in resource-related planning and policymaking may yield benefits in compliance and enforcement of local regulations; and 3) actions that respect peoples priorities and that are planned with local input and approval are more likely to succeed than actions that require intensive regulation and enforcement. Generating public participation in resource management projects can be extremely timeconsuming and costly. In order to tap local sources of information, it usually is necessary to give equally in return. The following conditions have been suggested as guidelines for public participation in resource management: 1. long-term presence to understand a communitys structure, build rapport, and foster mutual respect;
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30 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas 2. local involvement in all aspects of a project from design to implementation, as well as respect for local input and objectives; 3. local participation in concrete activities from which people can gain tangible benefits; and 4. education and research activities in which local people are equal partners with government, project staff, and professionals. Modern Law and Traditional Custom Custom is a valued asset of U.S.-affiliated island communities. Values such as respect for traditional leaders, consensus-based dispute resolution, and significance of clan membership have survived the impact of colonization and modernization, and form a significant part of the identity of island peoples. The opportunity exists to blend traditional management methods and the democratic system as Micronesia develops self-government. One advantage of retaining traditional methods of guiding social behavior is that these require no legislative decree or policingthey are ingrained in local belief and custom. Traditional resource management tenets often have ecologic rationale. A formalized system for incorporation of Pacific island custom into a system of law appropriate for use in island societies could include: explicit recognition in constitutions, statutes and case law of the value and primacy of custom; recognition of custom whenever a new law is adopted; and court adherence to the constitutional and legislative mandates to preserve custom. Judges knowledgeable of local customs could use that knowledge in decision and rulemaking in a way that ensures preservation of customary values and principles. Further, they could recognize that access to resources is a part of the livelihood of island peoples, and that complex systems of ownership and use have evolved that do not resemble western concepts of ownership. In resolving resource-related disputes, judges may wish to delay intervention until traditional leaders are consulted and other methods of dispute resolution are exhausted. SUMMARY OF ISSUES AND OPTIONS FOR THE U.S. CONGRESS Economic growth of the U.S.-affiliated islands is likely to be largely dependent on the sustainable development and management of renewable resources, and on a tourist industry that is compatible with development and management goals. As the primary policymaking body for the islands, Congress can foster pursuit and achievement of these objectives in a variety of ways: l l l by tuning appropriate Federal agencies and assistance programs to the special situation and needs of islands; by coordinating the work of agencies responsible for various aspects of resource management on the islands; by making opportunities for Federal assistance directed at developing sustainability of resource uses readily apparent and more easily available to islands; and l by providing additional assistance in the areas of data collection and management, planning, education, extension, training, and research. Various options exist within all of these areas to improve and expand Federal support for agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and aquaculture development on the islands. Congressional Oversight and Federal Agency Coordination Issues This study reveals important links among renewable resource use, environmental protection, island cultures, political systems, and economic development. However, no single congressional subcommittee of the House Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs, or of the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural re-
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Ch. 1Executive Surnmary l 31 sources is structured to deal with all of these interrelated issues as they apply to resource management on the islands. Activities related to the U.S. islands, moreover, are spread through many programs of USDA, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Department of the Interior (USDOI), making coordination and congressional oversight difficult. The USDOIs Office of Territorial and International Affairs (OTIA) is responsible for promoting the economic, social, and political development of the U.S.-affiliated islands and for analyzing, developing, and coordinating USDOIs policies and programs pertaining to international activities. To take advantage of the OTA findings in this assessment, mechanisms are needed to coordinate and perhaps increase appropriate support of Federal island-related activities and to facilitate congressional oversight of these activities. Option: New Congressional Subcommittees.Congress could establish new House and Senate subcommittees to deal with integrated resource management on the U.S.-affiliated islands. 1 These would provide focal points within Congress where approaches to island resource development could be handled and integrated. This could benefit island officials and strengthen existing links between the U.S. Government and the U.S.-affiliated islands. The importance of the islands to national security will probably increase in the next decade, making such links more important. Alternatively, Congress could establish a congressional Joint Territorial Policy Study group to analyze island matters requiring congressional action. Option: Increase Federal Program Coordination.Congress could hold oversight hearings on OTIA coordination of Federal agencies programs and plans for activities in the islands. Alternatively, or in addition, Congress could authorize and support establishment of an Interagency Coordinating Group on Resource and Economic Development in U.S.-affiliated IsI Moving in this direction, the House Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs established a new Subcommittee on Insular and International Affairs early in the 100th Congress. lands which could represent the relevant Federal territorial policy and resource-related Federal agencies. This group could assess current insular participation in Federal resource programs, identify means for integrating programs within and among agencies into more effective and cost-effective packages and suggest funding priorities for technical assistance from the agencies. Representatives could serve as insular government contacts with Federal agencies. Finally, Congress could designate the U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program (U.S. MAB) as the lead coordinating agency for Federal resource-related activities on the islands and encourage increased coordination between U.S. MAB, OTIA and other Federal agencies, in addition to those already involved in U.S. MAB activities. Research on the ecology and rational use of small island ecosystems has been identified as a priority for U.S. MAB support. Increased support for the U.S. MAB islands program could allow expansion of research and training in the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially in the Pacific, where the MAB Directorate has been inactive, and could improve coordination of federally supported, resource-related activities in the islands. Option: Review Effectiveness of Federal Island Programs. Many executive agency programs focused on island resource issues receive favorable comment from island resource managers, planners, and government representatives, some do not. To help determine which approaches have worked best in the islands and which ones should be modified to improve their chances of success, Congress could direct USDA, NOAA, and USDOI each to evaluate the effectiveness of their own programs related to renewable resource management on the islands, and to appear at oversight hearings related to island issues. Alternatively Congress could direct the General Accounting Office to conduct such reviews. While individual agencies are familiar with their own programs details and likely could perform reviews more easily, there may be advantages to having an outside agency perform the task,
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32 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Data Collection and Information Management Issues A first requirement for resource and economic development planning in the U.S.-affiliated islands is to collect comprehensive and up-to-date resource, economic, and social data and make it easily accessible to planners. Techniques also are needed to store, synthesize, analyze, and manipulate data in ways useful for resource development planning. With the modern, reasonably inexpensive computer systems available today, data storage, synthesis, analysis, and dissemination are not insurmountable problems. Existing natural resource databases on most islands generally are inadequate, as are the appropriate economic and social data needed for informed judgments on future island development. Efforts to collect data in several broad areas could greatly assist planners. For example, in order to minimize the possibility that economically or environmentally inappropriate agricultural technologies are introduced on islands, and to determine which production technologies have the greatest chance for ready and profitable adaptation, there is a need for specific information on existing farm operation methods. Before new aquiculture or fisheries technologies are introduced, similar marine resource use data must be collected. While local departments of marine resources collect aquatic and fisheries data in the Caribbean, there is no data collection and aggregation structure for the Pacific Islands. The U.S.-affiliated islands also have difficulty identifying what island-relevant Federal data/ information programs exist, and which of various Federal agencies house what kinds of data that might be useful for resource planning. Option: Analyze Island Databases and Information Management Systems.Congress could direct USDOI to lead an interagency task force with island representation to conduct a critical evaluation of the natural resource, social, and economic databases, and data-handling methodologies for the various U.S.-affiliated islands. The task force could report to Congress on the status of island databases and on data management needs of the islands, including both equipment and personnel needs. At subsequent hearings, Congress could determine appropriate actions. Such an analysis has long been needed and could foster improved linkages between the Federal agencies and island governments. However, it maybe argued that immediate direct action to collect needed data is preferable to another study. Option: Assess Federal Data and Information Programs Likely To Be of Benefit to the U.S.-Affiliated Islands.Congress could direct USDOI to lead another, perhaps subsequent, interagency task force with island representation to assess the data/information and programs of each Federal agency likely to benefit islands in integrated renewable resource management and planning. A summary of findings could be published, and congressional hearings held. This action could reduce the possibility of duplicating data collection efforts or of overlooking Federal programs that could be applied appropriately to the islands, as well as expedite island resource-related planning activities. Option: Establish Regional Information Clearinghouse(s).Congress could establish, or support one or more existing regional island centers (e.g., the Pacific Basin Development Council, East-West Center, Micronesia Area Research Center Information System, Eastern Caribbean Center) to act as a clearinghouse for: Federal announcements on new programs pertaining to islands; island government announcements; similar international program information; market information on agriculture and aquiculture; and information on specialty, background, and availability of various island experts. Once gathered, this information could be assessed and disseminated to island governments. Such a structure could facilitate and speed communications between the continental United States and the affiliated islands, and possibly between the Pacific and Caribbean regions. However, development of this network would require additional funding at a time when new funding is scarce.
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Ch. 1Executive Summary l 33 Option: Reactivate USDA Minor Economic Crops Computer Database.USDA previously maintained a database on minor economic crops, many of which could grow in tropical climates. This database no longer is kept active, and no other similar database is known to exist. Congress could direct USDA to reactivate, update, and maintain this database, and continue to include information on: climate and soil conditions necessary for various crops, crop yields, nutritional and medicinal properties of various crops, and their potential for intercropping and for use in agroforestry. The database provides one mechanism for information sharing between the Caribbean and Pacific islands, and historically costs little to maintain. Option: Develop Small-Scale Island Farmer and Fishermen Profiles. Congress could direct the USDA Extension Service to gather data and prepare profiles of small-scale farmers in the U.S.-affiliated islands for use in the process of identifying environmentally appropriate and economically beneficial agricultural technologies for introduction to the islands. While such profiles are being developed the rate of new technological implementation might be slowed, but the risk of unsuccessful introductions also may be reduced. In addition, Congress could direct the Sea Grant Marine Extension Service to develop Artisanal Fisheries Profiles, similar to the farmer profiles. Option: Fisheries Statistics Collection. Congress could provide funding to the Pacific Fisheries Development Foundation for island fisheries statistics collection programs, under either the Saltonstall-Kennedy grant program or appropriations to the Central, Western and South Pacific Fisheries Development Act. Sea resource atlases could be prepared using these and other data, perhaps by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which has prepared atlases for some Pacific islands. Congress could also direct the USDA National Agricultural Library to provide assistance to the Micronesia Area Tropical Agriculture Data Center at the University of Guam to include appropriate aquiculture information. An aquiculture database also could be developed at the University of Puerto Rico, or another appropriate Caribbean institution. Option: Training in Data Collection, Management, and Use.Congress could direct USDOI in cooperation with USDA to arrange periodic training programs on computerized data management techniques and analysis at the landgrant institutions on U.S.-affiliated islands and on Hawaii for data managers/users from island governments. Such programs could integrate current island databases, expanding their usefulness. Where no local data collection expertise is available, U.S. agencies could allocate funds for a local person to work side by side with Federal data collectors. This on-the-job training could emphasize the need for sensitivity to eventual interpretation of data. Research Issues Island governments have limited capability to conduct research on other than critical local needs, and this constrains progress in several areas of sustainable resource development. While insular research centers in tropical agriculture and island forestry exist, there are no corresponding centers for tropical aquiculture research. Funding for Sea Grant research, moreover, has been declining and program representatives in Puerto Rico and Guam have little capability to direct research towards the needs of other islands. Federal research organizations have considerable expertise in resource-related fields and technologies. However, little research is oriented to tropical environments, and still less is aimed at the social and cultural aspects of the U.S.-affiliated islands. The findings of resource-related research conducted in the temperate continental United States do not commonly apply to tropical island areas. Reliance on such research in the implementation of Federal programs on the islands results in environmental misfits. This has caused some of these programs to fail and may even cause hardships to island inhabitants.
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34 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Federal agency research designed for a tropical environment relates mostly to renewable resource management in tropical developing countries (i.e., U.S. Agency for International Development (AID) research). The islands benefit little from this relevant renewable resource research. Option: Increase Regional Research and Information Dissemination Activities.The East-West Center was formed in 1972 to provide analysis of social, political, and other issues for Asia and the Pacific. Congress could direct the East-West Center to increase resource research and analysis for the U.S. Pacific islands and increase funding for such activities. Similarly, Congress could accelerate the development of the Eastern Caribbean Center to provide similar services for the U.S. Caribbean islands. Option: Screen U.S.-Funded Research for Applicability to Tropical Islands.Congress could direct USDAs Office of International Cooperation and Development and its Forestry Support Service to screen U.S.-funded research for findings in agriculture, aquiculture, forestry, and other renewable resource areas that can be applied to the U.S. tropical islands, and to provide this information to the islands. AID, for example, has accumulated a storehouse of information on tropical resource management planning and development in the tropics, large parts of which might benefit island governments. A small screening committee within USDA could use the departments Current Research Information System to identify planned or ongoing research of potential benefit to the islands, and could suggest to appropriate researchers possible means of addressing issues of relevance to the islands in their projects. Small modifications in some USDA-funded research plans may result in significant contributions to tropical island agriculture if researchers keep island problems in mind. Option: Link Tropical and Nontropical Land-Grant Institutions. Congress could direct AID to develop a mechanism whereby Title XII-funded research activities of tropical landgrant institutions on the U.S.-affiliated islands. This would allow for suitability testing of certain temperate technologies in tropical environments, and would likely strengthen the island land-grant institutions activities in integrated renewable resource planning and management, as well as the United States overall competence in tropical natural resource management. Travel costs for research exchange between island and U.S. continental researchers would be high however, reducing the Title XII funds available for research. Congress also could direct the U.S. Department of State to assist insular government research organizations in establishing cooperative relationships with regional and international research institutions or major universities which can help with broad strategic and basic research. Option: Extend Section 406 Programs and Funding to All Tropical Land-Grant Institutions.Congress could extend Section 406 of the 1966 Food for Peace Act to cover all tropical land-grant institutions, and provide funding to pursue the sections two major goals, which are: 1) to provide USDA and land-grant scientists with tropical experience and training, and 2) to provide foreign nationals with a place to learn techniques and methodologies from U.S. specialists under tropical conditions. Extending funding beyond the two original tropical institutions to receive Section 406 research funds (the Universities of Hawaii and Puerto Rico) to the five additional tropical landgrant institutions that now exist (in Guam, American Samoa, FSM, CNMI, and the Virgin Islands) could substantially increase tropical agricultural research in the United States and its territories, and give island residents local access to training they commonly must seek hundreds or thousands of miles away. However, it may take years for these schools to become as productive in research as the Universities of Hawaii and Puerto Rico, during which time substantial funds must be committed. Option: Expand Tropical Agricultural, Forestry, and Aquiculture Research.Congress could direct USDA to increase support for ap-
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Ch. 1Executive Summary l 3 5 plied research in agriculture and forestry development conducted by the tropical agriculture research stations and the institutes of tropical forestry in Puerto Rico and Hawaii. Congress could also increase support for basic and applied NOAA Sea Grant research in various aspects of aquiculture and fisheries. Congress also could direct NOAA to establish one or more Institutes of Tropical Aquiculture Research in the U.S.-affiliated islands to serve as a center for tropical aquiculture technology development. The center could be associated with established Sea Grant institutions, but still be mandated to serve other islands. Education, Extension, and Training issues Sustainable resource development programs, and maintenance of aesthetic, productive environments depend heavily on an educated, ecologically aware public, technologically capable and informed practitioners, and skilled managers. While education is well-developed in the U.S.-affiliated islands, few primary and secondary school curricula specifically address island ecology, agriculture, or fisheries, or the relationships between environment and development, and between resources and traditional cultures. Moreover, most Pacific island colleges are 2-year community colleges necessitating offisland undergraduate and graduate level study. Even where research information is available, and technologies appropriate to island conditions have been identified, implementation can fail if the pertinent information is not extended to potential practitioners. In part because graduate education is weak or absent, technologically trained personnel and people capable of providing training or technical advice are scarce on most islands. Island extension offices tend to be small, underfunded, and overworked, all of which hinder their effectiveness in technology transfer. In addition, neither local land-grant colleges nor local governments in the Pacific have adequate funds to maintain the staff needed to reach remote and outlying populations. Similarly, the Marine Advisory Services of the Sea Grant programs at the Universities of Hawaii and Puerto Rico lack the staff and funds to provide assistance to other U.S.-affiliated islands, although both are interested in doing so. Option: Develop Environmental Education Programs.Congress could direct the U.S. Department of Educations Office of Education Research and Improvement, in cooperation with various island government units and programs involved in environmental education, to assess ecology curricula materials for potential use in island schools. Where appropriate, financial assistance could be provided to disseminate identified materials and to develop primary and secondary school ecology curricula. Development of an environmental ethic in this way could reduce the need for regulatory and incentive programs to maintain environmental quality; however, some regulatory measures and incentives are still needed to prevent resource and environmental degradation in the short term. Early education in ecology could also spark student interest in resource-related careers. Option: Increase Island Training and Extension Services. Congress could direct USDA, NOAA, and USDOI to develop joint training workshops for field extension agents in the islands, and to apprise extension agents of the assistance opportunities offered by both local and Federal agencies. Congress also could direct USDA to increase support of insular agricultural extension programs to allow expansion to remote populations. Congress also could direct NOAA to increase Sea Grant assistance in training and extension for aquiculture, fisheries, and marine resource management for islands having Sea Grant representatives, and to make such services available to the other U.S.-affiliated islands. This will require identification and funding of new personnel. Congress also could direct the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NOAA Office of Sea Grant
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36 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas jointly to supply a resident scientist to the regions to provide expert advice on aquiculture species introductions, and to conduct the necessary backup research. Incentive Issues Incentives, or removal of disincentives may be necessary to encourage island peoples to undertake new or potentially high economic risk activities. These could initially include availability and knowledge of potentially profitable technologies (provided by research and extension) and ability to implement them (provided by education and training). Incentives can be technical (marketing assistance), or financial (cost-sharing). Agricultural producers, for example, must have accurate, thorough market information, and may need help in accessing markets for their products. Cost-sharing programs have, in some cases, formed the basis for local government activities to develop resource enterprises. Some analysts argue that eligibility for and participation in U.S. income support programs creates a disincentive to investing money and labor in resource-related enterprises in the U. S.affiliated islands. Option: Marketing Assistance.Congress could direct USDAs Agricultural Marketing Service to assist insular governments through three major programs: 1. 2. 3. the Federal-State Marketing Improvement Program, which provides funds to States to solve marketing problems through Federal-State cooperation; Market News, which provides timely information on prices, demand, movement, volume, and quality of all major agricultural commodities; and Agricultural Product Grading, which provides producers and marketers with meaningful grades indicative of agricultural product quality. Congress could also direct the Department of Commerce to have NOAAs Office of Sea Grant programs assess aquacultural marketing and economics issues for island aquiculture development. Option: Establish Insular Resource Management Cost-Sharing Programs.Congress could establish and authorize a new USDA program to provide cost-sharing and technical assistance to individuals undertaking federally approved agriculture, soil conservation, forestry, fishery, and aquiculture activities. Local administration of such a program would mitigate travel and other problems. Option: Analyze Income and Other Support Programs.Congress could direct USDA and the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) jointly to analyze eligibility formulae for social aid, and nutritional and other impacts of such aid. If there are large numbers of people who participate, but do not substantially benefit from aid programs, support funding could be gradually reduced, or partially redirected to cost-sharing programs. Congress could direct USDA to assess and report on the current and potential role of local produce in island school hot lunch and other food and nutrition programs, addressing questions of nutrition, and possible economic impacts, and suggesting a target level for homegrown contributions, Increased use of locally grown foods in such programs could provide markets and incentives for expanded island agricultural activities and thus, increased economic benefits to the islands. However, local storage and refrigeration facilities may not be adequate to assure regular delivery. Food accessibility at open markets may also decline.
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Chapter 2 Introduction
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CONTENTS Page Insular Relationships to the Federal Government . . . . . 39 Commonwealths. . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Unincorporated Territories . . . . . . . . . . 40 Freely Associated States . . . . . . . . . . 40 The Importance of U.S.-Affiliated Islands to US. National Security . 41 Economic Development in U.S.-Affiliated Islands: The Problem . . 41 Ecological Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Geographical Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Socioeconomic Factors . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Goals of Renewable Resource Management and Development . . . 45 Chapter 2 References . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Tables Table No. Page 2-1. United States-Insular Area Relationships . . . . . . 39 2-2. General Characteristics of Islands . . . . . . . . 42 Figure Figure No. Page 2-1. Comparison of Typical Population Pyramids . . . . . 44
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Chapter Introduction INSULAR RELATIONSHIPS TO The U.S.-affiliated tropical islands have a wide range of relationships to the U.S. Government (table 2-1), Two are commonwealths Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands (NMI)having local autonomy but voluntarily associated with the United States. The U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and Guam are unincorporated territories (to which only certain provisions of the U.S. Constitution have been expressly extended) under the administration of elected Governors. Finally, the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI), and the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) (which, together with the NMI and the Republic of Palau form the former Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) have signed agreements with the United States to become Freely Associated States. 1 The peoples of Puerto Rico and the territories of Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands are U.S. citizens, those of Palau and American Samoa are U.S. nationals. Guam, American Samoa and the USVI are represented in the U.S. Congress by nonvoting Delegates. Puerto Rico 1 Although Puerto Rico is a Commonwealth of the United States, it is referred to as Estado Libre Asociado or free associated state. This should not be confused with the legal relationship defined by free association with the Freely Associated States in the Pacific. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT is represented by a nonvoting Resident Commissioner. The Resident Commissioner and Delegates sit in the House of Representatives, have a voice in legislation pertaining to their islands, and can vote in Committee. While the territories are eligible for many Federal programs on the same basis as a State, the islanders do not contribute to the national treasury through Federal income taxes, Determination of U.S. policy for the territories is within the jurisdiction of Congress. Although Congress has given the Secretary of the Interior certain authorities and responsibilities toward these territorial governments (excluding Puerto Rico), and many Federal programs are available to them, the territories are not agencies or instrumentalities of the Executive Branch of the Federal Government. Commonwealths A U.S. commonwealth is an autonomous government in voluntary association with the United States. It is responsible for its own welfare and has full legislative authority. Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship in 1917 and Puerto Ricos Constitution was approved by the electorate in 1952. The Northern Mariana Islands in effect became a commonwealth Table 2-1.United States Insular Area Relationships Relationship to the Insular area Initiation of U.S. administration United States Puerto R ICO . .. 1898 (ceded to the United States) U.S. Virgin Islands 1917 (purchased from Denmark) American Samo a 1900 (ceded to the United States) Guam . .. 1898 (ceded to the United States) Northern Mariana Island s 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship) Marshall Islands 1946 (U. S, Strategic Trusteeship) Federated States of Micronesia 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship) Palau 1946 (U.S. Strategic Trusteeship)) Commonwealth Unincorporated territory Unincorporated territory Unincorporated territory Commonwealth Freely Associated State Freely Associated State Strategic Trusteeship a a Expected to become Freely Associated State in 1987 SOURCE Office of Technology Assessment 1987 39
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40 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas in 1978, 2 but remained officially a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands until its dissolution in 1986. Unincorporated Territories Unincorporated territories are not integral parts of the United States and no promise of statehood or a status approaching statehood is held out to them. Only certain parts of the U.S. Constitution apply to unincorporated territories. And, unlike States which write their own constitutions, the laws and principles that prescribe the nature, functions, and limits of a territorial government are determined by Congress (13). Guam was annexed from Spain at the close of the Spanish-American War. Although relations between the Government of Guam and the U.S. Government also are conducted under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior, residents of Guam elect their own officials. Most aspects of the U.S. Constitution apply to Guam. Similar to Guam, the American Samoa Government is semiautonomous and operates under a constitution adopted in 1960. American Samoa has been administered by the United States since 1900. The U.S. Virgin Islands were sold by the Danish Government to the United States in 1917. U.S. citizenship was granted to Virgin Islanders in 1927, Freely Associated States The Freely Associated States, along with the Northern Mariana Islands, comprise the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), the last of 11 trusteeships established under United Nations sanction after World War II. Despite preliminary agreements, the Compact of Free Association with the Republic of Palau has not yet received 75 percent Palauan approval in a plebiscite vote and, therefore, has not been approved by the United States or the United Nations. Until the Compact with Palau is approved by the United Nations and the trusteeship is The Northern Mariana Covenant (Public Law 94-241) was passed by Congress in 1976, but the major part of the Covenant did not become effective until 1978 when the Commonwealth government was installed. dissolved, the United States retains its responsibility to promote the economic advancement and self-reliance of these islands. The trusteeship was intended as a temporary arrangement under which the United States accepted the responsibility of advancing the TTPI politically, socially, economically, and educationallytoward greater self-reliance, including undertaking obligations to: promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants, and to this end shall regulate the use of natural resources; encourage the development of fisheries, agriculture and industries; [and] protect the inhabitants against the loss of their lands and resources (Trusteeship Agreement for the United States Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Article 6(2)). The United States also was charged with preparing the Micronesians for a political status of their own choosing. Civilian administration of the TTPI was the responsibility of the Department of the Interior, but each administrative district was given the opportunity to determine its own form of government and degree of independence from the United States. By January 1981, each emerging entity had installed a constitutional government with democratically elected officials. The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands was established and separated from the other existing TTPI entities in 1978, although some relations between the Northern Marianas and the U.S. Government continued under the jurisdiction of the Department of the Interior. Two of the remaining political entitiesthe FSM (Yap, Truk, Pohnpei, and Kosrae), and the RMIhave signed Compacts of Free Association with the United States; the FSM and RMI compacts were approved by the United States in early 1986 and put into effect at the end of the year. 3 Free association allows the polities full control of internal and external affairs while de 3Because approval of a Compact of Free Association with the Republic of Palau is expected shortly, Palau shall be referred to as a Freely Associated State in the remainder of this assessment unless otherwise indicated.
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Ch. 2Introduction 41 fense and security responsibilities are delegated ing from the United States (15 years for the RMI to the United States. They become eligible for and FSM and 50 years for Palau) part of which foreign aid from international organizations, must be directed to planning long-term ecosuch as the Asian Development Bank. Finally, nomic development. they are guaranteed a specified level of fundTHE IMPORTANCE OF U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS TO U.S. NATIONAL SECURITY The U.S.-affiliated islands are of considerable importance to national security, and the United States is committed to their defense and to maintaining lines of communication to and through them. The islands vary in strategic importance, but all represent the U.S. presence in spheres of strategic interest. The U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands are of special security significance to the United States, primarily because of their close proximity to Caribbean and Central American countries. Puerto Rico is of particular significance due to the presence of major naval installations there and its location astride major routes of communication. The Caribbean area has been viewed as Americas third border and, thus, expansion of inimical forces or influence in this area is likely to be viewed with alarm (9). Although the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands do not play an important role in current or projected Department of Defense programs, they might likewise be viewed as the United States fourth border. According to the Annual Report of the Secretary of Defense to Congress for fiscal year 1986, at least 30 percent of U.S. trade is conducted with the nations of East Asia, and five of our mutual security treaties link us with East Asian countries (9). Only a few islands (e.g., Guam, Kwajelein) have major U.S. bases; the U.S. Navy, however, has a keen interest in certain contingency base rights in the Northern Mariana Islands and Palau. (See app. B for a brief discussion of military installations and activities in the U.S.-affiliated islands.) ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS: THE PROBLEM U.S. policy towards the insular areas is founded on common interests in the creation of close and mutually beneficial relationships between the insular governments and the U.S. Government. As such, the United States has attempted to encourage political self-determination and promote economic advancement and self-reliance in the territories while protecting its national security interests in the Pacific and the Caribbean. Thus, applicable Federal programs are extended to some or all of the territories, and their special needs are recognized in direct assistance to the territories. Many U.S. islands are highly dependent on U.S. financial assistance for local Government u revenues. For example, the Federal portion of Micronesia government revenues ranges from 30 percent (CNMI) to 87 percent (FSM) (17). Puerto Rico is a notable exception, deriving nearly two-thirds of its annual operating budget from internal sources (10). Nearly $5 billion are spent annually by the U.S. Government in direct financial assistance and under Federal programs to the territories (16). Much of these funds are used, in turn, to purchase food and other goods and services, primarily from the United States. Imports greatly exceed exports on many islands, and on most local food production has been declining. A combination of geographical, socioeconomic, and ecological factors hinder the sustainable management
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42 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and development of renewable resources in the U.S. territories (table z-2). The nature of tropical land and nearshore resources constrain the applicability of resource development and management technologies which have been developed for temperate areas. The islands have considerable diversity in soil types and, although fertile soil types exist on some islands, soil fertility generally is low comTable 2-2.General Characteristics of Islands Ecological characteristics: l small size, l narrow range of natural resources, l little natural organic biological diversity, l distance from continents and external competition fosters species endemism, l generally little overall climatic variability, but potential for climatic upsets, l ecologic vulnerability, and l tendency toward ecologic instability when isolation is breached. Geographical characteristics: l relative isolation; l a completely circumferential sea frontier and EEZ, giving a high ratio of EEZ to island land mass resulting in very high importance of sea v. land resources; l no internal land transport option to link the islands making up a polity or to link the island to other countries, only air and sea transport; and no interior hinterland or central terrestrial core area that is essentially distant from the sea such that coastal resource planning and management is essentially synonymous with national resource planning and management. Socioeconomic characteristics: l l l l l l l more dependent on foreign trade than large countries and having less influence on the terms in which that trade is carried on; a narrow range of resources and, hence, specialized economies; heavily dependent on one or more large foreign companies; dependent for key services on external institutions such as universities, regional training facilities, banking and marketing arrangements; a narrow range of local skills and specific difficulty in matching local skills with jobs; difficulty in providing some infrastructure services as there may be costly diseconomies of scale in the provision of such services; and a small Gross Domestic Product such that import substitution industries may face special difficulties. SOURCE: E. Towle, The Island Microcosm, prepared for the U.S. National Park Service under contract to the US. Agency for International Development, 1983. pared to most temperate soils, and to the nutrient needs of the high-yielding crops used in intensive agriculture. For example, three-quarters of Puerto Rico is covered by relatively infertile soils (i.e., soils rated 6 or higher on a 1 to 10 best to worstscale of soil productivity) (12). Not only do infertile soils require greater amounts of fertilizer per acre for crop and pasture management, but they require more frequent applications. A deficiency of organic material in infertile soils hinders their ability to adsorb needed plant nutrients. Consequently, plant nutrients may be lost to leaching and erosion during heavy rains. Much of the land is not suitable for clean-cultivated crops due to erosion hazards. However, land management practices which include soil building through a good fertility program and erosion control may increase soil fertility over time. Moreover, past poor land-use practices have degraded land resources in the U.S. Caribbean and Pacific and have resulted in significant amounts of abandoned land. Colonial histories of each of these areas contain an era of land exploitation for agricultural export which resulted in loss of vegetative cover over large areas and intensive production of only a few crops. Most of the local soils have minimal fertility. Once cleared, continued exposure to strong sunlight, heavy rainfall, and erosion reduced their marginal fertility further. The consequences of this land degradation are widespread. Erosion rates have increased; for example, soil erosion rates in the Caribbean have reached as high as 18 times the U.S. average (14). Land clearing on many islands has resulted in turbid, erratic, and intermittent stream flow. Erratic freshwater flows and siltation from land runoff endangers coral reefs and other nearshore productive marine ecosystems. Mangrove forests, which serve as natural filters and as breeding grounds for many aquatic species, have been overexploited for timber in many areas and some have been destroyed by impacts from development activities. The loss of mangrove forests further exposes marine ecosystems to degradation. Thus, the physical potential for local food production may be de-
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Ch. 2Introduction l 4 3 clining along with the incentives to undertake sustainable resource development. Tropical ocean nutrient levels are lower than in temperate regions and primary biological production is correspondingly reduced. Conversely, the coral reef environment has high levels of biological activity made possible by organisms which increase available nitrogen and recycle nitrogen and other nutrients within the ecosystems. Despite seemingly large reef and lagoon areas, the size of the U.S. islands productive nearshore areas is smaller than in other islands where commercial fisheries have developed (e.g., the Bahamas). The continental shelf of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands combined is less than 3,000 square miles, of which less than half is considered highly productive. The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are not associated with continental shelves, but with steeply sloping drop-offs into deep ocean. A substantial submerged reef area exists (approximately 14,287 square nautical miles) near the Pacific islands of Yap and Truk, and has been the site of a highly productive fishery in the recent past (18). Coral reef systems and the associated seagrass beds and mangrove swamp forests are responsible for much of the islands nearshore fisheries potential. Unlike temperate areas, nearshore tropical fish stocks tend to be diverse and diffuse, rarely aggregating in large schools or beds (for invertebrates). The multispecies nature of most tropical fishery stocks means that catches often contain a mixture of high-value and less desirable species. Perhaps beneficial for sustained populations of nearshore species, the rugged coral reef topography makes it impossible to use towed, nonselective gear (e.g., trawls) employed in many commercial fisheries. However, these and most other tropical island ecosystems are more vulnerable to degradation than most temperate systems. Geographical Factors Of the U.S.-affiliated islands, only Puerto Rico contains a population significantly greater than 100,000 inhabitants. Large population centers in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands characteristically are 10,000 to 20,000. The Micronesia islands are scattered widely over 3 million square miles of the Pacific Oceanan area as large as the contiguous United States, yet, their total land area is about two-thirds that of Rhode Island. Modern concepts of mass production, distribution, marketing, and competition cannot be applied on such small scales. Moreover, transportation and communications by conventional means is difficult and expensive. Socioeconomic Factors All of the island territories exhibit a high ratio of imports to exports, particularly in food. The high level of imports compared to local production means that funds transferred to the territories have little impact on economic development. These funds leave the economies in payments for imports. Due to rapidly growing populations and rising aspirations, reducing consumer demand for imported products seems unlikely. Population growth rates in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caribbean islands increased considerably faster than the 4.2 percent U.S. population growth between 1980 and 1984 (8). Only Puerto Rico, with a growth rate of 2.3 percent, was below the United States for this period (8). Such population growth rates maybe supported only by readily available emigration opportunities; for example, 2 million Puerto Ricans live in the mainland United States (1) and more American Samoans live in the United States than in Samoa (7). At the same time, migration into the islands from the United States and surrounding islands is high. Present and future human needs and labor availability are reflected, in part, by an islands overall demographic pattern. Population pyramids (figure 2-1) for many islands have a shape more like those of developing countries than developed countries. For instance, nearly 50 percent of most island populations are below 15 years of age, creating a large sector dependent on the working age population (2,3,4,5,6,7). This indicates that each year increasing num-
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44 l Intergrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Figure 2-1 .Comparison of Typical Population Pyramids h 85+ 80 84 75 79 70 74 65 69 60 64 55 59 50 54 40 44 1 35 39 30 34 25 29 20 24 15 19 10 14 5 9 0 4 i 6 T 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 54321 01 2345 6 654321012 345 6 Percentage of total population Percentage of total population Percentage of total population Developed country SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987. bers will enter the work force and the demand for goods and services will increase significantly. Such population distributions can be altered quickly either by in-or out-migration, but where the people come from or go to poses additional concerns. The major urbanized centersmost of which are on coastlinesare growing rapidly whereas the rural population is decreasing. Consequently, the choice of technologies will be influenced by the changing population characteristics in island rural and urban areas. Sustainable renewable resource management depends not only on the capability of the ecological resources, but also on availability of skilled labor and willingness to engage in resource management and development activities. Although all of the islands have rapidly growing populations, many young adults seek education and employment in the U.S. mainland. Many of those who remain either depend on extended family relationships or social support programs to supply their needs. Most forDeveloping Region with substantial country out-migration of the working-age population mal labor is captured by local governments and services for the public sector and its employees. Wages, security, and prestige are higher in government employment. Skilled labor, training, and interest in the productive sectors of agriculture and fisheries are low on all the islands. Land tenure systems and opportunities for acquiring land pose considerable obstacles to commercial development of renewable resources. Traditional values of Micronesians and Samoans place great prestige on land and other resource use rights. This results in increasing fragmentation of parcels over time, as ownership is retained in families that have increased in size. In addition, land often is communally held in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Acquiring land for commercial use where the products of the property are not to be used for subsistence and sharingmay be difficult or impossible. For example, a recent U.S. District Court decision upheld an American Samoan law that communally owned land
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Ch. 2introduction l 4 5 (90 percent of the land area) can be transferred only to a person of at least 50 percent Samoan blood (11). (See app. C for a discussion of integration of modern and traditional legal systems in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands.) In the more developedand more westernizedislands of Guam, Saipan, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, fee-simple land ownership is more common. However, on these islands competing land uses, such as residential and tourism development, push land values beyond the reach of many potential entrepreneurs, The price of rural land has come to reflect scarcity rather than productivity. Secondgrowth forestlands in Puerto Rico may cost $1,000 to $2,000 per acre and land values in the U.S. Virgin Islands have exceeded $10,000 per acre (14). Further, rapidly appreciating land values reduce incentives to derive productive use of lands held for speculation. Consequently, much land lies idle awaiting development, Puerto Rico maintains a law against private individuals or corporations holding more than 500 acres and, in general, the land is in small holdings. Nearly 85 percent of the land ownerships are less than 48 acres (15). GOALS OF RENEWABLE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT Increasing the economic self-reliance of the islands is the most often stated objective of renewable resource development in the U. S.affiliated islands. However, self-reliance should not be interpreted to mean economic independence, but rather a healthy interdependence within regional and world economies. Economic self-reliance can be defined as an economys capacity to produce to meet as many domestic needs as is economically feasible and to gain the revenue, through exports, to pay for the imports required to support an acceptable standard of living. Even with this definition, increasing self-reliance in economies heavily dependent on outside aid and with large (in relation to resources) and growing dependent populations will be extremely difficult. 4 A mechanism for increasing economic selfreliance is to develop a skilled and active private sector, Efforts to undertake such development reflect myriad subgoals, including: 4Unless resident populations are stabilized (through reduction in population growth rates or continued free emigration), substantial improvements in self-reliance are unlikely, Technologies directly related to population growth are outside the scope of this assessment but have been addressed in another OTA assessment, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, World Population and Fertility Planning Technologies: The Next 20 Years, NTIS order #PB 82(Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, February 1982), l l l l l l l provision of employment, especially in rural areas, provision of stable incomes for commonly risk-averse producers, reduction in consumer food prices, reduction in rural or outer island to urban migration, development of private sector technical and managerial skills, stabilization of personal and national revenues through diversification of local production, and safeguarding valuable human and natural resources. Thus, resource development projects and technologies that can contribute to the achievement of several of these objectives while offering acceptable yields and profitability y are preferred to those designed solely to maximize yields or profits. In addition, a number of conditions (which also can be thought of as goals) under which renewable resource and other development must be evaluated for acceptability may be derived. Generally, development policies, programs, and projects are sustainable and, thus, desirable if they:
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46 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas l do not reduce the long-term productivity of the resources involved; do not degrade nearby or downstream environments, be they terrestrial, riverine, or marine; l do not irrevocably reduce future development options; and l do not unacceptably conflict with local cultures and customs. decision as to which objectives will receive priority, which resources and areas will be developed, and which technologies and technology systems will be encouraged or implemented depend on far more than feasibility and profitability; they depend on the acceptability of their economic, social, political, and environmental impacts. Few forms of economic development can satisfy all of these objectives and conditions. The CHAPTER 2 REFERENCES 1. Colon, Rafael H., The Puerto Rico Government Position on Section 936, Puerto Rico Business Review, special supplement, April 1985, pp. 1-4. 2. Connell, J., Country Report No, 3: Federated States of Micronesia (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983). 3. Connell, J., Country Report No. 12: Northern Mariana IsZands (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983). 4, Connell, J., Country Report No. 6: Guam (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983), 5. Connell, J., Country Report No. 13: Palau (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983). 6. Connell, J., Country Report No. 8: Marshall Islands (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983). 7. Connell, J,, Country Report No.: American Samoa (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Commission, 1983). 8. Land Use P]anning Report 13(46):365, Nov. 25, 1985. 9. Loftus, S. A., Impacts of U.S. Military Presence on U.S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 10. Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, personal communication, September 1986. 11. Pacific Islands Monthly 57(8):9, August 1986. 12. Pico, R. The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co,, 1974). 13. Taitano, C. Guam: The Struggle for Civil and Political Rights, Politics in Micronesia (Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, 1983). 14. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, OTI%-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984), 15. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Puerto Rico, vol. 1, part 52 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). 16. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, FederaZ Expenditures by State for Fiscal Year 1985 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government printing Office, 1986). 17. U.S. Department of State, 1985 Trust Territory of the Pacific IsZands, 38th Annual Report to the United Nations (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, 1986). 18. White, M,, Chief, Marine Resources, Kosrae State Government, Federated States of Micronesia, personal communication, September 1986.
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Chapter 3 Island Structure and Resource Systems
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CONTENTS Page Island Formation . . . . l . . . . l . High Volcanic Islands . . . . . . . . Atoll Islands . . . . . . . . ........ Raised Limestone Islands . . . . . . . . Continental Islands . ........ . . . l . Prevailing Climate .. .. .. ... ... .... .. .. ... .. ... Introduction . . . . . ......., ........ Winds . . . . . . . . ........ .,.... Precipitation .. ... ... ..... .. ... ... ... .. 90 +9 + .. Temperature . . . . . . . .......... Disturbances. . . . . .. .......,. ........ Island Hydrology. . . . . ............... . High Volcanic Islands . . . ........ ........ Atoll Islands . . . . . . . . . . Raised Limestone Islands .. ... .. ........ . . . Continental Islands ............ . ........ . Island Soils.... . . . . . . . . . . Renewable Resource Systems in U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands Common Characteristics of Tropical Island Resources . Major Island Resource Systems . . . . . ... Efforts To Sustain Resources on U.S.-Affiliated Islands . . Efforts To Maintain the Resource Base . . . .... Efforts To Restore the Renewable Resource Base . . Efforts To Redirect Use of Underused Resources . . Efforts to Culture Species. . .. .. ........ . . Enhancement of Existing Renewable Resources . . . Chapter 3 References . . . . . ........ . Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,..., . . . . . . . . .... . .. ..,.0. . ..,.., ...* . l .*. . ..,, . . . . . . . . . . . . ,.,... ...* . . . . . . . . . . . ...0 49 49 50 51 51 52 52 52 52 54 54 55 58 59 59 59 60 63 63 67 74 75 76 76 76 77 78 Page . . 53 Table No. 3-1. Mean Annual Precipitation Level and Temperatures. . 3-2. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With Historic Range in the U.S.-Affiliated Troical Islands. . . . 65 3-3. Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliate Islands . . . . 68 Figure No. 3-1. Depiction of Island Types.... 3-2. The Hydrologic Cycle . 3-3. Ghyben-Herzberg Lens ..... Box 3-A. 3-B. 3-c. . . . . ..$,... Boxes Page .,.... . . . . 50 .... . . . ... 57 . . . . . ..... 58 General Characteristics of Tropical Climates . . . . .... 53 EI Nino . . .......... ...., . . . . . .. 56 Common Characteristics of Island Soils . . . . . . 61
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Chapter 3 Island Structure and Resource Systems ISLAND FORMATION Islands in tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea commonly bring to mind only white sandy beaches backed with a fringe of coconut palm trees. Yet, a close examination of the form and geology of the islands shows that major differences exist between island types that significantly affect opportunities for renewable resource management and development. These fundamental differences play an important role in determining what kinds of technologies can be applied that are likely to prove productive for island residents over the long term and which others, though perhaps leading to short-term gains, ultimately may produce long-lasting adverse impacts on the island resource basethe soil, water, vegetation, and wildlife. Details of the geologic formation of the islands are beyond the scope of this assessment. Nevertheless, a simple fourfold classification of island types based on their geology should assist the reader in assessing potential impacts to an islands environment from proposed technological applications. In addition, it should help to improve understanding of why islanders, past and present, have chosen particular methods of resource use. Although many of the islands origins relate largely to volcanic processes, their name classification only partly reflects this. The four categories of islands used in this assessment are: high volcanic islands, atolls and low coral islands, raised limestone islands, and continental islands. High VoIcanic Islands High volcanic islands are the cone-shaped peaks of volcanoes (perhaps 1,000 feet or more in altitude) that extend upward from the ocean floor. The conical shape is preserved best on young volcanic islands; older islands become deeply incised with stream valleys because of erosion from running water (figure 3-1 (A)). Some volcanoes are still active such as Pagan Island in the Northern Mariana Islands; some are dormant such as Sariguan in the Northern Mariana Islands; and others are extinct such as Pohnpei or Kosrae. Measured from the sea floor to the island summits, these volcanoes represent some of the highest mountains in the world. The predominant rock forming the volcanic islands is basalt, a dark-colored igneous rock rich in minerals containing silicon, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, and iron as dominant elements. Once volcanoes reach the oceans surface, marine organisms like corals, algae, and sponges start to grow and reproduce on the bottom of the sunlit, warm nearshore waters that surround the new island. In the early stages of growth, the marine organisms of the colony grow on one another until they reach the surface of the water. Coral structures that are close to the island (generally within one-quarter of a mile from shore) and often surround it, are called fringing reefs. Such reefs may become barrier reefs if the central island begins to submerge. Barrier reefs generally are 1 to 5 miles offshore and are separated from the island by a lagoon which is relatively deep (60 to 300 feet) (40). Many volcanic islands over geologic time have slowly subsided beneath the ocean surface. The living marine organisms of the surrounding reefs in many cases have been able to grow rapidly enough to keep their surfaces at or near sea level, thus offsetting the rate at which the volcanic island subsides. Through this process, the reefs can maintain their existence even when the enclosed island gradually sinks below the oceans surface. With the disappearance of the central island, the ringlike reef complex then becomes an atoll. 49
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50 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Figure 3-1 .Depiction of Island Types A: High Volcanic Island Ocean surface B: Atoll Island Internal drainage ~ C: Raised Limestone Isiand Solution Internal drainage cavities / Ocea SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986 Atoll Islands Atolls are low-lying, narrow, ring-like coral reefs composed of highly permeable coralline limestone (calcium carbonate) derived from the remains of marine reef organisms. Individual atoll islands occur as part of the atoll reef and rise only a few feet to a few tens of feet above mean high tide. For example, the highest point in the Marshall Islands is 25 feet above sea level on Likiep Atoll (40). Atolls enclose a lagoon of several feet to several hundred feet in depth. Submarine landslides, wave action, currents, tides, and storms commonly produce or maintain breaks in the atoll thereby providing boats or ships with passages connecting the open sea with the shallow lagoon (figure 3-I (B)). Growth of atoll reefs is greatest on their windward sides where the food supply is highest for reef organisms. Storm and wave action carry reef or atoll fragments into the atolls lagoon and pile them on the reef above the water level to form islands. This sediment source keeps the waters of the atolls lagoon shallow.
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. Ch. 3/s/and Structure and Resource Systems c 51 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment A low-lying atoll island in the Marshall Islands, built on the inside edge of an encircling coral reef. Some low coral islands in Micronesia form on top of coral pinnacles and are not associated with lagoons. These islands, such as Nama and Kili, otherwise resemble atoll islands. Raised Limestone Islands Raised limestone islands consist of nearly horizontal beds of coralline limestone that originally were formed in the waters surrounding older volcanic islands. Over geologic time, the marine limestone beds have been raised above sea level by upward moving volcanic islands, or by lowering of the sea level. The extensive uplifted limestone beds of Guam, for example, now reach about 500 feet above the sea surface. Many such islands have prominent wave-cut terraces carved into the limestone layers indicating times during the Pleistocene ice age when the sea level was different than it is today, times when continental glacial ice sheets in regions closer to the poles were thicker or thinner. Because of their origin, raised limestone islands may contain exposed land surfaces of older volcanic rocks. Like high volcanic islands, they are also likely to have fringing reefs along their coasts. The porous limestone layers are composed mostly of calcium carbonate which dissolves over time as plentiful tropical rainfall moves downward through the permeable beds. Solution cavities like sinkholes and caves result (figure 3-1 (C)). Continental Islands Continental islands are extensions of continents or of certain undersea mountain ranges. The rocks comprising such islands are of a much wider variety than those of the other island types and signify a more complex geological history. Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, for example, are part of the Antilles, a
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52 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas sea-floor mountain range geologically associContinental islands do not have a characterated with the structure of the extreme southistic form. They may, however, have a border eastern part of the United States. Similarly, of fringing reefs or lagoons with barrier reefs Palau is the surface expression of the eastern like those of high volcanic islands and raised extremity of a continental-type mountain range limestone islands. running-from west to east in Indonesia. The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands lie in the Northern Hemisphere, with American Samoa being the only U.S. Territory in the Southern Hemisphere. All of the islands are within the tropical marine climatic region, between the Equator and 23.5 north/south latitude. Weather changes in tropical climates are complex and may occur frequently(4). Further, considerable climatic differences may exist between island areas. Differences in the amount and seasonality of rainfall, wind, and tidal conditions exist throughout the Pacific and Caribbean area. While tropical climates are characterized by warm, often wet, fair weather, they are equally known for producing major disturbances such as cyclonic storms. 1 Overall weather patterns may be predictable (e.g., temperature, rainy seasons, tropical storm seasons, and afternoon rainstorms), however, tropical weather also may be highly variable. The high level of solar radiation received by tropical areas gives rise to this variability. High energy levels may allow the rapid formation of storm systems and sudden rainfall, and may also affect wind patterns and occasionally ocean currents. The high energy level of tropical air masses means that even small trigger mechanisms may produce disturbances (4). The action of the ocean may compound impacts of sudden storm system formations. The ocean also may serve to transfer impacts of weather or other natural events such as earthquakes to islands some distance from the source of the disturbance. The small size and isolation 1The term cyclonic storms will be used in this text to cover such weather formations as typhoons and hurricanes. CLIMATE of islands increases their vulnerability to disturbances, however, their existence indicates that these areas possess a highly effective capacity for recovery. Winds The northeast and southeast tradewinds prevail upon the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. The tradewinds converge in the equatorial trough of low pressure forming what is known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) [4). The low pressure of this area gives rise to the sporadic cloudiness and frequent rainfall associated with tropical regions. The ITCZ shifts during the year accompanied by seasonal changes in the direction and intensity of the winds. For example, the islands in the Caribbean experience relatively consistent winds year round; however, the direction changes from a slightly stronger northeast wind during winter months to a southeast wind during summer months. Guam experiences a similar seasonal wind shift, receiving the strongest winds during winter months. American Samoa, in the southern hemisphere, also experiences seasonality in winds, receiving the southeast tradewinds with relative consistency for 9 months of the year (46). The Northern Mariana Islands receive strong northeast tradewinds for 9 months of the year, November through June, while July through October is marked by more variable winds. These islands also lie on the eastern fringe of the Asiatic monsoon circulation system (47). Precipitation Precipitation levels in the tropical climatic region generally are high, however, variations
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems 53 exist among islands (table 3-1). Variation also may exist in the geographic distribution of precipitation on a single island. The variation in rainfall amounts among island areas largely is attributable to topographical differences, island size, and geographic location. Generally, as latitude increases rainfall patterns become more seasonal, with annually occurring dry periods. The seasonality of rainfall patterns is attributed, at least in part, to the shifting of the ITCZ and the associated change in the moisture content of the atmosphere in relation to island location. High islands generally receive larger levels of rainfall due to an orographic effect; air is forced up and over a topographic feature causing condensation of atmospheric moisture and generTable 3-1. Mean Annual Precipitation Level and Temperatures Mean annual rainfall Polity/island Latitude (inches) Puerto Rico . . . 18 N a 40-200 a U.S. Virgin Islands . . 18 N a 4060 a f American Samoa. . . 14 S e l00-200 b Guam . . . . 13 N e 8095 C Northern Mariana Islands 14 N 75-121 d 20.5 N e Marshall Islands . . 5 N 135 g 12 N e (Majuro) Federated States of Micronesia: Kosrae . . . . 5 30' N e 227 g Pohnpei . . . 7 N e 190 g Truk . . . . 5-7 N e 139 g Yap . . . . 6-12 N e 122 g Palau . . . . 7 30' N e 147 g SOURCES: a D. Smedley, Climates of the States: Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands, U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, Climatography of the United States No. 60-52 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961). b U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980. c U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impect Statement, vol. 1, 1979. d U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands Coastal Resources Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980. e J.E. Maragos, "Coastal Resource Development and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, Washington, DC, 1986. f Caribbean Research Institute, Waterplan:A Comprehensive Water Management Framework for the U.S. Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Water Resources Center, June, 1979. g National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Boulder, CO, rainfall data measured at one location for each island areadoes not reflect variation in geographic distribution.
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54 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. in.S(dar Areas ally precipitation. Islands of lower altitude depend in part on the convective force of the air over the island to promote rainfall; the moist air is heated over the island and rises to a point at which condensation occurs. Guam and the Western Caroline islands of Yap and Palau are subject to a monsoon-like pattern with dry spells often occurring between December and June (15). Other islands such as Pohnpei experience less variation in rainfall patterns, receiving generally stable amounts throughout the year. High average rainfall in the central Carolines (100 to 130 inches/year) promotes lush vegetation. On coral islands the rainfall partially compensates for the inherent small freshwater storage capacity (2,40). Considerable variation in precipitation regimes exist between Puerto Rico and the USVI, despite their proximity. Puerto Rico receives a mean annual rainfall of 65 to 70 inches, while the USVI recieves a mean annual amount of approximately 40 inches. The topographic features of Puerto Rico, larger land mass and mountain peaks in excess of 4,000 feet, promote both convective and orographic precipitation. These features contribute to Puerto Ricos significant variation in the geographic distribution of precipitation that gives rise to a number of different environments ranging from a tropical rainforest (Luquillo) to an arid southwest coast. Although the USVI receives both orographic and convective stimulated precipitation, the much smaller land area and lower elevations result in a less marked variation in precipitation distribution. Both island areas experience a relatively dry season that generally occurs between December and April. Temperatur e Island climates are strongly influenced by the persistently high levels of solar radiation received throughout the year as well as by the tempering effect of the surrounding ocean waters. The ocean acts as a heat sink/source to regulate temperature variation through the year. During warmer seasons the ocean retains energy and during the cooler seasons is able to release energy, resulting in relatively little seasonal temperature fluctuation. Diurnal temperature changes commonly are greater than those experienced from one season to the next (29). The major climatic disturbances associated with the island areas take the form of cyclonic storms. Cyclonic storms, which severely affect Puerto Rico and the USVI, generally develop over the southern North Atlantic Ocean east of the Lesser Antilles (4,36). Those most affecting Micronesia originate in the central tropical Pacific Ocean (4). Prediction of cyclone paths can prove difficult because of the variability of wind patterns in the tropical region. The Caribbean islands generally receive fewer cyclonic storms than the Pacific islands north of the Equator, which lie in a major path of cyclonic storms (4). Tropical cyclones are frequent events in the Mariana and Western Caroline Islands of Yap and Truk (24), but less common in the Eastern Carolines, the Marshalls, and American Samoa (7,13). Cyclonic storms are not considered a severe problem on Pohnpei, although four cyclonic storms have hit the island in this century, most recently in May of 1986. Satellite image courtesy of C. Wahle Cyclonic storms are relatively frequent events for many U.S.-affiliated islands and often cause severe damage to island populations and ecosystems.
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems l 5 5 Cyclonic storms develop from tropical depressions when pressure and temperature conditions are favorable. These storms may produce winds of 60 to 200 miles per hour and generally are accompanied by heavy rainfall and thunderstorms. The storm is generated by the release of energy through massive condensation of water vapor. The bodies of water surrounding the tropical areas experience their highest temperatures in the late summer months providing the energy levels necessary for the generation of a cyclonic storm (30). Thus, such disturbances generally occur during late summer and autumn when the ITCZ is shifting towards land south of the Equator. However, exceptions do occur. For example, on Yap, cyclonic storms are most frequent during the transitional months (particularly November) when the tradewinds are returning. Cyclonic storms that pass quite near or over an island can cause severe destruction. The high winds and torrential rainfall may cause wind damage, flooding, landslides, and loss of life. Puerto Rico was severely damaged by a cyclonic storm in 1928; the vortex of the storm moved southeast to northwest affecting the entire island. Cyclonic storms may have both primary and secondary effects on the island ecosystem. Primary effects include physical damage to the reef and shore areas and land erosion. High winds and torrential rainfall may cause destruction on land. Storm wave assault may cause coastal erosion, fragmentation of corals, slumping of reef framework, and abrasion and scouring of the reef (39). Secondary effects include the loss of biota dependent on the physically damaged systems (55). Structural damage to the reef framework was minimal after Typhoon Pamela passed Guam in 1976, but damage to living coral and algal communities was intense and widespread on the deeper forereef slope zone (13). Recovery of the affected ecosystems generally is slow because the base from which to build is so small (9). A less common but equally destructive disturbance of tropical oceans is the tsunami. Tsunamis, also known as seismic sea waves, may be produced by earthquakes, landslides, or volcanic eruptions on the ocean floor and may reach velocities of up to 500 mph and heights of up to 115 feet as they hit the shoreline. Both the Pacific and Caribbean U. S.affiliated islands are located in seismically active areas. The Pacific Ocean is ringed with earthquake-producing trenches and active volcanic areas. However, the deep waters surrounding the islands preclude major disruption by tsunamis (39). The narrow continental shelf structure of the Caribbean islands generally does not allow the tsunami to build sufficient height to cause major disruption. However, the tsunami remains a potential hazard for islands. ISLAND HYDROLOGY Many tropical islands receive high levels of and liquid phases. The components of the rainfall annually; some, however, exhibit semihydrologic cycle important to tropical islands arid conditions. Even with high levels of rainare: fall, islands are not necessarily exempt from l surface and groundwater shortages. An islands topography and geology largely determine where rainfall will accumulate and how long l it will remain available. The fundamental, unifying concept in understanding water movement in islands is the hydrologic cycle (figure 3-2). The cycle is a dynamic, conceptual model that relates the continuous movement of water through the vapor Precipitation: Water added to an islands surface from the atmosphere (e.g., rain, fog, and dew). Evaporation: The process by which water is changed into vapor. In the context of the hydrologic cycle, the most important form of evaporation in a quantitative sense is that from the seas and oceans. Its return as precipitation is the main source of water for islands. Because islands surfaces are
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l l l l l small in comparison to the ocean surface, evaporation from islands contributes a small part to overall precipitation. Transpiration: The process by which water passes through a living plant and enters the atmosphere as vapor. Infiltration: The process whereby water soaks into the soil layers. Percolation: The downward flow of water through soil and permeable rock formations to the water table. Runoff: The portion of precipitation that flows downhill on the islands surface to reservoirs and catchments and ultimately to the ocean (l). Retention: The proportion of water that is held in the substrate after recharge and transpiration. The Sun is the driving force behind the hydrological cycle. It causes the evaporation of water from the ocean surface. The water vapor may condense to form clouds and ultimately return to the Earths surface as precipitation. Some precipitation evaporates again as it falls. Water reaching the surface of a watershed the fundamental geographic unit of hydrology where an area of geographically low land is partly surrounded by relatively higher lands may follow one of four courses. First, it may remain on the surface as pools or as surface moisture that evaporates back into the atmosphere. Second, precipitation reaching the ground may flow over the surface into depressions and channels to become surface runoff in the form of streams. Surface runoff expressed
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems l 5 7 Water table Figure 3.2.The Hydrologic Cycle Condensation ion Transpiration Surface Lake I / f River.,... AWater passes continuously through this cycle from evaporation from the oceans into the atmosphere through precipitation onto the islands and eventual runoff into the oceans. Human use of water may modify this cycle at virtually every point. SOURCE: H Hengeveld and C. DeVocht, Urban Ecology 6(1-4):19, 1982. as rivers or streams, generally occurs only after evapotranspiration and soil and groundwater recharge have been satisfied or when precipitation is heavy. Third, precipitation may infiltrate the lands surface directly and percolate downward to groundwater where it may be stored. Fourth, it may recharge the soil and be partly recycled through evapotranspiration. 2 Shallow groundwater can move upward to the soil surface and plant root zone by capillary action where it is taken up by plants and transpired, or it can move laterally until it intersects the lands surface as a spring, or by underground flow into streams, ponds, or the ocean. 2 The combined processes of evaporation of water from the land and vegetation surfaces and transpiration of water vapor through plant leaves. The amount of rainfall that can infiltrate the soil is determined largely by the permeability of soil (governed by the size and interconnectiveness of the spaces within the soil or rock layers) and the amount of water already present in those spaces. For most soils, infiltration rates are highest at the beginning of a rainstorm when the soil is dryest, gradually decreasing with time. Some infiltrated water will be retained near the surface by capillary forces. Where percolation and/or infiltration rates are high relative to annual precipitation, no runoff will take place (e.g., sandy, calcareous soils). Commonly, the water will percolate downward where it will enter into groundwater storage. Water that exists below the surface of the Earth in interconnected openings of soil or rock
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58 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Shallow ... ,, Figure 3-3.Ghyben-Herzberg Lens Island wells Water table Deep well \ Ocean NOTE: Diagram is vertically exaggerated for Illustrative purposes, SOURCE: R.J. Ordway, Earth Science and the Environment (New York, NY: Van Nostrand, 1974), is called subsurface water. That zone, where the pores of the sediments and rocks are filled with water, is called the groundwater zone. The top surface of this zone is called the water table. Between the water table and the surface of the Earth is the zone of aeration, where the pores of soil and rock contain some water but less than total saturation. The water table commonly rises and falls with time as the availability of water at the surface changes. Groundwaters storage beneath oceanic islands has certain special characteristics that differ from continental areas. Fresh water that has percolated downward through the soil to a level below which it saturates all of the interconnected pores and openings in bedrock or in consolidated sediments forms a lens commonly referred to as the Ghyben-Herzberg Lens (figure 3-3). The groundwater table is the top of this lens and is situated above sea level because the fresh water is less dense than the seawater that saturates the rocks below. The groundwater lens extends a greater distance below sea level than above in a manner similar 3 While the term groundwater covers all subterranean water, fresh, brackish or saline, the groundwater that is most limiting in the island context is fresh water and thus is the focus of interest. to that of an iceberg. The basal contact of the fresh water with the seawater is transitional. For every 1 foot of groundwater that is situated above sea level, approximately another 40 feet will exist below. Many small, drier islands and atolls may have only a 20:1 ratio, and some may have no fresh water lens (34). Therefore, small changes in the altitude of the groundwater table correspond to large changes in the thickness of the fresh water extending below sea level (32). The lens tapers from being thickest at the islands center to being thinnest at the islands edge. Close to the shoreline the entire lens may be brackish from tidal induced mixing of seawater and fresh water. As a consequence, salttolerant trees commonly grow near an islands edge, above the thinnest part of the freshwater lens, and salt-intolerant trees, like breadfruit, grow better toward the center of atolls (40). High Volcanic Islands Basaltic rocks forming the main part of high volcanic islands may be quite permeable because of the numerous joints, cracks, and bedding planes they contain (35). Consequently, precipitation can be trapped quickly by these
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems l 5 9 Photo credit: A. Vargo The steep slopes of high volcanic islands, such as American Samoa, predispose island communities to flood and landslide hazards. rocks and a thin soil cover. Nevertheless, during heavy rainstorms, large amounts of water still run off such islands quickly because of the generally steep slopes, the small size of watersheds, and sometimes because of the small total amount of water storage space in the rocks. Large amounts of erosion are common in such situations. Flash flooding from high rainfall of short duration flowing through narrow stream valleys often is a serious problem. High islands that are either active or dormant volcanoes may emit some of the groundwater as steam and water vapor at holes or fissures called fumaroles. Groundwater in contact with rocks having elevated temperatures is likely to contain large amounts of dissolved solids that commonly precipitate around hot springs (32). Atolls Coralline limestone atoll islands and low coral islands are highly permeable and, thus, readily accept heavy rainfall. Most atolls rise only a few feet to a few tens of feet above mean high tide and, because of their narrow dimensions, the groundwater lens beneath them is not large. Storms can drive saltwater onto and over some atolls thereby contaminating the fresh groundwater lens with seawater. Salt carried in sea spray can build up in atoll soils, but where rainfall is heavy over short periods of time salt will be flushed from the soil (40). Raised Limestone Islands Raised limestone islands are lithologically similar to atolls in composition and permeability. Raised limestone islands generally are considerably larger than atolls, thus, the freshwater lens beneath is larger. Precipitation on these raised islands quickly moves downward through the porous rock and along openings formed by solution along joints and bedding planes. The vertical distance from the lands surface of raised limestone islands to the water table may be as much as several hundred feet depending on the islands elevation. Contamination of the fresh groundwater lens by seawater is most likely to be limited to nearshore areas affected by storm surges. Natural surface-water supplies from streams and ponds are sparse on limestone islands because of the rocks high permeability. However, springs may occur along the shore near sea level where the groundwater flows laterally into the sea. Larger solution features like caves and sinkholes are common on such islands. Continental Islands Continental islands have the most complex hydrologic systems of all the island types because of their complex geologic origin. Groundwater infiltration rates, in general, will be much more variable on continental islands than on volcanic islands, atolls, and raised limestone islands. For example, Puerto Rico is a continental island with a wide variety of rock types, each 63-222 0 87-3 QL. 3
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60 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas with differing porosity and permeability. It is the composite of these characteristics plus local climatic variations that make up the islands overall hydrologic system. As such, continental island hydrology does not lend itself to a simple description of the sort suitable to other island types. Some parts of continental islands have a local geology and lithology similar to the other island types. In these cases, the workings of the hydrology will parallel the other island types. Such would be the case for volcanic and limestone terranes. But where terranes of other lithologies exist major differences can occur. Typically, continental islands have a core of igneous rock with limited aquifer development in the zones of fracture and faulting. Alluvial and limestone deposits commonly occur around the flanks of the islands core to produce coastal plains which may be of considerable size (e.g., Puerto Ricos coastal plain extends nearly 4 miles in width). Rainfall is most plentiful in the mountainous regions and diminishes toward the coast promoting significant variation in precipitation levels between coastal and mountain areas. Major coastal aquifers may exist in some areas, recharged by precipitation on the alluvium as well as by streamflow from upper watersheds (28). ISLAND SOILS Soils form from the chemical and physical breakdown of rocks and minerals. Limestone and basalt and the alluvium derived from their erosion constitute a large part of volcanic and limestone islands surface material, while on continental islands a wider range of rock types exist. Chemical weathering processes predominate where precipitation is high and physical weathering processes predominate where precipitation is low; a continuum exists between the two extremes. Where chemical weathering processes predominate, soils largely are depleted of nutrients regardless of the parent rock type. Many soils that form in hot, wet tropical areas have significant fertility problems. This is the case for most parts of many Pacific islands and much of Puerto Rico. Under such conditions, chemical weathering of parent rock materials is the predominant soil forming mechanism. High temperatures, high precipitation levels (approximately 50 inches and above) and the action of plant roots combine to accelerate leaching of nutrients from the rock and soil mineral particles, transforming the primary minerals to secondary minerals. The secondary soil minerals are composed largely of aluminum, silicon, iron, oxygen, and water (16). The chemical composition often is imbalance so that many food or tree crops planted on such soils will have limited productivity or will not survive. In some soils, silicon and iron concentrations are so low, and aluminum so high that the composition of bauxite, an aluminum ore, is approached or reached. On islands where the annual rainfall is lower (southwestern Puerto Rico and much of the Virgin Islands) and where the temperature generally remains high year-round (average of 800 to 850 F), physical breakdown of rocks and soil minerals plays an increasingly larger role in soil formation. In this process, the particles become smaller but their chemical composition is less affected and leaching of soil nutrients is more limited. Physical disintegration can occur in a number of ways; for instance, salts and certain minerals in small cracks in rocks and soil particles expand when wet (hydration) and contract when dry (dehydration), thus causing grains to break (5). And, of course, the growth of plant roots is a powerful agent in breaking up rock and soil particles. In drier areas where rainfall is seasonal, nutrients needed by many plants commonly are in the soil but become available to the plants only if sufficient water is available (6). If most of the water evaporates from the soil surface rather than percolating downward into the soil, dissolved solids or salts can accumulate as
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems c 61 crusts at or near the land surface in concentrations that few plants can tolerate (21). Similarly, if the groundwater table is high, evaporation of the groundwater may occur, which also results in accumulated salts in the soil. Thus, soils in drier zones tend to be alkaline such that even with irrigation systems and fertilizer applications, the availability of nutrients, and particularly of important trace elements can be a problem (28). On high islands where slopes are steep, much of the rainfall runs off in streams rather than percolating into the ground. The soils that form on slopes remain shallow and can be more easily eroded than those on flatter lowlands (6). The presence of soil organic matter from plant litter and roots plays a key role in maintaining soil productivity because it: l l l l l contributes to the development of soil aggregates, which enhance root development and reduce the energy needed to work the soil; increases the airand water-holding capacity (porosity) of the soil, which is necessary for plant growth and helps to reduce erosion; releases essential nutrients as it decays; holds nutrients in storage until the plants need them; and enhances the abundance and distribution of vital biota (45). Soils formed from basaltic rocks in their early stages of chemical weathering can be quite fertile. Where annual precipitation is below 50 inches such soils can support high agricultural productivity; above 50 inches fertility decreases rapidly as leaching increasingly removes soil nutrients. As the weathering process continues, soil fertility will decrease even at the lower rainfall levels. Thus, geologically old, inactive volcanic islands generally will have soils with serious fertility problems and often aluminum toxicity as they become very acidic (pH 4.0). Those islands having geologically recent volcanic activity are more likely to have soils of higher fertility derived from basaltic lava flows and ash deposits. Where volcanic islands are still active or where they have been active recently it is less likely that sufficient time has elapsed for natural vegetation to develop to convert the rock materials into soil especially if precipitation is low. Where rainfall is heavy the layer of weathered rock and soil material may become thick. Land-
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slides sometimes occur in such areas where heavy rains saturate this weathered zone and where the slope of the land is steep. Landslides of this sort are more common on high volcanic islands and continental islands than on raised limestone islands. Puerto Rico, for example, in 1981 and 1985 experienced severe landsliding on the south side of the island after saturating rains. Soils formed from the weathering of limestone even where precipitation is moderate are composed of the residual insoluble minerals that have accumulated as the limestone dissolves (32). In this solution process the resulting soils are highly leached and, therefore, have fertility problems. Maintaining an adequate supply of organic matter in highly leached, infertile soils is a way of partly offsetting the infertility problem. Soils formed on coralline limestone atolls are composed of sand and silt-sized particles of limestone and, consequently, are alkaline (pH 7.5 to 8.5). The soils lack of abundant amounts of clay-sized particles results in their poor waterand nutrient-holding ability. Decomposition of soil organic matter produces weak acids that in turn help dissolve the limestone soil particles (40). Alluvial soils are those formed of eroded sediments that have been transported by running water. These sediments are deposited along floodplains and at the mouths of streams. The composition of the alluvium and, thus, the soil is a reflection of the eroded and weathered rocks of the watershed. For example, in a wa-
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems 63 tershed comprised mostly of limestone, the alluvium on which the soil forms will be mostly limestone. Such soils are not likely to have greater fertility than the watershed soils, but they will have the advantages of being mostly on relatively flat land and closer to significant groundwater resources. In low-lying wet areas, depressions sometimes are filled with a mixture of fine-grained sediment (clay, silt, and shell fragments) and decaying plant materials (peat). These dark colored, wet, soft deposits formed under anaerobic conditions generally are called muck soils. They are common beneath swamps and, thus, are restricted mostly to atolls and to lands of low relief surrounding some high volcanic islands, raised limestone islands and continental islands. The organic matter assists in holding added plant nutrients in a form available to living plant cover and provides other useful functions (see above). Because of their topographic position and nearness to the ocean, some have a high salt content. Others, when drained and exposed to air, become acid as certain sulfide minerals oxidize, adversely affecting plant growth. Certain atolls, including some of those in the Marshall and Caroline Islands, are known for their rich deposits of rock phosphate. These deposits and soils have formed over time from dung or guano deposited on the atoll by fisheating birds. Mild acids formed from the decomposition of organic matter carry the guano (phosphate bearing organic material) downward in the soil to limestone layers where the acids are neutralized and the calcium phosphate is deposited (40). Many of these phosphate deposits have been mined over the years and exported for agricultural use. RENEWABLE RESOURCE SYSTEMS IN U.S.-AFFILIATED TROPICAL ISLANDS The island ecosystems and the efforts to sustain, enhance, conserve, or restore these resources represent major positive factors of the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. Each island ecosystem contributes to the supply and effective sustained use of island renewable resources (9). Island biological resources provide both direct and indirect benefits to the inhabitants. The small size of islands makes them easier to study as complete systems, and thus makes it possible to integrate management of island resources (9) 0 Local government efforts to maintain existing resources are numerous, including such actions as the creation of parks and protected areas, regulation of resource use, and development planning in coordination with sustainable use of local resources. The new entities emerging under the Compacts of Free Association now will have the opportunity to develop similar resource management programs. Previously, resource management and regulation, including protection of endangered species and critical areas, fell under the jurisdiction of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands regulations (47). However, regulatory efforts often were minimally effective and resources generally were well protected only on islands remote from human populations (14). Common Characteristics of Tropical Island Resources Endomism of Species Tropical forests have a history of speciesrichness, and endemism. Puerto Rico has 547 native tree species, approximately the same number found in the continental United States. The U.S. Virgin Islands has between 800 and 1,000 native plant species and several hundred introduced or exotic species (44). The Western Pacific islands are especially rich in rare endemic species; for some tree species only one or two individuals are known 4 (44). In many 4 For example, there are only a few individuals left of a native Pacific tree Tabernaemontana rotensis (M. Falanruw, pers. comm., 7/86).
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64 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: J. Bauer Habitat modification has reduced the range of the Puerto Rican parrot significantly. The only known remaining habitat for these birds, pictured here in an artificial nest, is in the Caribbean National Forest. cases the insular bird and mammal life also are endemic. Examples include the Puerto Rican parrot and the Mariana fruit bat. The number of species an island can accommodate is proportionate to island size (i.e., a greater number of species may live on a larger island); however, the number of species present on the island also depends on distance from colonizing sources (i.e., continents or other islands) and diversity of island habitat (9). Islands tend to develop new varieties and species that are found nowhere else (endemic species). This occurs as populations develop characteristics of adaptation to the isolated island environment. The small size of the island limits the species populations, thus, any reduction in habitat size, such as by human development, eventually may lead to extirpation or extinction of some species (table 3-2). Environmental perturbations easily may affect an entire population. The distance of islands from colonizing sources affects the probability that an extirpated population will naturally reestablish. Value to Scienc e Island ecosystems provide values to science disproportionate to their small size. Because of the high rates of endemicity, islands may provide species of particular scientific interest for botanical and zoological investigation. The clearly defined boundaries facilitate study of species migration, competition, adaptation, and extinction. General principles of evolution can be derived from island studies (44). The genetic resource represented by the unique island biota, although on a smaller scale than continental areas, represents potential gene banks of tropical species. Johnston Atoll is of particular scientific interest because of its geographic isolation and age (26). It is an ancient reef and, except for Wake Island, is the only atoll of the Marcus-Necker ridge still surviving in shallow water (app. B), The atoll has been designated a National Wildlife Refuge in order to protect the nesting seabird populations and well-developed coral reefs (26). Vulnerability to Disruption The isolation and small size of islands, which foster species endemicity and limit population size respectively, contribute to island species vulnerability to disruption. Populations that evolved with limited competition or predator/ prey relationships often cannot survive when forced to compete; further, small populations have lower capacities for recovery. Although isolation offers some protection from natural introduction of competing species, the importation (intentional or not) of animals, insects, and diseases has reduced island indigenous plant and animal populations (12,23). Guams bird population has been declining steadily since World War II; the main culprit is thought to be the brown tree snake. The snake is believed responsible for severely reducing avian populations on Guam. The introduction of the snake has been estimated to have occurred in the early 1940s, however the method or reason for its arrival is not clear.
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems l 6 5 Table 3-2.Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With Historic Range in the U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands Where Common name Scientific name Historic range a Status endangered Mammals: Little Mariana fruit bat Mariana fruit ba t Pteropus tokudae Pteropus mariannus mariannus Western Pacific (Guam) Western Pacific (Guam) (Rota, Tinian, Saipan, Aguijan) East Africa to southern Japan, including RMI, CNMI, FSM, and Palau U. S. A., Caribbean Sea South America Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico Hawaiian Archipelago Oceanic Oceanic (north latitude) Oceanic Oceanic Oceanic Oceanic Oceanic E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E T E E E E E T E entire Guam entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire Great Lakes watershed in IL, IN, Ml, MN, NY, OH, PA, and WI and Province of Ontario; All other range locations entire entire entire range in contiguous States Mariana Islands entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire entire Dugong Dugong dugon West Indian Manate e Caribbean Monk Sea l Hawaiian Monk Sea l Blue Whale ... Bowhead Whale . Finback Whale . . ... Humpback Whale . . . Right Whale, . . . Sei Whale Sperm Whale . . . ., Birds: Guam Broadbill ., Mariana Crow Micronesia Kingfisher . . Mariana Mallard Micronesia Megapode ( = La Perouses) Tinian Monarch . . . . Mariana Common Moorhen (= Gallinule) . . ..,..,. Puerto Rico Nightjar ( =Whip-poor-will), Puerto Rican Parrot . . . Puerto Rican Plain Pigeon ., . . Piping Plover . Trichechus manatus Monachus tropicalis Monachus schauinslandi Balaenoptera musculus Balaena mysticetus Balaenoptera physalus Megaptera novaeangliae Balaena glacialis Balaenoptera borealis Physeter catodon Myiagra freycineti Corbus kubaryi Halcyon cinnamomina cinnamomina Anas oustaleti Megapodius Iaperouse Western Pacific Ocean (Guam) Western Pacific Ocean (Guam, Rota) Western Pacific Ocean (Guam) West Pacific Ocean (Guam, Mariana Islands) West Pacific Ocean (Palau, Mariana Islands) Monarcha takatsukasae Western Pacific Ocean (Mariana Islands) Gallinula chloropis guami Western Pacific Ocean (Mariana Islands) Caprimulgus noctitherus Amazona vittata Columba inornata wetmorei Charadrius melodus Puerto Rico Puerto Rico Puerto Rico USA (Great Lakes, northern Great Plains, Atlantic and Gulf coasts, PR, Vi), Canada, Mexico, Bahamas, West Indies Guam Rail . . . Ponape Mountain Starling. . . Vanikoro Swiftlet, ., ., Rallus owstoni Aplonis pelzelni Aerodramus vanikorensis bartschi Western Pacific Ocean (Guam) Western Pacific Ocean (Caroline Islands) Western Pacific Ocean (Guam, Rota, Tinian, Saipan, Aguijan) USA (Atlantic and Gulf coasts, Mississippi River Basin), Greater and Lesser Antilles, Bahamas and Mexico Western Pacific Ocean Western Pacific Ocean (Guam) Least Tern ... Sterna antillarum Nightingale Reed Warbler . . . Bridled White-eye . . Acrocephalus Iuscinia Zosterops conspicillata conspicillata Rukia Iongirostra Ponape Greater White-eye . . Reptiles: Culebra Island Giant Anole Mona Boa ., . Puerto Rico Boa, ... Virgin Islands Tree Boa . . . American Crocodile . . . . West Pacific Ocean (Caroline Islands) Anolis roosevelti Epicrates monensis monensis Epicrates inornatus Epicrates monensis granti Crocodylus acutus Puerto Rico: Culebra Island Puerto Rico Puerto Rico U.S. and British VI USA (FL), Mexico, South America, Caribbean Southeast Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands Puerto Rico Mona Island U.S. Virgin Islands America, Central Papua New Guinea, Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Monito Gecko ., ... ., Mona Ground Iguana .. St. Croix Ground Lizard Sphaerodactylus micropithecus Cyclura stejnegeri Ameiva polops
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66 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Table 3.2.Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant Species With Historic Range in the U.S.-Affiliated Tropical IslandsContinued Where Common name Scientific name Historic range a Status endangered Sea Turtles: Green, ... ... Chelonia mydas circumglobal tropical & temperate seas and T entire oceans Hawksbill. ., ., ., Eretmochelys imbricata tropical seas E entire Kemps Ridley ( = Atlantic) . .Lepidochelys kempii tropical and temperate seas in Atlantic Basin E entire Leatherback Dermochelys coriacea tropical, temperate & subpolar seas E entire Loggerhead . . Caretta caretta circumglobal in tropical & temperate seas & T entire oceans Olive Ridley (= Pacific) .Lepidochelys olivacea tropical and temperate seas in Pacific Basin T entire Golden Coqui . . Eleutherodactylus jasperi Puerto Rico T entire Plants: Prickly-Ash Zanthoxylum thomasianum Northern Puerto Rico E entire Beautiful Goetza, Matabuey . Goetzea elegans Puerto Rico E entire Vahls Boxwood . .Buxus vahli Puerto Rico E entire Palo de Ramon b Banara vanderbiltii Puerto Rico E entire Hayun Lagu, Trokon guafi c Serianthes nelsonii Guam, CNMI E entire Species Removed from the Endangered and Threatened Lists (for informational purposes only, not codified in the Code of Federal Regulations) Where Reason Common name Scientific name Historic range Prior status endangered for delisting Palau Dove . . . Gallicolumba canifrons West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered Palau Fantail . Rhipidura Iepida West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered Palau Owl .,, ,,, ,, .,,,,,.., .,, .., .., Pyroglaux podargin a West Pacific Palau Islands E entire recovered a Historic Range indicates the known general distribution of the species or subspecies as reported in the current scientific literature. The present distribution may be greatly reduced from this historic range. SOURCE: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, January 1966. [for all but the following] b Ecology USA, Recent Actions Under the Endangered Species Act, 16(3):24, Jan. 16, 1987. c Ecology USA, Recent Actions Under the Endangered Species Act, 16(4):32, Mar. 2, 1987. A primary method of protecting island fauna is through the maintenance of appropriate habitat. However, the small size of islands means that park and protected area designs need to make optimum use of limited land area and may need to combine protection of fauna and flora. Undisturbed sanctuaries may be necessary for those species that cannot tolerate disturbance as opposed to those that maybe integrated into parks with recreational potential. Some extremely vulnerable species may only be effectively protected on islands remote from human population. Surveys of many island areas still are needed to determine the incidence of endemism, and the status of native species. The importance of quarantine regulations and enforcement cannot be understated in island areas (23). Local governments can play a major role in identifying and protecting rare, threatened and endangered species. A native Guamanian plant species, Serianthes nelsonii, while pending Federal listing as endangered already possessed that status and protection under local law (42). 5 Vulnerability to Overexploitation Island species are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation, often because the base from which to build generally is small. Several island species have been exploited to the extent that they are now endangered (table 3-2). The Mariana fruit bat, Pteropus mariannus mariannus, is considered a great delicacy in the Marianas and bat populations on some islands have been heavily exploited. Overexploitation of fruit bat populations on Guam resulted in increased exploitation of fruit bat populations on other islands, including Yap, to satisfy the market. Consequently, Yapese fruit bat populations were severely reduced and in 1980 the hunting and exportation of these animals was 5 S. nelsonii has been listed as Endangered under the Endangered Species Act, effective 3/20187.
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems c 67 Photo credit: E. Petteys Overexploitation of the Mariana fruit bat has severely reduced populations in the Pacific. Despite protective legislation, poaching continues to threaten remaining fruit bat populations in some island areas. banned. The species was placed on the Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plant list and given endangered status in 1984. Populations in some areas are in recovery stages (22). Major Island Resource Systems Upland Forests The higher parts of most high islands in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caribbean originally were covered by dense forests (9). The remaining higher elevation forests are important in contributing to control of erosion and landslides on steep slopes. The topography generally precludes timber harvesting operations but may allow some agroforestry practices. Upland forests are important as wildlife habitat and in maintaining watershed function. These forests may enhance the watershed by increasing interception of rainfall, increasing percolation, improving infiltration, and reducing the rainfall impact on the soil. Upland forests are not easily reestablished once cleared, often leading to chronic erosion problems. Mountainside submontane rain forests are comprised of predominantly broad-leaved trees with an even canopy, many epiphytes, and in some areas with abundant undergrowth including tree ferns and small palms. Forests of this type are found on several of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Some of the remaining submontane forests have been disturbed, such as one present on Truk, which now covers approximately only 2 acres on the top of one volcanic island. Cloud forest (also called dwarf, elfin, or moss forest), a specialized, highly vulnerable upland forest, has developed on high ridges and mountain tops on some islands. These forests, kept moist by the constant presence of cloud formations, generally are composed of gnarled or dwarfed trees burdened with mosses and lichens. The ground commonly is covered with club mosses and ferns. Cloud forests are high in endemic species and are extremely vulnerable to disruption. Endangered status recently has been proposed for two plant species, Cyathea dryopteroides and hex cookii, endemic to Puerto Ricos cloud forests of the Central Cordillera (11). Although cloud forests are present on several of the islands, their areal extent is extremely limited. Implications for Management.Upland forests are important for watersheds, contribute to erosion control, provide habitat for wildlife, and often contain many endemic species. While development of forestland may be necessary for provision of goods and services to island populations, such activities might be preceded by objective analyses of the cost of artificially providing those services which will be lost because of development. Development
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68 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Table 3-3.Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliated Islands Island Areas Puerto Rico USVI American Samoa Guam CNMI Cloud forest Present on May have been Undisturbed formaPossibly on top of Mount Tapachau, mountain tops present on tion on top of Tau Mount Lamlam Saipan; other ismountain tops lands unknown Submontane rain. Formerly on higher None Midelevation ridges Non e None forest mountains and as secondary growth Lowland rainforest Little remains None Remains on steep Scattered remains of Lava forest on northslopes limestone, speciesern island rich forest Riverine and swamp Limited extent None Limited amount Present along rivers, In ravines on smaller forest remains present along moist ravines; islands streams mostly in south Subtropical moist/ Little remains Limited areas in Non e None None seasonal forest mountains or remote areas Subtropical dry Present, little of Present, consideraNone Non e Non e forest original ecosystem bly reduced from original extent Savanna and Considerable manPresent in former Present as early Extensive fireExtensive natural grasslands made areas mainagricultural areas sere after disadapted areas in formation in northtained as pasture turbance south ern islands, manor ground cover made on Saipan and others Scrub Present, often as Present Present on on MataOn rocky limestone Coastal volcanic secondary growth fao and Piao mouncoast and some rock in north and tains, Tutuila southern areas limestone coast in south Wetlands Some rivers, and Saltwater ponds in Streams and coastal Some streams and Saltwater and freshmarshes, and some bays behind manmarshes; lakes on rivers; reed swamps; water marshes, saltwater marshes groves Tau and Anuu saltwater and freshfreshwater lakes on occur behind manwater marshes; manSaipan and Pagan, groves made lake brackish on Pagan Mangrove forest 25 mi 2 scattered Forests only on St. Pala lagoon Small areas, particuLimited areas in around coast Thomas and St. (stressed) on Tutuila, Iarly Apra Habor southern islands Croix and on Aunuu Atoll/beach forest Present in some Present Widespread, special Common, includes Present on some of and scrub areas types on Rose Atoll some endemics the southern islands and Swains island Lagoons/shallow Behind barrier reefs Extensive in bays, Lagoons on Rose Cocos lagoon Shallow lagoon inbottoms and other offshore inside reef and Atoll, Swains Island side some reefs on features along shelf and Tutuila Saipan and Tinian Coral reefs Barrier, fringing and Bank barrier reef Main islands largely Barrier reef near Fringing reefs compatch reef areas, and algal ridge; also bordered by fringing Cocos island, variety mon in southern ismost damaged fringing barrier and reefs; some of patch and fringIands, some patch reef complexdamaged ing reefs elsewhere, damaged es; some damaged some damaged SOURCE: A.L. Dahl, Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable Resources in the U.S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, Washington, DC, 1986. could be redirected from areas where forestforest. The vulnerability of cloud forests to disprovided services (i.e., important watersheds) turbance is so extreme that these forests canare critical to the island and its inhabitants. Furnot withstand development activities. ther, additional benefits maybe derived when required development is done in such a way Lowland Forests as to protect or maintain the natural function of the-vegetation, thereby maintaining or only Lowland forests, which grow on hillsides and slightly reducing the services provided by the in coastal plains, are composed mostly of nu-
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems c 69 Table 3-3.Ecosystems Present on the U.S.-Affiliated IslandsContinued Federated States of Micronesia Marshalls Palau Kosrae Pohnpei Yap Truk None None Present on mountain At highest eleNone None top vations None None At midelevations, At midelevations None Limited area on top some disturbed of one volcanic mountain None Limestone, Present with many Present, most areas Species-rich forests, Present, disturbed species-rich endemics, nearly undisturbed most are disturbed disturbed or replaced None Along rivers and Along rivers and inDense along rivers, Present, inland of Present, inland of inland of land of mangroves inland of mangroves mangroves mangroves mangroves None None None None None None None None None None None None On smaller islets of Present on clay Present Present often from Now predominant Present some atolls soils, and where burning on clay soils, or fire-maintained where frequently burned Some on northern Outer edges of Present On rocky coasts and Present in some Present islands limestone forest, some ravines degraded areas rocky coasts and strip mined areas Freshwater pond on Streams, rivers, Short streams, and Streams, rivers, Freshwater streams, Low swamps and Lib; tidal saltwater lakes, ponds, other freshwater lakes, ponds, ponds, swamps, and marshes marshes swamps, freshhabitat swamps, and marshes water and saltwater marshes marshes In depressions on a 11,513 acres in 3,859 acres around 13,562 acres along 2,894 acres on Yap, 3,315 acres around few atolls estuaries and along island coast and estuaries, and some on Elato main islands coasts of archisome on Pingelap and Woleai Atolls pelago Atoll Largely replaced by In a few areas bePresent behind On high islands, On atolls and beOn atolls, islets; and coconut and breadhind beaches and beaches largely replaced by hind beaches, often fruit, except on in some coast areas on Kayangel Atoll planted trees replaced by coconut some northern atolls Large open lagoons, Lagoons within Some shallow laExtensive lagoon Some shallow laOver 2,000 mi 2 closed lagoon in barrier reef, also goons inside reef with seagrasses, goons within reef including atoll Namorik Kayangel Atoll and and atoll lagoons and atoll lagoons lagoons Helen Reef Islands built by Barrier, fringing Largely surrounded Extensive barrier Wide, fringing reefs, Major barrier reef coral reef ecoand patch reefs; by fringing reef reef enclosing laouter atoll islands with islet enclosing systems, some rich and diverse; goon with fringing lagoon with complex damaged also some atolls; and patch reefs, and structures, outer some areas outer atoll islands atoll islands; condamaged siderable damage merous species of fast-growing trees. Many of these reach 80 to 120 feet in height and exhibit a closed, uneven canopy and little undergrowth. Lowland rain forests occur on many of the U. S.affiliated islands and most of these have been disturbed, some to great extent. The lowland forests of Kosrae and Palau probably represent the least disturbed communities. Lowland rain forests are important for water catchment and for building soil nutrients and humus, often growing on and giving rise to the best island soils. They have the highest timber production potential of any island forest, however the land they cover often is under pressure for competing uses such as agriculture and human settlements. These activities, plus log-
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70 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ging, have caused significant genetic resources and wildlife to be lost. Continuing disturbance, a lack of seed sources, and competition from introduced plants impede recovery, which might take decades under good conditions (9). The drier Caribbean climate produces a type of lowland forest not found in the U.S. Pacific islands. The tree species of subtropical moist or seasonal forests are more resistant to drought and may lose some leaves in the dry season. Sixty percent of Puerto Rico originally was covered with this type of forest; this is down to 15 percent today (54). In the U.S. Virgin Islands, about 25 percent of the land area was covered with this type of forest. What remains today is mostly in mountainous regions with lesser amounts existing in the dry foothills (27). The conversion of land to agricultural purposes resulted in the clearing of the majority of this forest type. Subtropical dry forest, a drought-resistant forest with many species and commonly with an understory of shrubs, also is found in the U.S. Caribbean. This type of forest is slower growing than the moist forest type. Sixteen percent of Puerto Rico was once covered by this vegetation type, mostly on the southern side and forest communities were distinguished between those growing on coastal areas and those of limestone soils (9). Five percent of the original forest type remains today primarily because of the conversion of land to agricultural purposes (54). In the Virgin Islands this type of forest covered nearly three-quarters of the island (9). Today few original forest stands remain, most areas having been once cleared for grazing lands or other agricultural purposes. Forests of this type along the immediate coastal strip may be important in filtering runoff from the land and thus preventing or reducing coastal pollution from sedimentation and agricultural chemicals. Generally, relatively large areas are needed to maintain production and regeneration making the conservation of such forests difficult. Smaller areas, if effectively protected, may be managed to conserve this forest type (27). Implications for Management.These forests are important for water catchment, soil and humus building, and offer timber production potential. However, the relatively flat lands occupied by this forest type generally are under pressure for competing uses such as agriculture. Development and management activities might be directed to allow profitable use for timber and agroforestry production while maintaining the natural functions of the forest. Lands needed for other agricultural pursuits could be designated, so as to maintain sufficient amounts of natural and modified forest area. Abandoned agricultural areas could be reforested to restore soil fertility.
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Freshwater Wetlands Wetlands and freshwater island environments include freshwater marshes and reed swamps, lakes, rivers and streams with aquatic plants, and freshwater fauna. Dense forests of hydrophytic species also occur along rivers and in swampy areas inland of mangrove forests. Forests of this type occur in American Samoa, Guam, Northern Marianas, Pohnpei, Kosrae, Truk, Yap, Palau, and Puerto Rico. These forests are important in contributing to erosion and flood control along streambanks and thus prevention of pollution of water supplies. Marsh and stream vegetation slows runoff, contributing to erosion and flood control and reducing water turbidity. They also may provide a filtration system which buffers reefs and lagoons from terrestrial sedimentation and pollution. Wetland environments have been recognized as critical areas in island coastal management programs and as such are accorded some degree of protection (46,47,48,49,50,51). These environments also provide critical habitat for many wildlife species, including some that are federally protected under the Endangered Species Act, These ecosystems may be very restricted on small islands and are generally quite vulnerable to disturbance. Some systems have evolved to adapt to a wide salinity range, or to temporary disappearance, regenerating when conditions permit. However, recovery from severe stress, such as from agricultural chemicals or heavy sedimentation, may be very slow even after sources of stress are removed (9). Implications for Management.Wetland environments provide critical habitat for many wildlife species and are important in contributing to erosion and flood control. Through mitigation of erosion and flooding they provide for the protection of nearshore areas from pollution and extreme freshwater discharge. Generally, wetland plant species are quite vulnerable to disruption and recovery may be slow; wildlife species may be extirpated if alternate wetland habitat is not available. Development Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems l 71 activities could take precautions to protect the wetland environment, or be redirected to less vulnerable areas. Grass and Fern Savanna Lands Savannas composed of grasses (commonly Miscanthus, or sword grass) or fern (Gleichenia) are found on many islands, alone or in association with scattered trees and shrubs. A number of endemic plants may be found in these areas. Many grasslands are maintained by frequent burning, often to attract game species, or provide pasture for domesticated animals. It is believed that the habitat has long been present in areas such as southern Guam and Babelthaup (Palau) although to a considerably lesser extent than at present (15). Ferns and grasses tend to contribute to erosion control and some areas may be used as pasture land for livestock. However, improvement often is necessary to allow profitable use as pasture. Regrowth generally is rapid after burning, however, repeated burning degrades the soil by removing the organic content; and there is risk of fire spreading to adjacent more valuable forest types. Implications for Management.Primary management attention should be given to fire control and public education on the ecological impacts of frequent burning. Management or development activities could involve active improvement of those areas which might be used profitably for pasture, or agriculture, or for urban and residential development; and encourage reforestation of other areas. Such reforestation schemes could consider using fire tolerant species. Strand and Beach Vegetation comprised of a few widely distributed species of trees and shrubs, including some endemics, occupies the sand and rubble along the coastal beach strand close to sea level. This is the major vegetative formation on atolls and low coral islands. This coastal fringe contributes to stabilization of the coastline and offers protection from storm damage and salt-spray
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72 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas to inland areas. Strand forest and scrub can be found to some extent on all U.S.-affiliated islands. In many areas the forest has been cleared to allow for development. This type of forest has the capability to recover or recolonize readily when disturbance or stress is removed (9). In some areas much of the strand and beach vegetation has been removed and replaced with more economically profitable plant species. On many of the Marshall Islands, for example, areas formerly occupied by beach and strand vegetation now are planted largely with coconut palms and breadfruit trees. Implications for Management.Strand and beach vegetation contribute to retardation of coastal erosion as well as protection of inland areas from salt-spray and storm damage. Development activities could strive to maintain some extent of this vegetation zone for its protective function, particularly on more vulnerable atolls and low coral islands. Enrichment of existing stands with more desirable or profitable species may offer an opportunity to preserve some protective functions as well as provide a food or income source. Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests are characterized by saltresistant trees, some with stilt roots or pneumatophores, growing in the intertidal range along ocean shores or estuaries. Nutrients from terrestrial runoff and the leaves falling from the trees provide food and shelter for marine life living among the roots. A significant amount of mangrove forest area remains in the U. S.affiliated Caribbean islands; nearly 25 square miles of mangrove forest is scattered around Puerto Ricos coastline. While scattered mangrove trees occur along the coast of the U.S. Virgin Islands, mangrove forests only survive
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems l 7 3 Photo credit: C. Wahle Mangrove forests, found to some extent on most of the U.S.-affiliated islands, provide important habitat and nursery areas for many marine and terrestrial species. The extent of these forests has been significantly reduced through human development activities. at Salt River, St. Croix and Jersey Bay, St. Thomas; the larger mangrove areas have been cleared for development (9). In the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, Pohnpei and Palau have the largest extent of mangrove forests (13,652 and 11,513 acres respectively), followed by Kosrae (3,859 acres), Truk (3,315 acres), and Yap (2,894 acres) (9,56). American Samoa has limited mangrove forest areas (130 acres) (56), one of which (Pala Lagoon) is under stress from nearby development. In the Northern Mariana Islands there are only small mangrove areas and they may be threatened by dredging and development. Mangrove forests are important in the maintenance of the nearshore coastal water quality. They are important for many marine species that are dependent on the protected habitat for food and shelter (8). They also trap and stabilize sediment from runoff, thus building land and protecting the coral reefs and lagoons from pollution. Mangroves may regenerate after short-term physical disturbances such as storms, however longer term disturbances such as changes in runoff can destroy a forest. Reestablishment of mangroves has been practiced in Florida and Puerto Rico indicating that, if conditions are appropriate, the forest can regenerate in a period of 10 to 15 years. An oil-damaged mangrove stand in Guam has been successfully rehabilitated through a replanting program. The program involved removing the damaged trees and replanting seedlings that were harvested from an undisturbed area of the forest. However, regeneration of clear-felled areas in Southeast Asia has not been successful (9). Implications for Management.Mangrove formations are important for a variety of functions including, filtration of freshwater, wildlife habitat, nutrient provision for nearshore marine life, erosion control, and limited timber production. Development activities which would remove mangroves should be redirected to other areas, and timber harvesting should be limited to sustainable yields. Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows commonly are found in association with coral reefs and provide shelter and nursery areas for many marine species. Lagoon bottoms and other shallow coastal waters support seagrass and algal beds. The sand and mud bottoms create habitat for many burrowing and benthic organisms (9). Algal and seagrass meadows are highly productive ecosystems that serve as pastures for many commercially important marine species (9) and appear to foster an increased variety of reef fishes (20). They also act to stabilize bottom sediments and thus help prevent coastal erosion. To some extent they may absorb organic wastes, however heavy sedimentation can cut off light and smother the bottom (9).
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74 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Implications for Management.Seagrass meadows contribute to the retardation of coastal erosion, provide habitat and feeding grounds, and may absorb some organic wastes. Destruction of seagrass meadows generally is a repercussive impact from other actions. For example, increased sedimentation from development activities may smother bottom communities and boat anchors may remove large patches of seagrass. Recovery is slow from such disturbances. Seagrass meadows could be protected through appropriate actions incorporated in development activities, such as efforts to reduce erosion, or establishment of permanent moorings in frequently used areas. Coral Reefs Although tropical waters commonly have low nutrient levels, coral reef areas are sites of high biological productivity. Coral reef areas, associated with most of the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands, are among the most productive of tropical marine areas (55) and represent a highly valuable resource. The reef areas provide shelter and habitat as well as a nursery for many marine organisms. Hundreds of edible varieties of fish including jacks and some species of snapper, commonly are members of the reef community, as are many mollusks and crustaceans (17,41,52). Harvesting of nearshore marine resources takes place primarily in the vicinity of coral reefs and seagrass beds (20) and thus much of the nearshore fishery potential corresponds to the interrelation of the coral reef, seagrass meadow, and mangrove forest ecosystems. The nearshore waters of many of the U. S.affiliated Pacific islands support important subsistence fisheries. A recent survey indicated that at least 40 percent of American Samoas households exploit the nearshore fisheries for a part of their food (46). This level is estimated to be as high as 90 percent in the Caroline and Marshall islands (17). The physical structure of the coral reef provides a natural breakwater which retards shoreline erosion (20) and provides for the replenishment of beach sand; as wave action scours the reef structure, particles break off and are carried to shore. Coral reefs also represent a major tourist attraction and valuable recreational resource for activities such as diving and snorkeling. Destructive fishing practices (e.g., dynamiting, bleaching), coastal development activities that increase freshwater discharge or turbidity of nearshore waters, or expulsion of thermal or chemical effluent all may cause reef destruction. Pest outbreaks such as the crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster plancii) similarly damage coral reefs. While the values of coral reefs are well understood, enforcement of protective regulations still poses a problem in some areas. Implications for Management.The diverse benefits provided by coral reefs, including enhancement of fishery potential, marine species habitat, protection from shoreline erosion, beach sand replenishment, and recreational value, clearly demonstrate the importance of this nearshore marine structure. Activities which are known to have adverse impacts on coral reefs should be discontinued through an effective regulation and enforcement program. Coral reef management should consider sustainable multiple use of the resource: allowing recreation (snorkeling, fishing), fishery, and tourist use of reef areas while affording necessary protection. EFFORTS TO SUSTAIN RESOURCES ON U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS The favorable climate of the U.S.-affiliated perience an annually occurring dry period, the islands of the Pacific and Caribbean contribwarm temperatures and generally substantial utes to conditions capable of sustaining relarainfall common to the islands allow a contintively high rates of aquatic and agricultural uous growing season. Puerto Rico has features productivity. Although some island areas exthat allow cultivation of subtropical crops. The
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems 75 climate and esthetic characteristics of tropical islands also make them prime tourist attractions, and in some cases tourism and related enterprises comprise a large part of the island economy. Tropical island ecosystems offer a wide variety of products and services to island inhabitants. The importance of these ecosystems to the quality of life has long been understood by the islanders and traditional practices were inextricably linked to the workings of nature. As modernization increased and less conservative practices were adopted, some of the unique island environment was transformed or damaged, Nevertheless, some undisturbed areas remain today. Efforts to maintain and enhance existing resources have resulted as concerns have increased over adverse trends in resource use, degradation, and associated productivity loss. In some cases, these concerns have prompted the development of resource sustaining management plans which provide for the creation of parks and protected areas, regulation of resource use, consideration of developments impacts on the environment, and investigation of alternatives to heavily exploited resources (see app. E). Efforts To Maintain Resource Base Traditional subsistence economies embodied conservation of critical renewable resources. As economies shift from subsistence to cash and populations increase, the impacts of rapid growth on renewable resources becomes evident. Attention is now being given to mechanisms to protect and maintain critical renewable biological resources. Resource areas and wild populations which suffered past degradation have been examined in order to develop methods to maintain their viability. In some areas, resources, although perhaps modified by human activities, remain in good condition. Regulatory or conservation actions instituted at both the local and Federal level have acted to preserve areas of critical importance. The Caribbean National Forest, federally established in Puerto Ricos Luquillo Mountains in 1903, originally consisted of 18,000 acres and, was the first tropical National Forest (10). Subsequently, additional tracts of land were protected under the Commonwealth forest system. Today there are 14 protected forests on Puerto Rico comprising nearly 100,000 acres of protected forestland. The United Nations Man and the Biosphere Program (UNESCO-MAB), established in 1971, works to promote international scientific cooperation and the study of human interaction with the environment. Biosphere reserves are part of a worldwide network of protected land and coastal environments and enfold many functions including conservation, research and monitoring activities, education and training, and cooperative efforts with various scientific organizations. The design of the biosphere reserve attempts to integrate conservation with surrounding socioeconomic needs. There are three designated biosphere reserves within the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands: Luquillo Forest (28,112 acres) part of the Caribbean National Forest on Puerto Rico; Virgin Islands National Park (15,188 acres) on St. Johns Island in the U.S. Virgin Islands; and Guanica Commonwealth Forest Reserve on Puerto Rico (9,930 acres). The only designated biosphere reserve in the U.S. Pacific islands is located on Hawaii (43,53). Local and National Wildlife Refuges have been established on many of the U.S.-affiliated islands. In some cases entire islands are designated as refuges, such as Howland, Baker, Jarvis, and Rose atolls in the Pacific. Habitat loss has been implicated as a major cause for loss of wildlife species (51), thus, through the establishment of wildlife refuges native fauna and flora may be afforded protection. Similarly, the harvesting of corals and other sessile marine animals is restricted in the waters of u. S.-affiliated islands in the Caribbean by various Federal and Commonwealth statutes. Conchs and four species of sea turtles (hawksbill, green, leatherback, and loggerhead) are protected from harvesting because of their endangered species status (55).
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76 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas The Coastal Management Plans created by many of the U.S.-affiliated islands contain provisions for establishment of Areas of Particular Concernareas recognized to fulfill valuable functions (ecological, social, esthetic) in the island ecosystems. These areas are being protected on some islands, and uses to which they are best suited are being encouraged. For example, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Coastal Management Program contains plans to assure adequate water flow, nutrient levels, and oxygen levels for mangrove/wetland environments. These environments are recognized to be important in natural drainage patterns and as wildlife habitat (47). In addition, progress has been made in the last few years in the preparation of resource inventories in some of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Some are already complete and others are underway (9). However, a need for biological inventories still exists on many of the islands. Such information can assist in creating protected park areas that in turn can help reduce resource overharvesting (55). Efforts To Restore the Renewable Resource Base Despite the fact that population needs exceed the supply of renewable resources on most islands, interest in conservation exists. Many basic marine conservation measures developed in the West in the past century were traditionally practiced in the Pacific islands. Examples include establishing closed seasons and restricting the kinds of fishing gear allowed (15,25), Federal and local efforts to increase forest area in Puerto Rico have been quite successful. Since 1981, the Puerto Rican Forest Service, with technical assistance from the U.S. Forest Service, has taken an active role in promotion of resource conservation and forestry development (10). Other cooperative efforts involve species recovery programs. For example, efforts focused largely on the bird population of Guam are being carried out in conjunction with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (23). Similar efforts to recover the Puerto Rican parrot have been ongoing since 1968 (54). Efforts To Redirect Use Of Underused Resources Although many renewable resources have suffered degradation from overexploitation, some seem to be underused: exploited at rates below their maximum sustainable yield. Some local governments are working to identify these resources and redirect resource use. For example, current fisheries development policy in Puerto Rico emphasizes underused resources, such as swordfish, which may help divert fishing effort from overexploited nearshore stocks (20). Many nonfood resources of the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, such as pearl oysters, have been underexploited since World War II because little effort has been made to develop their potential. The success of the Japanese pearl culture prior to World War II suggests that such an operation is viable, given proper planning and management. Although the status of the species introduced by the Japanese is not known, several species of pearl oysters occur naturally in Palau, Yap, Truk, and Pohnpei, and black-lipped pearl oysters have been found in high densities near some atolls in Pohnpei State. Further opportunities exist to develop underused land, plant, and animal resources. For example, a survey of Guams agricultural land resources indicated that no more than 2 percent of the land is actively cultivated (23); this percentage may change seasonally and in relation to market and climate conditions (33). In Puerto Rico, abandonment of coffee plantations and farmlands, particularly on steep slopes, released 1.1 million acres which are now potentially available for forestry and agroforestry activities and recreation (44). Efforts To Culture Species Another avenue to reduce stress on natural populations and environments is to develop culture systems for those species currently har-
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems 77 vested on a fishing, hunting, or gathering basis. The success of culture systems may depend on more than just the biological factors of the desired species. Considerations include the availability of primary research, development of appropriate techniques, technical assistance, and sociocultural and economic factors. The level of interest in aquiculture of numerous species that already are a part of islanders diets is high in all of the islands. Most island groups have done preliminary work to determine the feasibility of culturing a number of marine and freshwater species of fish and shellfish (31). Developing culture techniques for such organisms can transform them from roles of only subsistence importance to those of economic importance. Of course, if markets expand faster than culture activities, increased pressure may be put on natural populations due to their increased value. Despite the growing interest in and knowledge about aquiculture of warmwater species, numerous projects have been unsuccessful. A number of products currently are gathered from indigenous and naturalized plants. Development of culture systems for some of these plants might allow increased yields such that they could develop economic as well as nutritional significance. For example, a wild variety of cinnamon (Cinnammnum carolinensis) grows on Pohnpei and is used as medicine and a tea-like beverage. Similarly, perfume oils can be extracted from certain plants now growing wild on Pacific islands (e. g., ambretta oil from Hibiscus abelmoschus; ylang-ylang oil from Cananga odorata). Ylang-ylang petals currently are used for traditional ornamental headwear (mwarmwars). Research and small-scale production at the Ponape Agriculture and Trade School indicates that ylang-ylang can be cultured profitably and processed to supply fragrance oils for locally produced coconut soap and for export. Finally, native and naturalized plants have, over time, adapted to a range of environmental conditions (2). They represent a reservoir of genetic resources that could be used in plant selection programs, and might allow expansion of agriculture to infertile, saline, and degraded lands. Biological inventories that characterize plant species composition (e.g., nutritional, medicinal values) and land race characteristics are needed in many areas to promote this effort (27). Enhancement of Existing Renewable Resources Programs to enhance existing resources have developed concurrently with interest in alternatives to heavily exploited resources. For example, in 1984, one-third of Puerto Rico was covered by forest, mostly in second-growth forests, fruit tree plantations, and shade trees for coffee. These forests supply little useful timber, although they provide excellent watershed protection, wildlife habitat, and recreational and esthetic opportunities. Enrichment of forests through underplanting of valuable species offers one method of increasing forest value. Many larger Pacific islands could sustain timber production to help meet local needs through similar efforts (44). In most island areas, efforts have been made and continuing studies are underway aimed at enhancing the productivity of reef flats through the introduction of artificial habitats. Studies indicate that artificial reef habitat enhancement can increase local fish abundance and potential harvests (3). Similarly, artificial upwellings, which draw nutrient rich water to the surface, may enhance fishery potential. Enhancement programs, as well as research to determine impacts of reorganization of ecological structure, will be necessary in order to allow the sustainable production of some species (e.g., trochus) while maintaining the balance of the associated natural systems (39).
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78 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas 1. 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. CHAPTER 3 Alford, D., Island Water Resources: Technologies for Increased Supplies for U.S. Insular Territories, OTA commissioned paper, 1984, Alkire, W., Cultural Dimensions of Resource Definition and Use in Micronesia, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Artificial Reef Development Center, Reef Briefs, No. 3, Washington, DC, spring, 1985, In: Callaghan, 1986. Barry, R. C., and Chorley, R, J., Atmosphere, Weather, and Climate (New York: Methuen, Inc., 1982). Birot, P., General Physical Geography (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1968]. Buringh, P., Introduction to the Study of Soils in Tropical and Subtropical Regions (Wageningen, The Netherlands: Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation, 1968). Callaghan, P., The Development and Management of Nearshore Fisheries in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Cintron, G. et. al., Mangroves of Arid Environments in Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands, Biotropica 10(2):110-121, 1978, Dahl, A. L., Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies to Sustain Renewable Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Diaz-Soltero, H., and Schmidt, R., Forestry in Puerto Rico: A Case Study in Successful Organizational Change, OTA Commissioned paper, 1986. Ecology USA Recent Actions Under the Endangered Species Act, 15(20):166, October 6, 1986. Eldredge, L. E., Case Studies of the Impacts of Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Resources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA Commissioned paper, 1986. Eldredge, L, E., Summary of Environmental and Fishing Information on Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Historical Background, Description of the Islands, and Review of Climate, Oceanography, and Submarine Topography, NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC-40 [Honolulu, Hawaii: U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, 1983). In: Smith, 1986. Falanruw, M. V. C., Director Yap Institute of Natural Science, personal communication, July 1986. REFERENCES 15. Falanruw, M. V. C., Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 16. Fripiat, J., and Herbillon, A. T., Formation and 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Transformation of Clay Minerals in Tropical Soils, Soils and Tropical Weathering, Proceeding of Bandung Symposium, Natural Resources Research XI, UNESCO, Paris, 1971. Gawel, M., Chief, Department of Natural Resources, Pohnpei State Government, personal communication, July 1986. Glantz, M. H., El Nine: Should It Take the Blame for Disasters? Mazingura March, 1984. Glenn, M., An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in Pohnpei, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Goodwin, M. H., and Sandifer, P. D., Aquaculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Goudie, A., Duricrusts in Tropical and Subtropical Landscapes (London: Oxford University Press, 1973). Guam Environmental Protection Agency, Twelfth Annual Report 1984-1985, Agana, Guam, 1985. 23. Halbower, C, C., Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Developmental Potentials in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 24. Holliday, C. R., Tropical Cyclones Affecting Guam, Fleet Weather Central/Joint Typhoon Center, Guam (FPO San Francisco, CA: U.S. Fleet Weather Central Guam, 1975), In: Callaghan, 1986. 25. Johannes, R. E., The Role of Marine Resource 26. 27. 28, 29, Tenure Systems (TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Resource Development and Management in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, OTA Commissioned paper, 1986. Maragos, J., Coastal Resource Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986, Matuszak, J., Virgin Islands Cooperative Extension Service, personal communication, July 1986. Morris, G, L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal communication, September 1986. Morris, G. L., and Pool, D. J., Assessment of Semiarid Agricultural Production Technologies for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986.
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Ch. 3Island Structure and Resource Systems 79 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. Muller, R.A, and Oberlander, T. O., Physical Geography Today: A Portrait of a Planet, Sd ed. (New York: Random House, 1984). Nelson, S. G., Aquiculture and Maricuhure Development in the U, S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Ordway, R. J., Earth Science and the Environment (New York: Van Nostrand Co., 1972). Perry, J., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Guam, personal communication, September 1986. Peterson, F., Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Hawaii at Manoa, personal communication, September 1986. Peterson, F., Water Resources, Hawaii: A Geography, J. Morgan (cd.) (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1983). Pico, R., The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974). Rasmussen, E. M., El Nino and Variations in Climate, American Scientist 73:168-177, March-April, 1985. Rasmussen, E. M., El Nine: The Ocean/Atmosphere Connection, Uceanus 27(2):5-12, 1984. In: Smith, 1986. Smith, B. D., Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S. Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Soucie, E. A., Atoll Agriculture for Secondary Schools, Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, 1983. Stile, P. G., Food and Feed Processing Technologies in the United States Insular Areas of the Pacific, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 42. Torres, E., Director of Agriculture, Guam Department of Agriculture, personal communication, September 1986. 43. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves, Nature and Resources 20(4):1-12, October-December, 1984. 44. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assess45 ment, Technologies to Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984). U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Impacts of Technology on U.S. Cropland and Rangeland Productivity, OTA-F-166 (Springfield, VA: NTIS, August 1982). 46. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980a. 47. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands Coastal Resources Management Program and Final Environmental impact Statement, 1980b. 48, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 1, 1979a. 49. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 2, Igygb. 50. U.S. Department of Commerce, National 51 Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, The Virgin Islands Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1979c. U.S. Department of Commerce. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1978. 52, Uwate, K. R., Chief Marine Resources, Yap State Department of Resources and Development, Colonia, Yap, personal communication, September 1986. 53, von Drost zu Hulshoff, B., and Gregg, W.P. Jr., 54 55 56 Biosphere Reserves: Demonstrating the Value of Conservation in Sustaining Society, Parks 10(3):1-18, July-September, 1985. Wadsworth, F., Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Forest Service, personal communication, September, 1986. Wahle, C. M., Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Whitesell, C., U.S. Forest Service, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry, personal communication, September 1986.
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. Chapter 4 Island Renewable Resource History and Trends
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CONTENTS Page History of the Islanders . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 U.S.-Affiliated Western Pacific Islands . . . . . . . 84 American Samoa . . . . . . . . . ........ 91 U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands . . . . . . . . 92 Representative Resource Problems of the U.S.-Affiliated Tropical Islands .. 102 Introduction . . . . . . . ......................102 Terrestrial Resource Damage and Depletion .........................10 3 Marine Resource Damage and Depletion.. . . . . . .. ...109 The Island Socioeconomic Context . . . . . . . .. ...113 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . ... ... 113 Traditional Cultures and Economic Development ....................115 Education and Out-Migration . . . . . . . .......116 Wage Rates and Unemployment . . . . . . . .. ....117 Social Support Programs . . . . . . . . ........119 Preference for Government Employment. . ........................119 Shortage of Rural Labor . . . . . ....................120 Alien Labor . . . . . . . . .....................121 Conclusions. . . . . . .................. .. 122 Chapter 4 References . . . . . . . ................123 Boxes Box Page 4-A. Chronology of Major Events of the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands . 85 4-B, Chronology of Major Events of the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands 93
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Chapter 4 Island Renewable Resource History and Trends HISTORY OF THE ISLANDERS Introduction Although histories of the peoples and settlement of the U.S.-affiliated island areas are diverse, certain common factors exist: 1) at one time all but American Samoa were colonized or administered by foreign nations, and 2) at one time they have been of some strategic importance to the United States. Nearly all of the indigenous island populations suffered population depletion as a result of colonization. Direct causes ranged from the introduction of disease to the active removal or relocation of inhabitants (e.g., decimation of the Caribbean Arawak population, Chamorro wars in the Marianas). The majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands were subject to one or more colonial powers. 1 American Samoa is the only island group which remained independent until the United States gained authority over the eastern Samoa Islands in 1899. Guam and Puerto Rico essentially experienced only one colonial authoritySpain. Both island areas were ceded to the United States at the close of the Spanish-American War in 1898. Spains authority lasted close to 400 years in Puerto Rico and some 300 years in Guam. Although several colonial interests developed in the U.S. Virgin Islands, the Danes had the most extensive interests and authority lasting nearly 245 years. The United States purchased the Danish West Indies in 1917 after nearly 50 years of intermittent negotiations. Traditional island cultures depended on a variety of island resources for their sustenance and they developed many resource management and conservation techniques (18). Traditional resource management required supernatural Colonial authority in this report refers to the various powers who claimed the islands prior to their entering various political associations with the United States. sanctions, a harsh discipline, inequality of people, resource apportionment, and curtailment of individual freedom (25). An ethic of minimal exploitation of necessary resources allowed for recovery of those renewable resources exploited in the traditional system. Original inhabitants of the islands were essentially selfsufficient; living off the surrounding terrestrial and marine resources or acquiring necessary resources through intraand interisland exchange systems (1,25,46,88). Although the social organization of individual island groups was unique, some display common characteristics. Social structure on most islands was a well-defined hierarchy that clearly outlined individual rights and duties. Most of these social hierarchies included a head or paramount chief, lesser chiefs, clans, lineages, and upper and lower classes (46,61). Although, many variations in social organization existed, they all contained some mechanism for critical resource control through social hierarchy (46). Generally, native island resource-use techniques were not adopted by the colonial powers; although some colonial agriculturalists did adopt indigenous cropping regimes (97), the primary impetus for colonization was to secure high-value goods and minerals to supply the homeland economy. As such, the colonial attitude was not one of conservation, but rather exploitation. New production methods and values were introduced as well as new crops and livestock. Islands which were heavily exploited suffered land degradation and resource depletion. Subsistence agriculture and fishing continued to be an important part of the indigenous society of the Pacific islands during the colonial period although, in some areas, cash crops en83
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84 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas croached on lands available for subsistence agriculture (e.g., sugarcane and copra plantations). Traditional production methods slowly became more restricted to those rural and outlying areas in least contact with the trade centers. Islanders became more accustomed to a lifestyle involving imported goods, the status of traditional subsistence methods decreased and, correspondingly, dependence on outside sources increased. The colonial authorities in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands focused on commercial agricultural production for export purposes. Nevertheless, a subsistence sector developed and persisted in Puerto Rico (97). Although the Danish West Indies were inhabited by Amerindian agriculturalists at the time of Columbus, by the time these islands were colonized in the 17th century the Indian population had disappeared. U.S.-Affiliated Western Pacific Islands Introduction Ancestors of Pacific island peoples originated in Southeast Asia. Western Micronesiathe Marianas, Yap, and Palauwas first settled by migrants from the southeast. Ancestors of the peoples of eastern Micronesia and Polynesia moved through northern Melanesia and up through Vanuatu (5). These settlers brought with them nearly all the food crops that became their staples (1) and may have introduced animal species as well (46). Social Organization The fundamental difference between the ecologies and resource bases of the high islands and coral atoll islands was reflected in traditional cultural systems. High islands generally have larger land mass, better soils, and more abundant freshwater resources than do atoll islands (46). Despite the number of exigencies of atoll life, population densities were generally greater than on high islands. The stratified social organization which developed in the Pacific islands was designed to provide for the subsistence needs of the members, settle disputes, and manage essential resources. For most of Micronesia, the systems of social organization and land tenure were based on matrilineal descent. Individuals were members of lineages and several lineages could comprise a clan; these units were further ranked within the society. Authority generally flowed from paramount chief, to lesser chiefs, to commoners. Inmost areas, certain lineages or clans were in charge, with the lineage chief being paramount and the junior ranking males serving as lesser chiefs (46). Better quality land went to higher ranking members of society in some instances; however, individuals had access to necessary raw materials (46). One variation of this structure existed in the Carolinian atoll islands between Yap and Truk. In the Carolinian group little stratification existed and each atoll or section of a larger island was a politically autonomous community. Lineages were ranked according to their arrival and settlement on the island with the lineage of greatest antiquity being most senior and its head being the communitys chief (46). The matriclans in Yapese society functioned as in the other Micronesia islands; however, there was no lower order of landholding matrilineages. Rather each village was comprised of a number of patrilineages each with its own head and these were the landholding units of the society. Village lands were ranked as higher low-caste land and then further subdivided. High caste villages often occupied the best land and additionally owned the land of the low caste villages (46). An exchange system, sawei, once linked the high island of Yap to all the atoll islands from Ulithi in the west to Namonuito in the east. This system provided a mechanism for peoples of small, vulnerable atoll islands to move freely between islands, in turn establishing a network allowing members to request aid from other is-
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lands in times of need (e.g., typhoons or food shortages) (1,2). Traditional Subsistence Economies Traditional subsistence economies have been characterized as nature-intensive (25), which implies the optimum use of naturally functioning ecosystem processes to provide for the subsistence needs of the population. Islanders developed production techniques that took advantage of the natural workings of the island (e.g., stream diversion for irrigation) and the limited land resources. Atoll dwellers, with little arable land, focused on improving and increasing marine harvest methods. Trade between atoll dwellers and high islanders was common (e.g., the Yapese sawei system). Evidence exists that a form of aquiculture was practiced on several of the western pacific islands (Pohnpei, Kosrae) (115) and remains of old fish ponds still exist on Yap. Most agriculture involved food-bearing trees and root crops, many of which were imported with the first influx of settlers. Coconut palms were of major importance, as well as breadfruit, papaya, bananas, and pandanus. Root crops included wetand dry-land tare, yams, sweet potatoes, and arrowroot. Agricultural terraces similar to those found in Southeast Asia existed in the Marianas and Palau (5). Several tree species were used for construction of dwellings and canoes; pandanus leaves were used for canoe sails, and thatch for houses. Coconut fronds, especially Nipa palm, also were used for thatch. Marine resources were important, especially for the atoll dwellers where terrestrial resources were extremely limited. Coral reefs associated
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends 87 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment These Kosraean craftsmen combine traditional skills with modern tools to carve a canoe from a breadfruit tree. with islands and lagoons of atolls supported a variety of reef fish, turtles, and shellfish. Pelagic species often were critically important to meet the subsistence needs of the society. Canoes were used for trolling in the open ocean as well as still fishing in protected lagoons. Nets, traps, weirs, and spears also were used. The tools and fishhooks were fashioned from locally available materials such as wood, shell, stone, and coral. The behavior, movement patterns, and mating habits of marine species were known in detail by the islanders. Islanders knew much about the lifecycle of many organisms and their patterns of seasonal abundance (42). Mollusks and crustaceans were gathered within the intertidal area. Throughout the region, fishing knowledge was property of great personal value and thus not lightly shared with others in the community (42). Harvest methods, distribution patterns, and customs differed, but these patterns resulted in an apparently effective resource management system. Rights to harvest certain species or to fish in certain grounds were often held exclusively by particular families or other specific groups within the community (93). Recent research in Palau has revealed that the traditional body of knowledge of marine species and behavior was quite sophisticated and comprehensive, rivaling that of todays marine biologist (42). These traditional economies comprise three distinct sectors: a production sector, controlled and organized to serve individual family needs; an exchange sector, governed by kinship and traditional political organization to serve community needs; and an investment sector, through which the resources were managed (89). The production sector centered almost entirely around the family unit with individual members performing specific tasks in providing for family needs. Each family had privileges to the land and sea apportioned to the clan (89). The exchange sector was important in the daily working of the subsistence economy and served to ensure the flow of goods from the more productive to less productive members. This sector became particularly important when normal family production was insufficient (e.g., sick, injured member), or when there was a wider community need (e.g., natural disasters). At these times, the paramount chief could designate other members of the clan, or of other clans to assist in production, or summon labor for community benefit (89). The investment sector characterizes the traditional economys sustainable management of the resource base. It couples minimal exploitation of resources with fallow periods allowing recovery of renewable resources. These naturally regenerating resource areas were essentially an investment in biological capital to ensure future productivity. This relative underproduction provided the flexibility necessary to absorb sudden population immigrations and natural disasters (89). Westerm Contact Western contact in the Pacific began in 1521 with Ferdinand Magellans arrival on Guam. The first Spanish colony established on Guam in 1565 served as a provisions stop for Spanish galleons sailing between Florida and the Philippines (67). Spains primary interest in the Mariana islands was saving souls and little effort was spent in exploiting the islands renewable resources.
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88 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Spain renewed its colonization efforts in the Mariana Islands nearly a century after the initial colony was established on Guam. With the arrival of Jesuit missionaries in 1668, Spain claimed the rest of the Mariana Islands. Missions were established on Rota, Tinian, and Saipan; and Christianization of the indigenous population began in earnest. The Jesuits instituted formal education, primarily of a vocational nature, with an emphasis on religion (67). Western contact initially reduced the different indigenous Micronesia populations through introduction of disease (89) and conflicts that ensued over religious beliefs increased the toll. While Spain laid claim to most of Micronesia, they did not attempt to extend actual rule outside of the Marianas until other nations attempted to gain a foothold in the region (46). American and English whaling vessels began to frequent the Micronesia islands in the 1830s and experienced a short-lived prosperity lasting for nearly two decades. Islanders became involved in world trade as they exchanged local commodities (e.g., sea cucumber, shells) for imported goods (e.g., iron, glass). During this period, American missionaries began arriving on some of the westernmost Micronesia islands (Kusaienow Kosrae) to offer the Protestant religion to the indigenes. Throughout the Spanish period, various nations, including Germany, Japan, and the United States were present in the islands as traders and whalers. The mid-19th century brought the beginning of the copra (dried coconut) industry. Successful copra operations were established by German traders in the Marshall Islands. The presence of the copra traders expanded the exposure of islanders to world markets and imported goods and encouraged islanders to develop coconut palm plantations. Several German companies were established in Micronesia by the 1860s and within 10 years copra was the primary export of Micronesia (76). Land remained in indigenous hands and Micronesians entered what was later to be called the era of the coconut civilization (69). Development of the copra trade led to increasing German encroachment on previous SpanPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment The copra industry still forms the basis of economies on many U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. ish territorial claims, ultimately resulting in a power struggle between Germany and Spain. Germany declared a protectorate over the Marshall Islands in 1885; took control of Yap; and claimed Truk, Kosrae, and Pohnpei. A papal decision, made in 1885, settled the conflict. Spains authority over the Caroline islands was reaffirmed. Germany retained authority over the Marshall Islands and received trade and fishing privileges within the Spanish islands and the right to establish fueling stops (67). The Spanish-American War brought an end to Spanish authority in Micronesia. Guam was ceded to the United States in 1898, and Germany purchased the remainder of Spanish Micronesia, Japanese companies continued to be active in Micronesia commerce during the German period until 1901 when they were barred from the region for selling firearms (69). The German administration of Micronesia brought increased commercial activity, primarily in the area of copra trade. However, phosphate mining on Angaur (Palau) was also a successful operation. The Germans instituted a system of indirect rule with the islands being administered by the Germans through the hereditary chiefs. This period furthered the breakdown of land tenure practices in favor of individual ownership. The German administration prohibited alien purchase of Micronesia
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 89 land. Any person or company interested in establishing a new business was required to negotiate a lease with the German Government, which in turn negotiated with the native owner. Mandatory education also was instituted, and although of a broader scope than Spanish schooling, the emphasis remained on religion (69). Germanys rule ended in 1914 with the beginning of World War I and Japan seized control of Micronesia. Japan established a military administration which lasted from 1914 to 1920 when the League of Nations sanctioned Japanese authority by Mandate. Early in the military administration many of the old German policies were continued (e.g., tax system, mining operations) (89). A civilian government was established in 1922 and economic development based on resource exploitation began (89). Copra trade was further expanded, with islanders continuing to be the major producers, and commercial fishing increased in importance (46). A sugar industry was developed in the Marianas. Japanese nationals were brought in to cultivate and harvest sugar and soon outnumbered islanders. By 1940, 80 percent of the total labor force on the islands was Japanese or Okinawan (89). The Japanese Mandate Period has been characterized as the most economically successful period in the history of the Micronesia islands. Fishing, sugarcane, copra, and pearl culture are a few of the many areas the Japanese developed (89,91). However, despite the increased economic success of the period, the benefits of the period went largely to the Japanese. Production skills remained concentrated in the hands of Japanese nationals. Traditional authority was greatly weakened and the Micronesians became accustomed to an authority imposed from outside. The Japanese era in Micronesia ended with World War II (46). United States Administration U.S. administrative involvement with the western Pacific islands began at the close of the Spanish-American War when the island of Guam was ceded to the United States. In 1947, the United States, in accordance with an agreement with the United Nations Security Council, assumed administration of most of Micronesia as a United Nations Strategic Trusteeship. The trusteeship allowed the United States plenary control over the islands including the right to establish military bases and foreclose access. The United States was to protect the welfare of the inhabitants and eventually prepare the islands for self-government or independence (89). The U.S. Navy assumed initial administrative responsibility for the islands at the end of World War II. Administrative policy was a slow-paced approach to development that extended through the first 15 years of U.S. administration, largely as a reaction to the Japanese Mandate Period (89). All Japanese were repatriated by the end of 1946, thus removing the bulk of prewar era production expertise. promotion of the welfare of the Micronesia people was the objective of the naval administration. 2 Large development projects were excluded from the islands on the grounds that they did not promote the welfare of the Micronesia people. The United States Commercial Company (USCC) was created within a few months of the inauguration of U.S. Naval administration in order to supervise the economic development of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) USCC bought produce for export from islanders and offered a selection of import items. In an effort to develop the economic potential of Micronesia, the USCC conducted an economic survey of the territory (89). Rebuilding the copra industry, fishing, and agriculture activities, which were destroyed in the war, were the major USCC goals. The USCC was replaced in late 1947 by the Island Trading Company (ITC), a corporation that was capitalized by the Navy and run by the Deputy High Commissioner. The purpose of ITC was to promote development by furnish2 Ia a directive issued in December 1945 by Admiral Spruance, military governor of the islands, the American position was stated as follows: indiscriminate exploitation of the meager resources of the area is to be avoided The establishment, for the profit of aliens, of enterprises which tend to maintain the island economy at the level of cheap labor and which do not permit the islanders to enjoy the full benefits of their own labor shall not be tolerated (40).
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90 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ing technical assistance and services to locally owned businesses. It provided loans and subsidies to island businessmen to stimulate growth of industry, and provided warehousing and importing services. Under ITC, retail stores proliferated in Micronesia. ITC purchased and marketed copra, handicrafts, and other exports much as USCC had done. However, efforts to encourage production of new crops did not fare well and numerous enterprises failed. ITC was liquidated in 1954 and by that time several local import companies were strong enough to survive on their own. The other functions ITC performed were dispersed to other organizations (89). Civilian administration of the TTPI began in 1951 when the U.S. Department of the Interior assumed the responsibility. Self-sufficiency for the TTPI remained the goal under the Department of the Interior. The objective was to duplicate the successes of the Japanese era without the associated exploitation and alienation of land and labor. U.S. authorities encouraged government investment in lieu of private capital investment, and government subsidies were carefully controlled so as not to undermine the goal of self-reliance. The annual subsidy at this time remained at a level of $5 to $6 million each year and the value of exports remained between $2 to $3 million each year. The system of taxation developed during naval administration, though largely an insignificant source of revenue, was retained. Municipalities were encouraged to develop tax systems and use the revenue to sustain municipal needs (e.g., teacher salaries, school repairs) (89). The direction of U.S. administration changed in 1963 to a program of intensive development in Micronesia. U.S. appropriations for the Trust Territory increased from $13 million in 1964 to over $60 million in 1971 and continued to rise until the close of the 1970s. Funding during this period was directed largely toward administration, schools, and health services. Between 40 and 45 percent of the TTPI governments annual budget was allocated for health and education (89). With increased assistance, the Trust Territory government began to assume many responsibilities formerly handled by municipalities. The emergence of a bureaucracy was apparent. The government work force tripled during the 1960s and private sector service industries expanded accordingly. Concurrently, imported goods became available in unprecedented quantities and by 1970 import value had reached $20 million. Exports, however, remained at the earlier levels (about $3 million) with only minor fluctuations (89). Capital improvement projects, with the goal of developing the solid infrastructure necessary for self-sufficiency, became a considerable budget item beginning in 1970. Construction of public buildings, roads, airports, and dock facilities, were some of the projects. The impact of these projects, however, was realized more in the nature of salaries than in an actual increase in productivity. Federal program grants also became available during this time, and much of this funding was directed toward improving social services. Total U.S. assistance peaked in 1979 at $138 million (89). Exports increased notably during the 1970s, and by the end of the decade export values had reached $16 million annually. The increase was due largely to increasing tourism and industries producing tuna and coconut (copra and oil). Some of these gains were short-lived and, when considered with the rate of inflation, were near the 1948 1evels of export income (89). The Compact of Free Association, which was approved for the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands by the U.S. Congress and the United Nations Trusteeship Council in 1986, offers an opportunity for the islands as well as the United States to foster increased Micronesia self-reliance. The Compact is designed to give Micronesians control over their internal and external affairs, and funds to develop a means of increasing selfsupport within a 15-year period; the United States retains defense and security responsibilities. Local government emphasis is now on economic development (25). The United States financial support for economic development in Micronesia initially will increase under the Compact of Free Associa-
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends 91 tion, Then, assistance will decline through the stipulated 15-year period, with decreases occurring every 5 years after the beginning of the compact. The Republic of Palau elected to maintain an even spread of funding throughout the 15-year period. 3 Funding available for capital improvements will initially increase while funding for social welfare programs and government bureaucracy will decrease. This represents a major aim of the compact: to provide a base for future local productive industries and prepare Micronesia for increased economic self-reliance. Almost 40 percent of U.S. assistance is earmarked for infrastructure and development projects (89). Micronesias cash economy today is roughly 90 percent dependent on U.S. aid, thus, aid reductions stipulated in the compact will have a pronounced impact on the area. Previous policy trends of rapidly expanding aid largely for social programs and support of the public sector will change under the Compact of Free Association. The change in U.S. policy perhaps will foster development of an independent private sector economy; with increasing importance placed on services, light industry, and development and sustainable exploitation of local renewable resources (89). American Samoa American Samoa is the southernmost U. S.affiliated polity. It lies within the region known as Polynesia and the inhabitants are culturally and racially related to Hawaiians, Tongans, and Maori (New Zealand). Archeological evidence suggests initial settlement of the Samoa islands occurred before 1,000 B. C., probably from eastern Melanesia (53). American Samoa is comprised of a group of seven islands, the largest of which is Tutuila with a land area of 54 square miles and on which the capital city of Pago Pago is located. Ninety percent of the territorys population reside on Tutuila (106). 3 The compact with Palau has not yet been approved. 63-222 0 87-4 QL. 3 Social Organization The social organization of American Samoa was more flexible than that found in Micronesia. The largest social unit was the aiga, and it included all those people who could trace descent from the founder of the group. Descent could be traced through males or females, and any given individual belonged to a number of aiga. The aiga held land in a particular village and each village had one or more matai (titled chiefs). The matai were selected by consensus by the aiga membership. The matai of a village formed its governing council or fono. Individuals could live and work the land of his or her aiga, and since an individual belonged to many aigas a choice had to made as to where he/she would actualize his/her potential rights. Thus, an individual selected to reside on land of one aiga to which he/she belonged and localized extended families formed within the aiga (46). Villages were self-sufficient entities and generally composed of one or more aigas (106). The topography of American Samoa encouraged development of coastal settlements. Steep mountains, the relatively narrow band of flat lands adjacent to the shoreline, and accessibility of fresh stream water predicated the choice of coastal area (106). Samoan subsistence agriculture was similar in many ways to that of the Photo credit: A. Vargo Cultivation methods for steep hillsides were developed early in American Samoas history; many of these techniques are still used today.
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92 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas U.S.-affiliated western Pacific islands; tare, breadfruit, yams, coconut, banana, pineapple, and papaya were cultivated (53). The Samoans also relied heavily on marine resources, and were excellent fishermen and navigators. The large sail-rigged double canoes in use by the Polynesians could hold nearly 100 people (69). Most fish and shellfish were collected in streams, lagoons, and along reefs. Reef fish were typically part of the traditional Sunday Samoan Feast called fiafia (106). However, offshore species such as bonito and tuna were also collected. Implements used for farming and fishing were fashioned from wood, stone, and shell (69). Western Contac t American Samoas contact with the West began with the Dutch arrival in 1722, nearly two centuries after Magellan arrived on Guam. By the 19th century the United States, Great Britain, and Germany had established commercial enterprises within the island group. Conflicts arose between the foreign interests and in 1899 the islands were divided with the United States assuming authority over the eastern Samoa islands (Tutuila, Aunuu, Tau, Ofu, and Olosega). 4 Germany assumed jurisdiction over the islands of Western Samoa which later became independent. The Cession of Tutuila and Aunuu, signed in 1900, allowed for the traditional Samoan land-tenure system to remain in effect with allowances for government accession of land as necessary (106). Initial authority over the islands was held by the Department of the Navy. The Department of the Interior assumed oversight in 1951 and continues today in that capacity. The American Samoa Government operates under a constitution adopted in 1960. The firmly established traditional lifestyle and social structure of American Samoa persevered throughout contact with western nations and continues today. This lifestyle, known as Faa Samoa (The Samoan Way), places considerable value on group dignity and achievements. 4 Swains Atoll, 225 miles north of Tutuila, was annexed by the United States in 1925. The extended family, aiga, remains the keystone of traditional communal lifestyle. Land tenure is based on the communal lands of the aiga and the selected chief, matai, manages the communal economy, and protects and distributes the lands (53,106). Nearly all land in American Samoa is held by indigenous Samoans. Ninety-two percent of the land is held by aigas, 7 percent by the American Samoan Government and churches, and a fraction of the remaining 1 percent is in a freehold status (106). American Samoa has experienced problems similar to those of Micronesia in the shift from subsistence to cash economies, including a drop in local agricultural production. Although nearly 80 percent of American Samoan households practice some form of gardening, Samoans purchase 75 percent of their food requirements (46,53). This shift has been accompanied by increased economic dependence on the United States for imported goods and services (53). The largest employer is the American Samoa Government, followed by the tuna canneries; a range of retail and service enterprises comprise the third major portion of the economy (46). Precontact cultures of the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands share some commonalities with those of the Pacific. The indigenous populations were subsistence economies dependent on the available land and sea resources. The origin of the early inhabitants of Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands still is uncertain. They have been described as seminomadic peoples; primarily hunters and fishermen, establishing their settlements near the islands coastline and mangrove forests, Archeological excavation of settlement sites show no evidence of agricultural practices (61). In 1980, the American Samoa Government budget was nearly $73 million, of which $32 million came from Federal sources (30).
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94 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. insular Areas Subsequent migrants were of Arawak culture 6 with origins in the Orinoco Basin in South America. Archeological sites date their arrival on Puerto Rico in the vicinity of 120 A.D. The early Arawak settlers also were hunters and fishermen. Coastal areas were the original settlement sites, however later settlements were established in the interior of the island. A more complex social organization had developed among the Arawak by the time Puerto Rico was settled by the Spaniards (61). Arawak culture is characterized as peaceful and sedentary; energies were directed towards hunting, agriculture, and fishing. The primary agricultural tool was a primitive hoe, and crops such as cassava and arrowroot were cultivated (61,88). Swidden, or slash and burn, clearing, was employed and root crops commonly were interplanted in mounds of soil (knee high by several feet wide). This method-conuco cultivationprovided soil aeration and maximized the range of arable land (88). Evidence exists that fishing played a significant part in the lives of Indians who inhabited Caribbean islands prior to European settlement, although it is not possible to assess the relative importance of fishing compared to other resource use activities (34). Fish, shellfish, turtles, marine mammals, and waterfowl were harvested from nearshore environments and offshore waters (88). Precontact Indians of Puerto Rico harvested forest products for a variety of uses including construction, canoes, fuel, foods, dyes, and medicines (119). The social organization of the Indian culture included a chieftain (caique) who exercised authority over a higher class (nitainos) and a lower class of workers (naborias). There were regional chieftains as well as a paramount chieftain (61,88). Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands were encountered by Christopher Columbus in 1493. Juan Ponce de Leon claimed Puerto Rico for 6 The term Arawak shall be used in this discussion to refer to the Indian population of the U.S. Caribbean area present after the early inhabitants. This culture has been further divided by many historians to differentiate various tribes of Arawak culture including Taino, Carib, and Borrinqueno. Spain in 1509; the first colony was soon established in Puerto Rico. The island of St. Croix, in what was to become the Danish West Indies, was first colonized in the 1630s by several European nations. Puerto Rico was inhabited by Arawak Indians at the time of colonization, and the population largely was decimated in the colonization process. The Virgin Islands, although populated by indigenes at the time of Columbus arrival, were not inhabited at the time of colonization; the population having been eliminated largely through Spanish efforts during the 16th century (27). Puerto Rico Puerto Ricos forests were modified by the islands earliest inhabitants; however, population pressure was low enough to allow recovery of the exploited areas. Thus, essentially all of Puerto Rico was forested at the time of Spanish arrival (75,88,119). Spains interest in Puerto Rico was enhanced by the discovery of the islands gold resources. Gold was mined efficiently and deposits were essentially depleted by 1540 (61,75). Despite considerable outmigration at the end of the gold mining period, the colony was maintained (75, 97). The colonists that remained turned to an agricultural livelihood. Forest clearing increased with the arrival of the Europeans, largely through efforts to access agricultural lands, although forest products also were harvested for construction and fuel (119). Highly valued Puerto Rican timber species became one of the early exports. Timber exports continued to rise and in 1815 the timber industry accounted for a large part of total exports. Coastal areas provided the bulk of harvested timber, and mangrove species were popular for boat construction. The majority of forest products exported in the 19th century originated in coastal forests. Most wood harvested, up to the early 20th century, was used for fuel or construction; nevertheless, construction wood was being imported as early as the 1700s.
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 95 The small colonial population of Puerto Rico pursued an indigenous path of development until the late 1700s. A self-reliant, diversified agricultural economy evolved, geared toward production for domestic consumption rather than overseas markets. This economy was comprised of a large subsistence sector located primarily in the highlands, and an underdeveloped commercial sector concentrated on the coastal plains (92). The subsistence sector was dominated by independent, small cultivators, who employed slash and burn agriculture to produce a variety of crops (plantains, rice, maize, beans, cassava, root crops) for home consumption and occasional exchange. Few of these peasants (jibaros) actually owned their land, many were squatters (desacomodados) on Crown land, or sharecroppers (agredados) on hacienda land (92). The commercial sector consisted of large cattle ranches, plantations, and farms (haciendas), which produced an assortment of exportable cash crops, including sugarcane, ginger, tobacco, cacao, coffee, and cotton. Additionally tropical fruits, medicinal plants, and woods of high commercial value (satinwood, lignum vitae) were exported (61). While sugarcane, ginger, tobacco, and coffee each dominated the export sector at various times between 1550 and 1800, cattle raising proved to be the most stable agricultural enterprise throughout this period (61,97). Sugarcane and sugar production became the islands major economic activity in the mid-16th century. The emerging sugar industry received royal assistance in the form of loans for mill construction, sugar transport to Spain, and the purchase of slave labor. Labor shortages, transportation problems, and default on loan payments all contributed to the gradual decline of the sugar industry (61). Difficulties encountered by the sugar industry led to increasing cultivation of ginger or livestock raisingprimarily cattle. Despite royal edicts forbidding ginger cultivation and urging return to a sugar economy, ginger became Puerto Ricos main crop. Eventually increased ginger production resulted in market price decrease and production efforts turned to tobacco and cacao (61). Livestock production remained an important part of the colonial economy; it provided for local consumption and hides were produced for export. The Puerto Rican economy experienced little change until the end of the 18th century. Population remained small; external trade was limited to a few commodities. The constricted character of the export sector was reflected in the relatively small slave population, which was just over 5,000 in 1765 (97). Heavy taxes coupled with trade restrictions contributed to the islands limited economy. Spanish colonial officials attempted to accelerate economic development after 1750. Reforms in existing tax laws and production restrictions emerged in 1813. Through a royal decree in 1815 (the Real Cedula de Gracias) the islands agriculture, industry, and commerce were promoted and immigration was encouraged. Uncultivated lands were distributed and some larger estates were divided resulting in an increase in the percentage of smallholders. Trade with friendly nations was liberalized. The sugar industry experienced a resurgence with increased worldwide demand for sugar (61). These government efforts produced modest results prior to 1825; population increased substantially as did export crops. However, as late as 1828 less than 4 percent of the land was under cultivation, and the subsistence sector still dominated the agricultural economy, accounting for 71 percent of all cropland. At least 80 percent of the proprietors engaged in subsistence farming, as did nearly all of the agredados (92). Expansion and transformation of the agricultural economy took place during the last seven decades of Spanish rule. Between 1828 and 1896 the amount of land under cultivation more than tripled, while pastureland doubled. Acreage devoted to export crops increased dramatically, overtaking acreage devoted to subsistence production (92). Progression to a commercial economy based primarily on sugarcane production resulted in
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96 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas creation of larger landholdings, displacing some smallholders who moved into the highlands, and brought new forest areas under cultivation (97). Price fluctuations in the world sugar market during the 19th century caused redirection of agriculture exports to coffee. Although generally cultivated on small landholdings, coffee eventually replaced sugar as the major export crop. Puerto Rico was ceded to the United States at the end of the Spanish-American War in 1898. The U.S. Congress established a civilian government in 1900 and Puerto Ricans were granted U.S. citizenship in 1917. In the 1930s, a program was instituted by the Government of Puerto Rico to provide landless farmers and farmers living within public forestlands small parcels of land on which they could cultivate subsistence crops, firewood, and forest products in exchange for planting and caring for the public forestlands (78). Once the forest areas were successfully planted, the squatters were relocated (118). Establishment of a forest research station was authorized by Congress in 1927 and the Tropical Forest Experiment Station was created in 1939 on the University of Puerto Rico at Rio Piedras. The station was established to provide technical knowledge for forestry programs which largely had been unsuccessful during the previous lo-year period. Reforestation attempts had produced many failures. 7 Agricultural colonization had reduced forest cover to only 9 percent of its original extent by 1950 percent government forests and 5 percent privately owned forests (99). 7 The Tropical Forest Experiment Station was renamed the Institute of Tropical Forestry in 1961. The Institutes main research objective was timber management. Research has been conducted on: utilization of forest products, secondary forests, wildlife management, growth studies, and identification and description of promising tree species, Through Institute efforts, a technical base for forestland planning in Puerto Rico has been established. Various methods for postharvest treatment of timber products have been developed. The station was of regional significance, developing an information distribution network of more than 1,000 participants within 24 years of its inception. The Institute has accumulated a tropical forest library. Short courses, graduatelevel teaching, and research planning assignments have been conducted by the Institute in several Caribbean, and South and Central American countries. The 1900 Organic Act contained a resolution which limited corporate land ownership in Puerto Rico to 500 acres; however, this provision was not effectively enforced until 1941 (17,71). The Puerto Rico Land Authority was created in 1941 by the Land Law (Act No. 26 of 1941) to reorganize the islands land tenure. The laws purpose was to acquire and redistribute lands held in excess of 500 acres. Squatters were relocated on small plots where they could build homes and cultivate a small garden. Family size farms (15 to 20 acres) were established and large proportional benefit farms expropriated from large landholdings were to be managed by the Land Authority with workers sharing in the profits (17,116). The program for relocating squatters was successful and most plots have been subdivided among descendants of the original owners. The proportional benefit farms, however, were inefficiently run and accumulated heavy losses. Most of these lands are now leased to private farmers for sugarcane and rice production (116). In 1978, the Land Authority owned a total of 94,943 acres of land which were devoted to various agricultural endeavors and real estate (111). During World War II, Puerto Rico became important militarily, with naval bases established there (Roosevelt Roads) and on the nearby island of Culebra. The influx of military personnel substantially increased the local demand for fish, spawning the first commercial fishery development in Puerto Rico. The program was initiated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Authority for the program was transferred at the conclusion of World War II to the Puerto Rican Agricultural Development Corporation which emphasized offshore fisheries and conducted experimental operations. The program was terminated in 1947 (34). A major shift in economic development strategy began in 1947, aimed at industrializing the island, diversifying agriculture, and providing full employment for the people (10). Diversification of the Puerto Rican economy was a goal of the program dubbed Operation Bootstrap. Program goals included: 1) development of intensive and balanced use of the islands agri-
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 97 Photo credit: W.C. Lowdermilk Puerto Ricos agricultural sector developed a substantial smallholder component following the creation of the Puerto Rican Land Authority in 1941. cultural resources, 2) improvement of capital and credit availability for agricultural producers and industry, 3) development of efficient marketing systems, and 4) reorientation of fiscal policy to achieve these goals (10). Incentives offered to businesses included tax exemptions, technical assistance, labor training programs, and subsidized rental of government buildings (87). The construction industry prospered and government grew. This, and a large exodus of laborers to the U.S. mainland, removed capital and human resources from agriculture (116). Sugar, coffee, and tobacco contributed 64.3 percent of gross farm income in 1950, and only 14 percent in 1985 (9). Industrial development led to more attractive employment opportunities in industry than in agriculture, lower priority for agricultural programs, and increased abandonment of farm land. The growth of the tourism industry also attracted capital and labor away from agriculture. These two factors contributed to the accelerated urbanization of major Puerto Rican cities. The Puerto Rican electorate approved the islands newly drafted constitution in 1952 and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico became a recognized entity. The Commonwealth is an autonomous government in voluntary associa-
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98 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas Photo credit: William Balmer The pine plantation in the background shows the timber production potential of these sloping, abandoned agricultural lands in the central highlands of Puerto Rico. tion with the United States. Internal conflicts over political status have occurred, with factions divided over the issue of statehood, independence, or continuing as a Commonwealth. U.S. Virgin Islands The present-day U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) were first colonized in the 1630s when settlements on St. Croix were established by the Dutch, English, and French. A period of colonial friction followed these early settlements, with the French finally gaining control in 1650. France retained sovereignty until 1695 when its colony was relocated to Hispaniola. The island of St. Croix remained virtually uninhabited until 1733 when France sold it to the Danish West India Company (DWIC), the exclusive Crown agent for settlement and trade in the West Indies (55). St. Thomas was successfully colonized by the Danes in 1672. The islands represented an opportunity to produce highly valued agricultural commodities to supplement the homeland economy. Early colonial modification of the land included clearing of forests, primarily by slash and burn techniques, for plantation establishment and commercially valuable timber species (72). The early plantations produced a variety of crops, including tobacco, indigo, coffee, cotton, foodstuffs, and sugarcane. Extensive forest clearing for agriculture, as well as introduced predators (e.g., mongoose), probably contributed to extermination of some indigenous fauna (e.g., agouti) (97). At the close of the 17th century, slave labor (of African extraction) became increasingly important as Danish interest increasingly focused on sugarcane production. The population of St. Thomas rose from about 1,000 in 1691 to nearly 4,000 by 1715 and the proportion of slaves increased from roughly 60 to 85 percent. Agricultural terraces (sugarcane and bench) were constructed on the hillsides through the use of slave labor (97). Danish interests expanded in the early part of the 18th century with the DWIC acquisition of St. John in 1717, and again in 1733 when St. Croix was purchased from France. The company focused heavily on sugarcane production and plantation numbers increased dramatically. On St. Croix, nearly all arable land was under cultivation within a decade of its purchase by the DWIC. St. Thomas became a free port in 1724 and the DWICs activitiesboth in colonial staple exports and European importsestablished the island as a major trade center in the Caribbean. Slave trade in particular became a thriving business, attracting buyers from America and other Caribbean plantations (55). However, financial and political difficulties led to DWIC bankruptcy in 1754. The Danish Crown purchased the Danish West Indies and continued control of the islands. During the 18th century, diversified agriculture gave way to sugarcane monoculture, and the sugarcane plantations progressively enlarged their control over island resources. By the end of the 18th century, these plantations comprised 67 percent of all plantations and sugarcane accounted for nearly 80 percent of all cropland. The majority of pastureland was also held by the plantations (97). Sugarcane was cultivated extensively on all three major islands of the Danish West Indies, and at one time or another nearly all of the land was in sugarcane production (72,100).
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The sugarcane plantations flourished until the 1830s. Thereafter, falling prices, rising production costs, scarcity of investment capital and labor problems aggravated by slave emancipation in 1848 combined to debilitate the industry (97). Limitations such as contract wage labor and harsh vagrancy laws were instituted and effectively tied many newly freed slaves to the land (56,97). The postemancipation decline of sugar export in St, Croix was exacerbated by the emergence of intercontinental steamships which could bypass St. Thomas as a fueling station (56). However, the sugar industry struggled on despite declining acreage, primarily by incorporating technological improvements such as steam mills and central factories. Many St. Thomas and St. John plantations progressively were abandoned after emancipation, and their cleared areas were allowed to revert to brush forest. Nonetheless, on St. Thomas extensive deforestation occurred during the middle of the 19th century, as secondary forests were cleared to supply the growing fuel and construction needs of the Port of Charlotte Amalie (97). The structure of the plantation system changed significantly after 1848. The emerging system primarily was one of small-scale, less laborintensive, more diversified agricultural activities (97). Crops such as sea-island cotton, sisal, fruits, coconuts, and foodstuffs were cultivated and livestock (cattle and sheep) production increased. Many large landowners who chose to
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100 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas discontinue agricultural activity nonetheless held onto their properties for speculative purposes (20,97). Thus, while the total number of plantations (units with more than 50 acres) declined only slightly between 1796 and 1915, landuse shifted away from caneland and cropland toward increased pastureland and woodland. During the second half of the 19th century some control over plantation-land resources was relinquished to ex-slave smallholders. The number of smallholdings (plots under 50 acres) rose from 4 in 1796 to 594 in 1915. This process went furthest on St. John, where by 1915 there was a total of 244 smallholdings covering 1,148 acres, or 9 percent of the land area (98). The St. John smallholders practiced a subsistence economy that combined subsistence farming, animal husbandry, fishing, charcoal production, and part-time labor on the plantations (70,98). On St. Thomas most of the smallholders were French immigrants from St. Barthelemy (St. Barts), who settled on the north side of the island during the 1860s and either rented garden plots or entered into sharecropping agreements. Some managed to acquire title to their land by the beginning of the 20th century. Like their counterparts on St. John, their subsistence strategy combined farming with fishing and charcoal production (62). St. Thomas increased its specialization as a point of international commerce and center of regional finance because of its deepwater harbor, free-port status, political neutrality, and strategic location (56). A dual economy developed during this period, with St. Thomas emerging as a trade center and extensive plantation agriculture characterizing St. Croix (56). Prior to the decimation of St. Thomas forests in the latter half of the 19th century, Danish colonial authorities showed little concern over deforestation and its impact on soil productivity or freshwater supplies. The only law touching on this subject required Cruzan planters to leave shade trees, or trees bordering the main roads, untouched (97). A Danish resource survey in 1903 indicated that there was no forest on St. Thomas and St. Croix and little forest of commercial value on St. John. Although fish were an important dietary component, commercial fisheries were slow to develop in the Danish West Indies. More commonly, tropical produce was exchanged for imported saltfisha preference that continues today. There were, however, some local fishing activities. Early 19th century accounts indicate an abundance of marine life near the Virgin Islands (97). Archeological excavations uncovered shellfish middens on plantation sites, indicating that some harvest of clams, conch, and mangrove oysters occurred historically (97). While most fishing was undertaken to satisfy plantation consumption needs, descriptions by local visitors during the slave era indicate that slaves and free fishermen were selling some portion of their catch in fish markets near the urban centers (84). Throughout the colonial period, fishing technology was similar to that of the indigenous islanders. Shellfish and turtles were taken along the shorelines (88). Offshore fishing was done from skiffs and dugouts, Woven fishpots constituted the primary catch technology; however, handlines, nets, seines, and harpoons were also employed (84). Emancipation marked a decline in the number of fishermen employed by the plantations and corresponding expansion of fishing activity by those persons living outside the plantations. Fishing communities were established on St. Thomas by French emigrants from St. Barts. Fishing was a common component of subsistence strategies in the Danish West Indies. The Danish Government exhibited some interest in colonial fishery development in the early 1900s. The first fishery law was passed in 1908; it regulated the right to fish; protected fishpots; and prohibited the taking of juvenile fish, lobsters with eggs, and female turtles in certain seasons (28). Negotiations over the sale of the Danish West Indies to the United States began in 1865 and the islands were finally purchased in 1917. The U.S. Navy assumed initial administrative authority over the newly named Virgin Islands of the United States (USVI). U.S. citizenship
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends 101 was granted to most Virgin Islanders in 1927 and within 2 years universal suffrage was granted (114). The first 40 years of U.S. administration did little to alter the prevailing patterns of land distribution or land use. Agricultural policy encouraged sugarcane cultivation for export and virtually ignored the subsistence sector. Consequently, land resources were consolidated in the hands of a few plantation owners and land speculators, with an associated decline in the amount of land distributed to smallholders (97). Most privately owned plantations began to fail in the late 1920s. This led to the formation of the federally run Virgin Islands Co. (later becoming the Virgin Islands Corp., VICORP), which held nearly all the sugarcane land on St. Croix, and operated the only sugar factory. With its focus on sugar and rum production, VICORP did little to encourage alternative crops or the production of foodstuffs for local consumption (97). Sugar production experienced a slight resurgence with the repeal of U.S. prohibition and concurrently the demand for cane cutters rose, resulting in large-scale immigration from nearby islands (56). Among VICORPs later projects were the development of a small forestry program (118) and the beginnings of the infrastructure necessary to support a tourist industry. Commercial difficulties finally resulted in VICORPs dissolution. A sector of full-time fishermen existed in 1917, but little was done to promote the local fisheries. The Naval Administration requested a survey of the local fisheries in 1932 (28) which included the numbers of local fishermen, technologies employed, and harvest amount. The survey concluded that the fishery was operating at 50 percent capacity and recommended various government supports to foster development. Except for promotion of cooperatives little seems to have been done. A 1950 economic report noted that local fishermen still relied on primitive technologies and marketing, and little had been done to take advantage of marine resources (72). Administration of the islands was transferred to the Department of the Interior in 1931 and a civilian governor was installed. A homesteading program was put into effect. Although many could not afford the initial downpayment, the program met with some success, as evidenced by an increase in small farms (56). Overall, however, activities to promote the viability of a small farmer sector received little attention (97). The self-reliant, subsistence community on St. John declined, many on St. Croix abandoned working their land, and on St. Thomas only the northside agricultural community persevered. The First Organic Act for the Virgin Islands was passed in 1936. St. Thomas became the capital of the USVI (114). A revised Organic Act was passed in 1954 and contained numerous fiscal and economic provisions of benefit to the USVI. The Virgin Islands Tourist Board was established in 1952, evidence of the beginning of tourism-focused development. Between 1950 and 1970, the USVI experienced a massive economic boom based on tourism in St. Thomas and St. John, and heavy industry in St. Croix, The islands became the fastest growing tourist haven in the Caribbean and the site of the largest oil refinery in the Western Hemisphere (Hess Oil in St. Croix) and of Martin Marietta aluminum processing. During this period 42,000 acres were absorbed by increasing tourist, residential, and industrial development (56), This period coincided with the phase-out of commercial sugar production, intense resource competition from the tourism sector, construction and government employment, and export manufacturing. To accommodate rising population densities and immigration from surrounding West Indian islands, the territory experienced a widespread pattern of suburbanization (55). Tourism has been actively promoted since the 1960s and is currently the most significant economic activity. As a result, the current economy is primarily based on tourism and related enterprises (110). Presently tourism accounts for approximately 40 percent of the gross ter-
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102 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ritorial product and employment while local government absorbs another one-third of territorial activity (56). Historically, the majority of desirable land has not been available for small scale subsistence agriculture. Initially, the majority of highest quality land was in large plantations while currently, with the emergence of the tourism industry, increased real estate prices have made much of the land inaccessible (97). REPRESENTATIVE RESOURCE PROBLEMS OF THE U.S.-AFFILIATED TROPICAL ISLANDS introduction The renewable resources of U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean supply their inhabitants with many important goods and services as they did in the past. Yet, human activities have jeopardized the renewability of some of these island resources. Despite their differing histories and cultures, these islands share some common resource problems, including that of resource overexploitation. Another major problem is related to impacts of human activities when a particular resource is developed or exploited. Such problems and their underlying causes commonly are more apparent on small islands than they are on large continental areas. Certain naturally occurring hazards, although not unique to islands, often represent a significant problem. The relatively small size of islands often makes them less able to absorb the impact of a natural disaster than a large continental area. Agricultural or fishery capacity may be reduced temporarily, resulting in increased dependence on imports. Cyclonic storms, associated flooding, and landslides occur on many of the islands. In American Samoa, for example, flooding is ranked as a major problem. The majority of development has occurred in the narrow flatlands which lie between the steep volcanic mountains and the shore. The watersheds typically are comprised of steep valleys flanked by sharp ridges with underlying permeable rocks. Although the watershed is heavily vegetated, landslides still occur, posing a clear hazard for villages located in the coastal valleys. Episodic catastrophes have been related to tidal phenomena. Rainstorms coinciding with spring low tides killed up to 92 percent of reef invertebrates at Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands (47). Other natural stresses are less common in the Pacific. Active volcanoes are limited to the Northern Mariana Islands, where eruptions may severely disrupt intertidal and shallow-water habitats (24). Many of the U.S.-affiliated islands are in or near seismically active areas and occasionally experience earthquakes (106,107,108,109,110,111). Shoreline erosion is another naturally occurring problem. Well-de-
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends 103 veloped coral reef, seagrass meadows, and littoral vegetation systems provide some protection; however, where these systems have been removed or degraded, natural protection is limited or nonexistent. Terrestrial Resource Damage and Depletion Damage to the terrestrial resource base largely has been a function of human activity. Resource depletion is apparent in many of the islands early colonial histories and continues today, further reducing the islands productive capacity. Loss of forest area on many islands has adversely affected groundwater resources, wildlife habitat, soil fertility, and has exacerbated soil erosion. Habitat loss, introduced competitors and predators, introduced disease, and overexploitation all have contributed to depletion of many island wildlife populations. Island freshwater resources are inherently limited and on many islands these resources are threatened by such factors as infiltration of agricultural chemicals and industrial wastes into the aquifer. Further, distribution of existing freshwater resources to inhabitants poses a problem in some island areas. Hazardous waste from military activities remains a problem on some Pacific islands. Islands in both the Pacific and Caribbean still are used as impact areas for military weapons, Flora and Fauna Resources Past, poor landuse practices have degraded forest resources in the U.S. Pacific and Caribbean tropical territories and have resulted in significant amounts of degraded and abandoned land and relatively unproductive secondary forest. Island fauna similarly have been threatened by such landuse practices. Related resources (e. g., water supplies and coastal marine resources) in many places are threatened by forest loss. Reliable information on the original extent of forests of the Western Pacific islands does not exist but forests probably covered most of the islands. The Caribbean islands were forest covered at the time of European contact. Forests.On many islands, deforestation has resulted in turbid, erratic, and seasonally disappearing streams (99). For example, older inhabitants of northern Babelthaup (Palau) remember when the streams ran year long. Now, the forest cover has been destroyed through repeated burning and the streams flow only when it rains, at which time they often are muddy and flow very fast (99). At one time Guam was entirely forest-covered, but human disturbances, frequent typhoons, and the adverse impacts during and after World War II have left little undisturbed forest on the southern part of the island. Only scattered patches remain in largely inaccessible areas in ravines and on steep slopes. Savannas on the southern part of the island are believed to be mostly the result of repeated burning. Some of the open land is barren and actively eroding. Accelerated clearing and burning of forests on old volcanic soils in recent centuries have created a secondary forest in some areas and much secondary savanna. Erosion and soil deterioration have been accelerated in some areas by frequent burning, making natural forest regeneration a slow process (99). Fire is the biggest technical problem to overcome in rehabilitating grasslands. Fires sweep through grasses to the edge of the forest, destroying forest along the margin. The Guam Division of Forestry estimates as much as 80 percent of the fires on Guam are caused by arson (38). Most abandoned agricultural land revegetates naturally to savanna or to secondary forest. Little of the secondary forest is suitable for immediate commercial timber exploitation due to poor quality and low volume of commercial tree species (99). Nearly two-thirds of American Samoas rainforest has been damaged or destroyed by mans activities, leaving undisturbed forests only on steep slopes (106). Man has influenced the vegetation of the Marianas for at least 3,500 years. Observations in Puerto Rico indicate that the forest area is increasing slightly or has stabilized (99). Vegetation removal during construction activities and the exposure of loosened soil to
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104 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas heavy rainfall also leads to soil erosion. For example, the largest part of the erosion problem in the Virgin Islands is attributable to the clearing of large tracts of land, construction of homes and roads on steep slopes, and the filling or destruction of natural water courses (117). After heavy rains on St. Croix, it is common to see a red-brown plume of sediment discoloring the sea at the mouths of streams situated below construction sites (110). Similar sediment discharge may be observed in Puerto Rico (63). A critical problem in American Samoa is the erosion of soils. The sediment is carried to the nearshore waters where it adversely affects water quality as well as marine populations such as corals (106). Protected Species. Several species of island flora and fauna are on the verge of extinction or have not been seen in years and thus are presumed to be extinct. This problem is critical on Guam where recovery programs concentrating on birds are carried out in conjunction with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) (39). Guams avian population has declined rapidly since World War II. The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has identified several causes for this decline including, loss of habitat, pesticides, avian disease, and predation. Predation, particularly by the brown tree snake, appears to be a primary factor. Research on the brown tree snake indicates a correlation between expansion of the snakes range and decline of avian populations (38). The Philadelphia Zoo, National Zoo, and zoos in Denver, New York, and San Antonio have begun a bird lift and breeding programs to save several endangered avian species (39). Cur-
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rently, seven species of Guamanian birds are listed under the Federal Endangered Species Act, An avifauna survey was recently completed by USFWS on Pohnpei and other high islands of Micronesia (26,31). USFWS, the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), and Yap Institute of Natural Science (YINS) have conducted two censuses of the Mariana fruit bat (Pteropus mariannus mariannus) population on Yap. Yap banned the hunting and exportation of fruit bats in the early 1980s because of the decrease of the bat population due to its export to Guam. Fruit bat populations on Guam were severely reduced during the 1960s; among the causes were: increased exploitation, loss of habitat, economic importance of the species, and lack of adequate protection (38). The Mariana fruit bat and the Little Mariana fruit bat (Pteropus tokudae 8 ) currently are protected under the Federal Endangered Species Act. The Yapese ban on hunting and exportation of fruit bats still is in effect and the fruit bat population is recovering (39). A high incidence of seabird mortality at Midway is due to air strikes with planes and collisions with radio antennae. The seabird population at Wake Island was severely decimated during the Japanese occupation. During this period the Wake rail became extinct. A potentially rare plant species, Lepidium wahiense, from Wake has been proposed for listing by USFWS as an endangered species. The monk seal has been adversely affected by human pres8 The Little Mariana fruit bat (Pteropus tokudae), endemic to Guam, is believed to have become extinct recently [122).
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106 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ence and populations have declined at Midway and other islands of the Leeward chain (53). Introduced Species. Certain introduced species have had unexpected negative impacts on island renewable resources. Harmful insects and plant diseases have been introduced in the Pacific islands over the last 10 to 15 years as travel to and from the islands has become easier. Two of the most harmful introductions have been the Rhinoceros beetle and the Giant African snail which now populate many islands. The Giant African snail inhibits nursery production for horticulture and forestry. The Rhinoceros beetle causes extensive damage to coconut palms in several island groups (99), but does not exist in the Marshall Islands (76), Yap, Truk, Pohnpei, Kosrae, or on atolls (26). A recent introduction that threatens some young Leucaena forests on Saipan, Guam, Palau, and Yap is the insect Psyllid (39). This insect seems to be controlled on Yap by the native bird, the bridled white eye (26). On some atolls, rats significantly damage young coconuts; control efforts have included trapping, poisoning, and bringing in additional cats to the affected islands (76). Tilapia is an exotic species of fish that was introduced into the wild in Puerto Rico. The introduced Oreochromis mossambica is now considered a pest because it is viewed by the consumer as inferior quality human food and as such has created consumer resistance to the consumption of the cultured species Tilapia nilotica (34). Some introduced animals have become public health problems in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Foremost among these pests are snails and toads which, in extreme cases, have been linked to some human deaths. Rats, birds, and fish are known to carry human and animal parasites (23]. The Giant African snail (A. fulica) hosts organisms which cause human diseases. For example, the rat lungworm (Angiostrongylus cantonensis), which parasitizes the African snail, has been recognized as the cause of cerebral angiostrongylosis in humans. The parasite is most commonly found in A. fulica; however, it has also been found in some rats, land crabs, coconut crabs, and freshwater prawns. Infection is acquired by ingesting raw or improperly cooked meat containing the parasite. The African snail also carries the gram-negative bacterium Aeromonas hydrophila (60). Toads (Bufo marinus) are another introduced nuisance and have poisonous parotid glands behind the head which secrete toxins. The toad has caused numerous cat and dog deaths and human deaths have also been recorded (96). Circumstantial evidence indicates that increased salmonella outbreaks occur in areas of large toad populations. The high incidence of polluted drinking water and dysentery in American Samoa may be connected to the high densities of toads in areas of human habitation (4). Freshwater Resources A major health concern on islands is water quality. Islands commonly have a limited supply of freshwater and experience an increase in health problems when water sources are degraded or contaminated. Water quality may be affected by many factors, including infiltration of agricultural chemicals and industrial wastes into aquifers, and insufficient treatment and inadequate disposal of sewage. Islands with extremely porous soils generally are more likely to experience infiltration of undesirable agents, such as chemicals or sewage, into the aquifer. As human populations have increased on many islands, the demand for increased freshwater supplies has grown. Until relatively recently, the quality of surface water and groundwater in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands was excellent. However, unregulated pumping of water from aquifers underlying the coastal lowlands has led to saltwater intrusion into some parts of the aquifers. The resulting saltwater or brackish water in the wells renders these parts of the aquifer unfit for human consumption, agriculture, and many industrial uses (64,73). In the U.S. Virgin Islands, every structure must have its own rooftop water-collection system feeding into a cistern. In addition, extensive paved catchments exist on some hillsides leading to large cisterns that feed public water
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 107 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment This rooftop water catchment system in Majuro (Marshalls) serves as a supplementary freshwater source. However, few such rainwater collection systems exist in the U. S.affiliated Pacific islands, but are commonplace in the Caribbean. mains. Rapid population growth, however, has exceeded the capacity of the public catchments and cisterns and as a consequence, desalination plants have been built to increase freshwater resources (73). In the recent past, St. Thomas Island had to import water by barge from Puerto Rico to supplement local water supplies. Nearly all of Guam is served by a piped water system. Groundwater resources from the northern half of the island supply as much as 70 percent of the islands potable water. Since 1983 Guam has implemented a comprehensive groundwater management program designed to protect groundwater quality and direct groundwater extraction to avoid salinization. American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), and Palau are in varying stages of developing similar programs. Salinization is a particularly important problem in the CNMI which relies on groundwater supplies for 90 percent of its potable water. Catchments are used to supplement groundwater in areas where salinization or undependable water service is a problem. Many areas in the former TTPI (FSM, RMI, and Palau) do not have sufficient infrastructure for comprehensive groundwater management (49), Puerto Ricos principal water-supply problem is the deterioration in service from irrigation districts serving 40,000 acres. Deliveries from the four districts have fallen below half of their pre-1920 design capacity of 4 inches per month to the serviced land. The decline continues because of archaic operating rules that were designed originally to service a sugarcane monoculture no longer in existance; and because of reduced irrigation demand, and continuing reservoir sedimentation. Declining surface water availability has led many farmers to rely exclusively on groundwater. Because deliveries from irrigation district reservoirs constitute the single most important source of groundwater recharge, this trend of changing irrigation water use eventually will cause an unfavorable balance and the intrusion of seawater into the freshwater aquifer (64). No action has been taken yet to manage the surface water system to ensure that adequate amounts of recharge are provided (64). The irrigation practices still in use on a majority of the farms are wasteful, inefficient and costly (73). Increased population levels or overcrowding may also cause water quality degradation. Treatment systems, sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), have been or are being constructed in population centers in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands (49). However, in some areas sewage systems are still under construction, or facilities still need to be extended to all structures (49,53). Overcrowded conditions on Moen, and to a lesser extent on Tel, Dublon, Fefan, and Uman (Truk) have led to unsanitary wastewater disposal practices. Although a sewage treatment plant and outfall on Moen have been in operation for many years, hookups with residences are few (53). Through a series of EPA projects (Rural Sanitation Programs) remote areas are now being provided with basic wastewater and water supply facilities (49). Coastal Resource Damage Sand, a renewable resource of beaches, in certain cases has undergone extreme depletion through mining. Some of the calcium carbonate beach sands of St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Is-
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108 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Hillside mining for construction materials is an alternative to beach sand mining, however, the associated adverse environmental impacts to terrestrial and marine ecosystems may rival those caused by beach sand mining. lands came under heavy mining for construction purposes in the early 1960s. The sand was mined for government and private use, leading to nearly complete stripping of some beaches. As more seaside hotels were built it became evident that maintaining beaches was more valuable than using the beach sand for construction. Subsequently, dredged sand replaced beach sand for construction (114). Mining or collecting beach sand for personal use has been a practice among Samoans for centuries. Now, however, some beaches are being depleted for commercial construction purposes. On Truk, removal of beach sand for construction fill has led to some shoreline erosion (53). Beach sand mining is a problem in most Pacific areas (49). Hazardous Waste Johnston Island has served as a temporary repository for chemical defoliants and chemical munitions since the early 1970s. Agent Orange was stockpiled at Johnston after the U.S. involvement in Vietnam and finally was incinerated at sea away from Johnston in 1976. During years of storage, however, some drums leaked into the ground. The extent of contamination has been analyzed and remedial actions have begun (82). Some chemical munitions deteriorated and started to leak as well. This led the Army to embark on a program to incinerate and destroy the chemical munitions in an explosive-proof facility to be constructed on Johnston (53). U.S. nuclear testing took place on Bikini Atoll between 1946 and 1954 and weapons testing took place on Enewetak between 1948 and 1958. Blast effects and contamination from radioactive materials severely damaged or destroyed parts of these atolls. Today, plans suggest that the radioactive soil from Bikini may be removed and deposited on another atoll, in a lagoon crater, or used for landfill along the shoreline. Agriculture will not be allowed on Bikini for obvious health and safety reasons (53). Enewetak underwent a similar cleanup during 1976 to 1978. Low-level radioactivity still was present in the soil of several large islands in the atoll after the cleanup. Recent radiological tests indicate that coconuts from trees replanted in the northern islands are not fit to eat due to excessive levels of radiation (53). American and Japanese military ordnance from the World War II era still litter some Pacific islands. Unexploded bombs and shells still are found on parts of Guam, Saipan, the Marshalls (31), Truk, and Peleliu (Palau). The presence of such explosives inhibits the use of certain lands and provides a lingering hazard to island residents. Recovery of corals in previously blasted or bombed holes that resulted from air raids on Moen (Truk) seems relatively minor (53). Some U.S.-affiliated islands are still used as impact areas for military weapons. Parts of the island of Vieques just east of Puerto Rico serves as a bombing and gunnery range for the U.S. Navy. In order to offset the negative environmental impacts, the U.S. Navy has recently reforested 100 acres of abandoned/eroded pastureland on Vieques. The U.S. Navy and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (Memorandum of Understanding) cooperatively fund projects to enhance employment prospects and create long-term benefits for the inhabitants of Vieques (77). Farallon de Medinilla, a small raised limestone island north of Saipan, is used as a bombing and gunnery target by U.S. Pacific na-
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 109 val forces and by the U.S. Air Force tactical air squadron on Guam. Exercises on this island are said to be sporadic (48,53). Marine Resource Damage and Depletion Degradation of the marine resource bases of the U.S.-affiliated islands follows a pattern similar to that of the terrestrial resources. Many human activities, on-island and at sea, have adversely affected the marine resource base of many islands, Some on-island development activities have had adverse impacts on nearshore marine life. Destructive fishing practices and overharvesting of certain marine species has adversely impacted the marine resource base. Despite such damage, however, the marine resource base continues to provide essential products to island inhabitants. Nearshore Fisheries Because of past over-optimism as to the commercial potential of nearshore fishing resources, a rather consistent scenario of fisheries development and depletion seems to be emerging. The scenario is in various stages of realization throughout the U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caribbean islands. Urban center populations grow with rural or outer island migrations (101,102, 103,104,105). As urbanization continues, the reef resources are over-harvested in an ever widening area emanating from the urban center (34,65). The number of fishermen in Puerto Rico increased from 1,230 to 1,872 between 1976 and 1982 while the number of fishing vessels increased from 865 to 1,449 (8,43). This development pattern has had a striking impact on Puerto Ricos nearshore resources. Because of rising fuel costs, larger offshore boats have tended to fish closer to shore. In 1974, the waters of Puerto Rico were characterized as very nearly overfished and heavily exploited (43,44). The increase in total effort expended within the fishery was accompanied by a nearly 50 percent decline in catch per unit of effort; a classic indication of overfishing (8). Increases in local population and tourist trade in the USVI has been accompanied by increased demand for fish, conch, lobsters, and other seafoods. Adult fish of the shallow coastal waters have become increasingly scarce resulting in the decreased effectiveness of fish pots as a harvest mechanism. In easily accessible sites, conchs and lobsters are heavily depleted (114). The USVI Government has deployed artificial reefs constructed of old automobile tires in an effort to increase shallow-water fish habitat and thereby enhance fishery potential (34). Destructive Practices. The history of coral and mollusk fisheries is one of progressive exploitation leading to chronic depletions (36,37, 51,85,86,121). Conchs and black corals are heavily overfished throughout the Caribbean, including populations among the U.S.-affiliated islands (51,112,120). Pearl oysters have been important items of commerce for centuries in certain parts of the Pacific. The pearl shell industry had a major impact on some islands as a result of the activities of the foreign traders and fishermen drawn to exploit the stocks of the Golden Lipped and the smaller Black Lipped pearl shell (69). As stocks of pearl oysters were depleted, the top shell, Trochus niloticus, came to be used as a source for buttons and other similar items (66,69). Trochus recovered after World War II from its pre-war depletion. However, populations began to decline from over-exploitation again by the mid-1950s, leading to establishment of reef sanctuaries in which no harvest was permitted (53,59,91). Despite closed seasons, however, trochus populations remain low from overharvesting in Pohnpei and Truk (31). Fishing with explosives was contrived by islanders during World War II with the readily available supply of military ordnance (7). This type of fishing still is widespread throughout the South Pacific. Destructive fishing methods such as dynamiting pose a severe problem in Truk lagoon (31). The availability of unexploded ordnance on many of the Japanese sunken ships near some islands and the illegal acquisition of dynamite from local construction activities are factors which may foster this
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110 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas activity. This technique is without question responsible for considerable destruction of reef corals and reef fish habitat (53). Chlorine bleach and water purification powder have been and are being used by some islanders to kill reef fish and bring them to the surface where they can be collected for sale or for the fishermans consumption. Bleach sometimes is used on Yap for such purposes (41). The bleach has such severe negative impacts on fish, corals, seagrass beds, and algae that some populations are permanently reduced (7). The exploitation of nearshore resources by subsistence fisheries of American Samoa is heavy in places and occasionally destructive methods using dynamite and chlorine bleach are employed. As human populations continue to rise, increased fishing pressure and overfishing of preferred species, especially in reef and lagoon waters, are major emerging problems in Pohnpei, Kosrae, Truk, and Yap (31). Tourism has certain inadvertent but direct negative impacts on marine resources. One study shows that the trampling effect of corals by humans is significant. At one site, 18 traverses by individuals reduced living coral from 41 to 8 percent (117). Certain fragile species like Acropora suffered the greatest damage. Shells, used extensively in handicrafts in American Samoa, the eastern Carolines, and the Marshall Islands, have become increasingly scarce. Supplies of shell and coral are being adversely affected not only by the handicraft industry but also by builders and divers (117). Protected Species. Natural stocks of giant clam F, Tridacnidae have been seriously depleted in their natural range. Tridacna gigas populations are believed to be extirpated from marine habitats of many of the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Two varieties of giant clam, Tridacna gigas and Tridacna derasa, have been placed on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) endangered species list (95). Currently, the harvesting of corals and other sessile or sedentary animals is restricted in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands by various Federal and Commonwealth statutes. Exceptions are made for small-scale collections for scientific, educational, or personal use (29,120). Despite this level of protection, the poaching of corals for the tourist and aquarium trade is ubiquitous throughout the Caribbean region, and seems unlikely to diminish. Mollusks are not protected, with the exception of conchs and species living within the Federal waters and parks (112). The two most common marine turtles among U.S. insular areas of the Pacificthe green turtle and the hawksbill turtlehave been declared threatened and endangered respectively and are protected under provisions of the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Harvest of these turtles is prohibited in Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and American Samoa. Despite protected status, hawksbill turtles are killed in some islands, as evidenced by the large number of well-crafted tortoise shell combs, earrings, and bracelets on the market. Residents of some U.S.-affiliated islands are permitted to harvest marine turtles on a subsistence and traditional basis as a protein resource (91). Four species of sea turtle occur commonly in the Caribbean: hawksbill, green, leatherback, and loggerhead. All are variously protected from harvesting or molestation by living within Federal waters or by their status as endangered or threatened species (112,113). Moreover, strict import controls apply to the mere possession of turtle products in the United States. Nevertheless, turtles have been hunted intensely in the Caribbean and continue to be poached and sold, even among U.S. islands, for food and fine jewelry (29,112). Turtles are easily caught in nets, by hand, or on the beach while laying eggs. The general availability of outboard motorboats and synthetic netting exacerbates the problem, and the economic value of turtles ensures that low-level poaching likely will continue (120). In December 1985, a 400-ton ferryboat ran aground on Mona Island Reef off the coast of Puerto Rico, a reef that is a marine preserve and habitat for several protected turtle species and marine birds. The ship was still aground
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 111 on the reef as of March 1986, breaking up, leaking oil, and crushing the coral (21). Degradation of Nearshore Resources Large-scale destruction of coral reef communities from sedimentation is well documented (25,30). Dredging and filling operations in the nearshore environment are significant contributors to marine resource destruction. Dredging and filling associated with the military buildup in Guam before, during, and after World War II resulted in considerable adverse impacts to reefs in Apra Harbor and other coastal resources; battle activities added to these problems. Centuries of slash-and-burn agriculture and intentionally set savanna range-fires have aggravated soil erosion and contributed sediment to riverine, estuarine, and reef systems (53). Since 1980, excessive dredging and filling related to an airfield-port construction at Okaht on Kosrae has caused major sedimentation damage to coral reefs and seagrass beds. The fishery catch has declined in Okahts coastal habitats. On Pohnpei, considerable mangrove, lagoon, reef, and perhaps seagrass habitat has been destroyed or degraded by recent dredge and fill operations (26). Sedimentation from upland construction also has contributed to reef degradation, Part of the reef itself has been used as a source of fill material, Some of the shoreline filling is to accommodate immigrants from outer islands because of unavailability of land. Yap has no exposed limestones or other suitPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment Dredge and fill operations often take heavy tolls on nearshore marine ecosystems: heavy machinery may break up the coral reef, associated sedimentation may smother bottom communities, and loss of habitat can adversely affect nearshore fishery potential.
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112 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas able rock available for fill, roadwork, and other construction activities and, therefore, most material must be dredged from lagoon reefs. Perhaps the single most significant impact to coral reefs in American Samoa resulted when the commercial airfield was extended out into Pala Lagoon, resulting in severe restriction in tidal circulation, and dredging and quarrying on once important reefs. In addition, the Government relied on filling of reef lagoons in inner Pago Pago Harbor to expand its landholdings (53). Dredging and shoreline modification associated with tourist developments are a major threat to nearshore resources in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Coral reefs in Puerto Rico are seriously threatened by human development activities including dredging, land erosion, oil spills, industrial and thermal pollution, and direct harvest for curios (43). Alteration of the coral reef ecosystem may produce adverse changes that are essentially irreversible (34). St. Croix Island has not escaped dredging impacts. Prior to 1968, release of dredging spoil to Christiansted Harbor damaged coral communities on nearby reefs. From 1968 at least to 1974, no new dredging permits were issued in the U.S. Virgin Islands largely because of negative public opinion about damage to the marine environment. The retail price of one cubic yard of sand in 1968 was $3.50 but the price has now reached $50.00. Thus, strong economic incentives exist to resume dredging (68). Waste Management.Damage of nearshore resources from dumping solid wastes, sewage releases, thermal pollution, and oil spills are common on the islands just as they are in the continental United States. Solid waste management is a serious emerging problem in Pohnpei and the FSM in general and is cited as a serious problem on Majuro in the Marshall Islands. There seems to be little planning to designate sites and landfill operations, and rubbish and solid waste is dumped indiscriminately, commonly at the shoreline environment (53). Guam has recently instituted a litter control program which sets fines for littering; the funds will be used to clean up open dumps (49). Sewage, oil, and cannery waste pollution has long been a serious problem in Pago Pago Harbor in American Samoa. Sewage treatment plants at Utulei and elsewhere have largely eliminated degradation from domestic wastes. Oil handling and storage facilities also have been improved although the unauthorized dumping of bilge waters into the bay continues to be a problem. Presently, no pumpout facilities exist for ships and yachts calling at the bay (53). Pala Lagoon on Tutuila has high fecal coliform concentrations presenting a public health hazard. The construction of the airport runway over the opening of the lagoon to the ocean has reduced water exchange with the ocean. This problem is exacerbated by stream runoff, which is high in nutrients and sewage tank overflows (106). A sewage collection system with associated individual dwelling service is currently under construction there to mitigate the adverse environmental impacts (49). Traditional discharge of raw sewage into nearshore waters still occurs in some areas, resulting in severe water degradation. Similar problems exist in the Caribbean area. Solid waste on St. Croix was pushed into the sea at a site near their airport until 1974. This practice has ceased but the old dump remains a source of nearshore water pollution. A chance exists that wave action from a tropical storm could spread the debris widely. Overflow from the tailings ponds of a bauxite processing plant reached the sea in the past during periods of heavy rainfall. Waste heat and brine are carried into the sea from water used for cooling purposes. Oil Spill Hazards. Oil spills and oil discharges by ships adversely affect nearshore resources in many parts of the world. An oil spill damaged a section of mangrove on Guam (91); another in 1971 affected Sandy Point on St. Croix. In addition, oil and tar from tankers floats in from the open ocean to the beaches of Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands (22,81), Globs of tar floating on the sea in the Carib-
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 113 bean and off Florida mistakenly have been isting laws (e.g., Clean Water Act) is difficult taken for food by hawksbill turtles. Dead and because of the need to observe the incident or dying tar-laden turtles are reported on the reprove guilt through relatively complex procegions beaches (22). Oil spills also are problemdures (49). atic throughout the Pacific. Enforcement of exTHE ISLAND SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT Introduction Sustainable renewable resource management depends not only on the capability of ecological resources, but also on the availability of skilled labor and desire to engage in resource management and development activities. Human resources are critical to renewable resource management, Indispensable human components include: laborers with special skills; farmers, foresters, fishermen, and aquaculturists with entrepreneurial abilities and a knowledge of modern-technology; technicians who combine scientific training with practical experience; and strong resource management leadership with a sense of mission and background not only in natural sciences but also in cultural and economic areas. All of the U.S.-affiliated islands have rapidly growing populations and many have high rates of out-migration to the U.S. mainland and immigration of mainlanders and foreign nationals. This has led to heterogeneous island populations with a multiplicity of ethnic groups and cultures. These groups may have different aspirations, different demands for products, different attitudes towards and values for resources, and different techniques for resource use. The level of development of the U.S.-affiliated islands is considerably behind that of the United States, with Puerto Rico being the most developed of the islands. While gross domestic product (GDP) and per capita incomes are low compared to U.S. levels, they are generally high compared to regional levels. The public sectors are large in comparison to private sectors on most islands, reflecting a common preference for the security, prestige, and fringe benefits of local government employment. Most private sector development has occurred in service industries; however, industrialization has grown in Puerto Rico and tourism and related enterprises have grown in the U.S. Virgin Islands. On most islands, agriculture and fisheries have nonetheless declined. Many island residents are multi-occupational: they engage in several occupations, part-time or seasonally. Similarly, island institutions tend to be multidisciplinary and general in approach (81]. The common recommendations of economic development plans have aimed at establishing more self-reliant economies primarily by expanding agriculture, fisheries, and tourism (and to a lesser extent light industry), although the order of preference may vary among island areas. The prospects for industrial development in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are almost nonexistent because of small size of domestic economies, high wage levels, the lack of natural resources, and proximity to major Asian competitors. The limited nature of economic development opportunities is illustrated in Palau where, as recently as the late 1950s, the most valuable export was scrap metal, mainly relics of World War II (14). Import substitution has become increasingly important in light of rising transport costs and desire to encourage private sector development. A number of plans also have called for a reduction in government employment and expenditure to allow the productive components of the economies to catch up with consumption and to reduce the trade gap (11). Pacific The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are characterized by high population growth rates, in-
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114 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas creasing emigration to the U.S. mainland and to other Pacific islands, and growing numbers of alien immigrants. The latter group have, to a certain extent, been encouraged to enter islands such as American Samoa and Guam to fill jobs for which local residents lack the necessary skills or which they are unwilling to accept. A combination of these factors has led to the development of bimodal societies, or trimodal societiesin which a significant subsistence sector still exists. The private commercial sector on most of these islands is small or nonexistent. The private sectors that have developed have been oriented primarily to services supporting the public sector and public sector employees; the productive components of the economies agriculture, fisheries, and manufacturing have declined, or failed to develop. For example, government employment and service industries (general merchandising, transportation, food services, and construction) account for at least 90 percent of formal employment in the Federated States of Micronesia while the labor force employed in direct production accounts for only 1.3 percent (11). In the absence of a significant productive component to their economies, the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands have become highly dependent on U.S. expenditure to contribute to local economies. For example, Palaus GDP was estimated to be $20 million in 1979, of which $9 million was contributed by the United States in public sector support payments (14). Only 9 percent of the Trust Territory funds for 1980 were derived from tax revenues while U.S. grant and Federal program funds contributed 87 percent (11). Unemployment is highestimates range from 16 (Palau) to 22 percent (Majuro)but accurate data on unemployment levels or trends are unavailable, especially for rural areas. The skills required to develop the productive sectors of the economies are being lost at a rapid rate, and few young islanders are seeking education or employment in agriculture or fisheries. Rapid population growth in some places has accelerated the move away from local food production. The increased population pressure on limited resources may eventually preclude self-sufficiency and necessitate emigration or family planning (11). This situation has already been reached by most of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Wages also are sharply bimodal. Wages in the public sector tend to be considerably higher than those available through the private sector. For example, the minimum wage in Palau in 1982 was $1.94 per hour. In the private sector, for which there is no legal minimum wage, some wages were as low as 40 cents per hour (14). This incentive to obtain government employment results in further withdrawal from local production. An associated effect is demand for educational opportunities which may not transfer into employment opportunities, resulting in increased unemployment (11). Caribbean Nearly 3.4 million people reside in Puerto Rico (3,417 square miles) and 107,500 reside in the U.S. Virgin Islands [132 square miles), representing some of the worlds highest population densities. As a result of improved health care, family planning programs, and general economic affluence, birth rates in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have declined in the past three decades while death rates have dropped or remained stable (73). The cultural heritage of the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands is largely influenced by prior colonial presence as well as cultural influences from other European, African, and Caribbean nations. This mixing results in a largely heterogeneous society with varying cultural ties (79). Further, the close relationship with the mainland United States strongly affects these island cultures. The United States is the primary commercial partner of the Caribbean islands. The United States purchase of major U.S. Virgin Islands exports (i.e., tourism, petroleum, rum, and light industrials) and supply of consumptive goods comprises a large part of island trade 9 (57). The 9 During the period of 1970 to 1979, U.S. Virgin Islands exports to the United States averaged 89 percent of total exports, U.S. citizens reached above 85 percent of total tourists and U.S. goods comprised 72 percent of U.S. Virgin Islands imports (56).
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends 115 United States investment in the Puerto Rican economy totaled some $15 billion in 1982 (90). North American capital controlled the highest percentage of assets in manufacturing, retail sales, exported industrial production, marine and air transport, labor force, housing construction, and banking and finance 10 [90), Thus, the economies of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are closely tied with the United States and react to U.S. economic changes. Similarly, associated employment sectors react to economic trends within the United States. Traditional Cultures and Economic Development Pacific Many U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are shifting from a traditional subsistence economy towards a modern cash economy; in Pohnpei, 70 percent of wages are earned by only 2,120 government employees (no more than 10 percent of the population). Obviously, many people make a living outside the cash economy. In a properly functioning subsistence economy, production equals demand and the agent of both is the family. Family needs in such an economy can be met with about 3 or 4 labor hours per day (89). Cash is neither plentiful nor needed, and consumer goods on the island are limited (although the number, price, and quality of products have increased in recent years). On Pacific high islands, most family needs for food and shelter can be obtained from the land and surrounding ocean, and available resources seem to be underused. Most farmers produce just enough products to sell to meet their immediate cash needs. Farmers have little incentive to increase cash crop production, such as Pohnpei pepper, even though both land and labor may be available. Pepper has gone unharvested when farmers have not needed or wanted to convert the crop into cash. In most traditional Pacific cultures, the concept of borrowing displaces that of saving. ---. 10 Percent assets controlled: manufacturing percent, retail sales percent, labor force percent, housing construction percent, banking and finance percent, exported industrial production percent, most means of mass communication, and virtually all marine and air transport (90). Those who have are supposed to share with those who have less, particularly within family and clan. One who accumulates savings may have to deal with frequent requests from family and friends and contribute to the lifestyle of less industrious individuals with little likelihood of repayment in cash. This removes personal incentive to earn more than one immediately needs and may be a major deterrent to development (32). As traditional economies have shifted toward cash economies, the lack of a dependable labor force (in terms of cash economies) has inhibited economic development. Tropical climate characteristics generally prevent agriculture workers from putting in an 8 hour day; more commonly, 4 or 5 hours constitute a days work. Acquisition of temporary jobs for an immediate monetary goal is common. This complicates training and supervision, and results in lower than expected productivity. Per capita income is high compared to regional levels, resulting in reluctance on the part of the workingage population to accept low-paying employment and further influencing the use of alien labor. Caribbean The structure of U.S.-affiliated Caribbean island economies has changed significantly in the past three decades, from primarily agricultural economies to highly industrialized (Puerto Rico) and tourism [U. S, Virgin Islands) based economies. This change in focus has influenced people to seek employment in fields other than agriculture and fisheries. The structure of the agricultural industry and profile of the present day farmer have changed 11 .. 11 Agriculture is still dominated by part-time workers. Total amount of farmland in Puerto Rico increased by 4 percent between 1978 and 1982, but was still only half of 1950 levels. There has also been an increase in the number of farms, largely in the less than 10 acre bracket; 53 percent of farmland is owned by operators. The average age of individuals whose primary activity was agriculture was 56.1 years, secondary was 53,7 years. Puerto Rican agriculture is dominated by small farm units run by an aging population, A small but growing group of educated Puerto Ricans farm as a secondary occupation (116). Similar circumstances exist in the U.S. Virgin Islands, with 45.5 percent of farmers spending 200 days in off-farm employment (57). There has been an increase in the number of small farms, and increase in the education level of farmers.
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116 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas (73) concurrently with the change in overall economic structure. Puerto Rico has excellent physical resources, well-trained young people, required technology, and entrepreneurial ability to create a modern agriculture (116). Skilled and unskilled labor are available. There are the necessary professionals in Puerto Rico with approximately 1,500 college-trained specialists in various fields (of which 800 are employed by the government); 200 with masters degrees and 80 with doctorates (116). Several sectors within the U.S. Virgin Islands have effectively demonstrated over the past decades the viability of small farm and fishery operations. The French herb farmers on the north side of St. Thomas have successfully grown and marketed specialty herbs and spices. Similarly, the south side communities have been successful in small-scale, semisubsistence fishing operations. Presently, migrants from other Caribbean islands are engaged in successful subsistence agriculture activities, involving small plots of intensively cultivated land and organic inputs. These sectors combine small-scale operations with a multiplicity of occupations to maintain successful operations (e.g., French herb farmers may turn to fishing when crop markets are poor). In Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, agricultural work generally has a perceived low social status, partly as a result of the plantation and subsistence economies. Early plantation agriculture relied on cheap labor. As economies boomed in the mid-20th century, landholders retained their land for speculation rather than continuing in agriculture and the younger generation generally sought employment in areas other than agriculture. Additional disincentives include the more attractive wages paid in government, manufacturing, tourism, and construction. The effect is compounded by farm operators who remain remote from their workers (116). Consequently, young, well-trained and motivated farmers are scarce. Education and Out-Migration Pacific The scarcity of certain education opportunities on the islandsprimarily vocational trainingin combination with primary and secondary education systems which focus on liberal arts and college preparation have reinforced a tendency to avoid agriculture and fisheries in favor of bureaucratic employ merit. Currently, however, vocational education opportunities are increasing in the Pacific islands (52). Westernized school curricula exclude the teaching of many traditional skills and knowledge in many developing countries, amounting to an underlying assumption that such knowledge is unnecessary in todays world (42). The current education system in this way has created a desire for urban life and nonproductive (i.e., public sector, tourism) employment. Students entering college also tend to seek a more general college education. Professionals trained in public administration, economics, physical and natural sciences, and engineering are insufficient for many islands development needs. Out-migration from the islands for educational or income purposes is common, and on some islands, extremely high. For example, nearly three-quarters of high school graduates leave Palau for further education (14). Despite these educational pursuits there exists a rift between available employment opportunities and local skills. Public, retail, and skilled private sectors remain the desired employment areas. In many cases, the off-island residence is con-
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. Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 117 sidered temporary (until education is completed or until job-holders claim retirement benefits or save enough to open a business on the home island). However, many do not return because local employment opportunities that match acquired skills are scarce; starting a new homeisland business can be difficult, and standards of living fall below the aspirations developed off-island (14,16). The public sector/private sector disparity in wage levels, moreover, leads to underemployment in the private sector. This increases the demand for education, encourages the dependence on alien labor, and increases the capital investment requirements for job creation (11). Attempts to retain skilled islanders may necessitate bonding students to return (perhaps to guaranteed jobs or other fringe benefits) or providing salaries at close to U.S. levels. The former approach requires careful planning of the manpower needs of the economy, considerable administrative cost in scrutiny of curricula, and may require termination of financial support for students choosing alternate educationsa difficult choice when skills are needed in many fields. It may also be necessary to redirect students from U.S. institutions towards regional academic institutions, such as the University of Guam or the University of the South Pacific (Fiji), which may cater more appropriately to the needs of small, tropical islands (13). On the other hand, bringing salaries more closely in line with U.S. levels may lead to even greater disparities between the incomes of the government employees and those of other Micronesians (11). The remaining alternative is to provide an environment on the home islands favorable to the satisfaction of the desires of returning migrants; this will not be easy at prevailing population growth rates (11,12,13). Caribbean The availability and diversity of educational programs have increased; however a shortage of skilled labor still exists at all levels. Generally, local educational and training institution efforts are not directed toward creating a labor force with appropriate skills for the current (or future) direction of the employment market (33,73). The generally inadequate level of education and skills among graduates, as perceived by employers, as well as shortage of personnel in particular specialties (33), in turn, exacerbates unemployment problems. For example, the Tahal Report commissioned by the Government of Puerto Rico (94) indicated that the existing agricultural production system lacks adequate knowledge of commercialization required to achieve a reliable and highvolume production and delivery to markets. A gap exists between the systems of wholesale marketing and production; while the marketing system has undergone rapid modernization in the past decades, the production system has not developed in a parallel manner. Despite numerous government and private agricultural organizations (including the Agricultural College, Extension Service, and the Agricultural Experiment Station) which possess professional personnel, a need still exists for such specialized training. Research and extension personnel rarely have appropriate prior experience with high yield technology and modern commercialized markets to guide farmers (64). Rapid development often exceeds the capacity of an education system to supply an appropriately skilled labor force. Efforts to increase profitability in the productive sector often requires specialized skills and training which often are not immediately available. For example, increased mechanization commonly is necessary for farms to be profitable, requiring employees with specialized skills (34). Thus, a need exists to train young, fairly well-educated people for agricultural pursuits; although nearly one-half of the Puerto Ricos work force has a high school education, the approximately 40,000 agricultural laborers average a fourth grade education and one-half are over 40 years of age (116). Wage Rates and Unemployment The Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), which sets minimum wage and workweek standards, applies to the U.S. Caribbean and some of the
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118 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas U.S. Pacific islands. Local economies commonly are tied to regional location. Consequently, these labor laws, while improving wage rates, may hinder the regional competitiveness of the island. For example, tourism is more costly in the Caribbean than in neighboring non-U.S. islands; consequently some economy-conscious tourists may avoid the U.S. islands (57,79). Pacific In Micronesia, cash and subsistence economies sometimes conflict. In general, the production and distribution of goods in Micronesia and American Samoan subsistence economies are not determined by wages, prices, and profits in the western sense, but by such nonquantifiable factors as satisfaction of fulfilling kinship and other traditional responsibilities, the status and recognition this brings and the inconvenience that work entails. Production ceases when family needs are met. Total production and consumption may grow with the population, but per capita production remains constant for long periods. Thus, many Pacific islanders are usually not productive in a cash economy unless wages are quite high (i.e., in government and military employment). It is difficult to attract Micronesians to lower paying commercial jobs. Such employment is usually short-term and undertaken to obtain a certain amount of cash for a particular item. Most employers prefer workers who can be relied onto stay long-term and develop the experience and skills needed to improve their productivity; however, the discrepancy between private and public sector wages does not promote long-term private sector employment. Often this results in the private sector turning to alien labor. The FLSA sets minimum wage rates and workweek standards on Guam, but not on neighboring islands or nearby countries. As a result, Guam cannot offer tourists the prices and values that its neighbors, with lower wage rates, can. Guams proposed Commonwealth Act suggests that U.S. labor laws be amendable by local legislative action as deemed appropriate. Caribbean Evidence exists that the minimum wage increases in Puerto Rico have strongly affected local production and employment. The higher wage rates associated with the FLSA tend to curb employment of unskilled workers particularly in labor-intensive industries. Since many economic activities related to renewable resources are labor-intensive, they are especially affected by minimum wage increases (73). Higher than regional wage levels, combined with the capital-intensive industrial development in Puerto Rico, have been postulated as a factor in the high unemployment on the islands (79,80). Unemployment increased sharply after 1975 in Puerto Rico; it currently exceeds 20 percent officially (90,116) and may be as high as 25 to 30 percent in rural areas. Unemployment is heavily concentrated in ages from 16 to 34 years (6,35). From 1982 to 1984 the Puerto Rican labor force increased largely as a result of women and young people entering the work force (6). Labor force growth currently has exceeded the local economys ability to generate new jobs. Alternative employment opportunities for displaced workers have not materialized and unemployment remains a large problem despite out-migration to the U.S. mainland, which continues from Puerto Rico at a fairly rapid pace despite industrial growth (73). Historically, immigration to the United States from the U.S. Virgin Islands has fluctuated with insular economic changes. During periods of rapid economic growth, such as the 1960s, there was widespread immigration to the U.S. Virgin Islands from both the mainland United States and nearby islands. During the economic slowdowns of the 1970s and early 1980s, however, these inflows were significantly reduced and in some cases reversed. Close ties with the U.S. mainland and easy access to the wide variety of U.S. employment markets has encouraged out-migration, particularly in periods of economic adversity.
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends 119 Social Support Programs Pacific Although Federal subsidies to Micronesia, especially in social services, were carefully controlled in the 1950s so as not to compromise the goal of self-sufficiency, during the latter part of the Trustee period (after 1963) this changed. Federal appropriations rose from almost $7 million in 1963 to at least $60 million in 1971 and continued to rise steadily throughout the 1970s. Most funds were channeled into administration, schools, and health services (89). Even during a time of rapid economic growth in the early 1970s, the number of welfare recipients steadily increased (14). Nearly onequarter of Guams civilian population received food stamps in 1980, although many of these may have been aliens. The decline in FSM agriculture and fisheries production has been attributed, in part, to Federal surplus food distribution programs (11). Cases of condensed milk and cheese were distributed freely in the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas (CNMI) while a dairy ranch on Tinian exported 80 percent of its milk and 92 percent of its meat to Guam (12). The inhabitants of Agrihan (CNMI) produced papayas, mango, and coconuts but were otherwise entirely dependent on U.S. Department of Agriculture supplies (12). A Nutrition Assistance Program was established in the CNMI in mid-1982 with about 28 percent of the Mariana citizens participating (819 households). One condition of this program was that 15 percent of all coupons were to be used for the purchase of locally grown food. The ability of local producers to supply the required volume was uncertain at the institution of the program (12) but, while data are unavailable to indicate the programs success in increasing agricultural production, indications suggest that this has been accomplished (74). Caribbean Social support programs grew rapidly in the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands with the expansion of the Great Society programs on the U.S. mainland. However, this has moderated since 1981 as the U.S. administration generally has slowed Federal spending. Federal transfer payments have recently been providing close to 30 percent of Puerto Ricos disposable income and roughly 50 percent of island households have been receiving food stamp payments. A 1980 U.S. Department of Commerce study found that approximately two-thirds of Puerto Rican families lived below U.S. poverty levels (90). Puerto Rico was removed from full coverage under the Food Stamp program in 1983 and placed under a special block grant of $825 million. Puerto Rico administers its own nutrition assistance program with these funds, paying beneficiaries with checks instead of food coupons (73). Preference for Government Employment Pacific On most U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, jobs with the U.S. Government (e. g., military) are preferred over jobs with the local governments, which in turn are preferred to employment in the private sector. Local government wage and salary levels are nearly twice those of the private sector. (Data from Palau indicate that public and private sector wages and salaries are increasing; while the differential has remained the same, the absolute difference in levels has increased.) Living in more urban centers, in which most infrastructure development has occurred, also is preferred to village living. Government employment absorbs at least than onehalf of all wage earners on many islands and a large proportion of the private sector (devoted to services) is dependent on expenditure generated by the public sector (14). The large size of the public sector may, however, reflect hiring because of available funds, irrespective of necessity, and not necessarily an underdeveloped private sector (11). Attempts by the private sector to match public sector wages places an economy at a comparative disadvantage for many import-substitution activities and export-oriented development strategies (11). However, because government
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120 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas salaries are subject to much redistribution through family ties, public sector employment can be regarded more as a channel through which public money is distributed than as a means of increasing productivity and improving public services (15). This may partly justify low productivity at high wages (15). Because of U.S. fiscal restraints and the approval of the Compact of Free Association, public sector employment probably will tend to decline in the next few years on many U. S.affiliated Pacific islands. This will have a similar impact on some parts of the private sector, notably general merchandising, transportation, food services, and construction, which, with government employment, account for most formal employment in the islands. Caribbean Public service comprises the largest employment sector in the U.S. Caribbean islands; this sector, however, includes some productive services which in other economies maybe provided by the private sector (110,111). Public sector employment in 1977 to 1978 was estimated to be 25 percent in the U.S. Virgin Islands (110) and 23 percent in Puerto Rico (111). Recent figures for the U.S. Virgin Islands indicate that the public sector comprises over 30 percent of the total labor force and 33 percent of all employed workers (55). Employment in the public administration sector alone comprises nearly 33 percent of Puerto Ricos total labor force; this percentage does not include those public employees in health, recreational, transportation, or communication services or public utilities (35). Current fiscal limitations within the U.S. Virgin Islands Government are expected to constrain further employment growth. Consequently, increasing concern exists for training the local labor force for private sector employment (79). Shortage of Rural labor Pacific A major constraint to productive rural development is rural labor shortage, especially of skilled labor. Most rural/outer island residents have relatives in the urban centers, who provide the reason and means to migrate (14). The periodic food supplies once sent from rural islanders to urban relatives are superseded by imports (14). Rural population totals disguise high ratios of dependent population to productive work force. Rural to urban/off-island migration has left many island rural areas with an hour-glass shaped population pyramida population heavily biased towards the very old and the very young (14). Moreover, while there may be many islanders with skills relevant to the economy, their aspirations generally are directed towards government and retail employment, resulting in a labor constraint to productive employment. No shortage exists of people, especially young people, to form a labor pool in U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands; however, agricultural labor shortage is a problem in several areas. In general, there is a low esteem for farm work, and wages and benefits are low compared to other types of employment. Guam has considered importing foreign labor under the Federal H-2 temporary alien program, but the Labor Department apparently blocked this (54). Since the Government of Guam was granted the authority to certify and import alien workers in 1984, they may reconsider this proposal (45). In American Samoa, much of the agriculture depends on aiga family members from Western Samoa, and Taiwanese and Koreans who have jumped ship at Pago Pago (54,83). Caribbean Today the social situation has changed significantly in the rural interior of Puerto Rico. Large numbers of the population have migrated from the rural interior to urban centers or offisland. The remaining rural population is employed as seasonal labor for coffee harvest and supplements its income with food stamps and occasional part-time jobs. The old timers have rapidly disappeared and the younger generation is usually unskilled labor (78). Although rural unemployment is high (25 to 30 percent in some municipalities), alternative employment opportunities, food stamps, and social security from extended families all contribute
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 121 to an underground economy, which, in some cases, can provide $2,000 per month in nontaxable family income. Agricultural development in the U.S. Virgin Islands is constrained by lack of trained personnel and reliable labor and available agricultural labor is generally expensive and unproductive (116]. Perhaps correspondingly, the percentage of farms with hired labor has declined in the U.S. Virgin Islands from 33.9 percent in 1975 to 27.7 percent in 1983 (57). Despite the high unemployment rates, Puerto Rican farmers have reported it difficult to obtain large numbers of part-time laborers (116). Farmers reportedly locate only 90 percent of the workers they need; 52 percent of farmers report difficulty locating experienced workers and 39 percent say that the shortage of labor forces them to employ inexperienced farm workers (123). No migrant labor is available in Puerto Rico (116). Alien Labor Pacific At the same time islanders are leaving their islands for education, employment, or other enticements, considerable numbers of aliens are entering the island economies. Some of these are U.S. mainlanders or Europeans who enter local government positions while an increasing number are Filipinos and other Asians filling largely unskilled positions, predominantly in construction, fishing, and to a lesser extent, agriculture. For example, alien employees currently comprise at least one-third of the Palauan private sector and some economic sectors are almost entirely dependent on Asian labor (14). Alien workers offer employers substantial advantages in high productivity and reliability, obtaining overtime work, and in flexibility in discharging unsatisfactory workers (11). However, the cost of employing U.S. expatriates is high and there are large costs, and potential benefits, in the impact of the expatriates on consumption (15). For example, the preference for western-style foods may increase imports but it can also signal a potential market for locally grown, non-traditional crops. The question of whether or not to import foreign labor is a difficult one. Agricultural industries such as Hawaiis were built with cheap foreign labor, but there can be resulting social tension when large numbers of foreigners are imported into a relatively closed society, as in many of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Pohnpei has rejected two development proposalsone to bring in Vietnamese refugees to grow rice for these reasons (83). On the other hand, importing labor may be better than importing foodthe agricultural industry will develop, dependence on imported food is reduced, and foreign workers generate tax revenues through payment of taxes on their wages (45). Alternatively, agriculture might be made more profitable for local producers and workers through increased research, development, and extension (83). Despite the current lack of economic growth in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, the proportion of aliens in the local work forces probably will not diminish in the near future (11). In the FAS islands, it is increasingly likely that local islanders will seek government employment or move overseas, while all other sectors of the economy will become increasingly dominated by alien workers. Most will come from Asia and work for lower wages than are offered by government employment (14). Substantial out-migration of the few skilled professionals now in the FSM and their replacement by alien professionals is likely to continue. Adoption of a wage and salary structure commensurate with the U.S. mainland may reverse these trends, but goes directly against United Nations recommendations and is likely to exacerbate existing income inequalities, The FSM is becoming more like Guam, the Northern Marianas and American Samoa (and also the U.S. Virgin Islands), where government employment is predominantly indigenous, while employment in other sectors is increasingly taken up by lower paid aliens, a situation made possible only with substantial external financial assistance (11).
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122 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Caribbean While the Puerto Rican labor force is almost exclusively comprised of residents, the U.S. Virgin Islands has developed a relatively large alien labor force. Local application of the special Temporary Foreign Worker Program in the U.S. Virgin Islands has created a labor base largely comprised of British West Indians. This labor force generally increases in periods of economic prosperity, and decreases only minimally during periods of recession. The net results are: rise of unemployment, increase in individuals multiplicity of jobs, increased reliance on savings, and reductions in remittances (57). Displacement of local workers by aliens currently does not seem to be a concern in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Immigrants from neighboring islands are accustomed to rural lifestyles and prefer working in agriculture, but often lack capital and land and generally earn most of their income from industry or tourism (78). Consequently, the aliens generally are employed in a large variety of low-level jobs that U.S. Virgin Islanders have traditionally avoided (79), thereby creating a bimodal society which promotes internal cleavage in U.S. Virgin Islands society (58). Conclusions If the islands are not to suffer a decline in living standards, they must either find new sources of aid, reduce government expenditure, or develop greater self-reliance. Increasing selfreliance means reducing dependence on imported goods and expertise, and probably will require some changes in consumption patterns as well as increased local productive capacity (15). The small size and limited skilled labor force of the polities virtually preclude accelerated socioeconomic development towards a mainland U.S. standard of living without outside inputs of technical assistance and skills (12). Economic development probably cannot be achieved simply by reallocating resources towards improved infrastructure or agricultural investment. It may also require a fundamental change in attitudes, demanding such policies as wage constraints and raised taxation (on imports and income). This may be extremely difficult to achieve on small, democratic islands (14). The combination of relatively high educational standards and aspirations, limited opportunities for formal sector employment, and the possibility of free movement to the United States, suggests that out-migration from the U. S.affiliated islands is likely to become increasingly important in the future (14). The application of technologies is many times hindered by the lack of properly trained personnel. Training in some specialties is not available in local academic institutions and students must travel to off-island institutions for such training. Few island residents can afford this. Those students who attend off-island institutions often remain there, enticed by better jobs, opportunities for further training, and career advancement. The lack of trained personnel may have adverse effects on all aspects of renewable resource management, including research, law enforcement, project implementation, and education in academic institutions (19) 0 Adequately trained, dedicated staff are needed at all levels. Individuals with appropriate attitudes and aptitudes must be identified and given technical or professional training and continuing education, so they may keep abreast of new resource management and development strategies and technologies. Short courses could be organized locally, and key staff encouraged to travel to conferences and summer programs abroad. Where human resources are scarce, they could be directed to the most critical areas or problems (19). Suitable working conditions must be provided. Flexibility is needed in personnel regulations and incentives programs, especially of the insular governments. Salary scales could be upgraded on a regular basis to remain competitive with the private sector. Public corporations might replace more successful government programs to provide professionals with secure, well-remunerated positions. The Federal Government could raise the limit for exemption from minimum Federal wage
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends 123 payment for nonmechanizable agricultural operations. It also could assign a specific proportion of the food stamp funds and/or any increases in these funds to increase employment and local food production. Increased income to laborers could reduce payments for food stamps and for unemployment compensation and reduce migration to the mainland (116). Agriculture and other renewable resourcerelated enterprises can be an important source of employment, but unless production is increased, greater employment may be accompanied by lower wages, higher prices, more government subsidies, losses to farmers or some combination of these. On the other hand, in Puerto Rico every job in agriculture is estimated to create at least one other job in the islands economy, considerably more than that created by industry or construction (116). CHAPTER 4 REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10, Alkire, W. H., Cultural Dimensions of Resource Definition and Use in Micronesia, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Alkire, W. H., An Introduction to the Peoples and Cultures of Micronesia (Menlo Park, CA: Cummings Publishing Co., 1977). In: Kiste, 1986. American Samoa Government, American Samoa 1981 Annual Report, Office of Public Information, Pago Pago, American Samoa, 1981. In: Kiste, 1986. Amerson, B. A., Jr., Whistler, W. A., and Schwaner, T. D., wildlife and Wildlife Habitat of American Samoa, II: Accounts of Flora and Fauna, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC, 1982. In: Eldredge, 1986. Bellwood, P. S., Man Conquest of the Pacific (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979). Calero, H., Economic Challenges Facing Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico Business Review 10(4):6-21, April 1985. Callaghan, P. C., The Development and Management of Nearshore Fisheries in the U. S.Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Caribbean Fishery Management Council, Draft Fishery Management Plan, Regulatory Impact Review, and Environmental Impact Statement for the Shallow-Water Reeffish Fishery of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico, 1984. In; Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Castillo-Barahona, F., and Bhatia, M. S., Assessment of Agricultural Crop Production Technologies in Puerto Rico, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Colon-Torres, R., Programming for the Utili11, 12, 13. 14, 15. 16. 17. 18 19. 20. zation of Agricultural Resources in Puerto Rico, The Caribbean at Mid Century, A.C. wilgus (cd.). Papers delivered at the Conference on the Caribbean, Dec. 7-9, 1950 (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 1951). Connell, J., Country Report No. 3: Federated States of Micronesia, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983. Connell, J., Country Report No. 12: Northern Mariana Islands, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983. Connell, J., Country Report No. 6: Guam, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983. Connell, J., Country Report No. 13: Palau, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983. Connell, J., Country Report No. 8: Marshall Islands, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia, 1983. Connell, J., Country Report: American Samoa, South Pacific Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia, draft report, 1983. Crist, R. E., Resources of the Caribbean, The Caribbean at Mid Century, A.C. Wilgus (cd.). Papers delivered at the Conference on the Caribbean, Dec. 7-9, 19!50 (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 1951). Dahl, A. L., Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Diaz-Soltero, H., and Oxman, B., Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Development and Management in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Dookhan, I., A History of the Virgin Islands 63-222 0 87-5 QL. 3
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124 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas of the United States (Essex, England: Bowker Publishing Co., 1974). In: Tyson, 1986, 21. Ecology USA Fate of Reef-Wrecked Ferry Not Yet Decided, 15(14):114, July 14, 1986. 22, Ecology USA International Update, 15(11): 90, June 2, 1986, 23. Eldredge, L. G., Case Studies of the Impacts of Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Resources in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 24. Eldredge, L. G., Summary of Environmental and Fishing Information on Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Historical Background, Description of the Islands, and Review of Climate, Oceanography, and Submarine Topography, Technical Memorandum, NMFS NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFC40 (Honolulu, HI: U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1983). In: Smith, 1986. 25. Falanruw, M. V. C., Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 26. Falanruw, S., Director, Department of Resources and Development, Yap State Government, Colonia, Yap, personal communication, July 1986. 27. Farr, K., Historical Dictionary of Puerto Rico 28 and the U.S. Virgin Islands (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1973). Fiedler, R. H., and Jarvis, N. D., Fisheries of the Virgin Islands of the United States, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries, Investigational Report No. 14 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1932). In: Tyson, 1986. 29. Fishery Management Plan, Final Environmental Impact Statement for Coral and Coral Reefs, Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils, 1982. In: Wahle, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 30. Galzin, R,, Effects of Coral Sand Dredging on Fish Fauna in the Lagoon of the Grand Cul de Sac Marin, Guadaloupe, French West Indies, Proceedings of the 4th International Coral Reef Symposium, Manilla, 1981. In: Wahle, 1986. 31. Gawel, M., Chief, Department of Natural Resources, Pohnpei State Government, personal communication, July 1986. 32. Glenn, M., An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in Ponape, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 33. Goldsmith, W. W,, and Vietorisz, T., A New 34. 35. 36. 37. 38, 39! 40. 41. 42. 43, 44, 45. Development Strategy for Puerto Rico: Technological Autonomy, Human Resources, A Parallel Economy, Program on International Studies in Planning, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 1978. Goodwin, M. H., and Sandifer, P. D., Aquiculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Government Development Bank for Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico Monthly Economic Indicators, San Juan, PR, October 1985. Grigg, R. W., Fishery Management of Precious Corals in Hawaii, Proceedings of the Srd International Coral Reef Symposium, Miami, FL, 1977. In: Wahle, 1986. Grigg, R. W., Fishery Management of Precious Stony Corals in Hawaii, Sea Grant Technical Report, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-TR-77-03, 1976. In: Wahle, 1986. Guam Environmental Protection Agency, Twelfth Annual Report 1984-1985, Agana, Guam, 1985. Halbower, C. C., Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Developmental Potentials in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Hezel, F. X., S. J., Reflections on Micronesias Economy (1973 ), Reflections on Micronesia: Collected Papers of Father Francis X. Hezel, S.J. Working Paper Series, Pacific Islands Studies Program (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii, 1982). In: Schwalbenberg, 1986. Johannes, R. E., The Role of Marine Resource Tenure Systems (TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Resource Development and Management in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Johannes, R. E., Words of the Lagoon (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1981). In: Kiste, 1986. Juhl, R., Dammann, A. E., and Sylvester, J. R., Review of the Status of Fishery Resources and Management Problems of the Caribbean Fishery Management Council Area, Report to the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Southeast Fisheries Center, Miami, FL, 1976. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Kawaguchi, K., Handline and Longline Fishing Explorations for Snapper and Related Species in the Caribbean and Adjacent Waters, Marine Fisheries Review 36:8-31, 1974. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Khamoui. T., Agricultural Production Con-
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends l 125 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51, 52. 53. 54. 55. 55. 56. 58. 59. lication No. 48, UOG-CALS, 1985. In: Raynor, 1986. Kiste, R. C., Implications of History and Culture for Sustaining Development of Renewable Resources on U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986, Leviten, P. J., and Kohn, A. J., Microhabitat Resource Use, Activity Patterns, and Episodic Catastrophe: Conus on Tropical Intertidal Reef Rock Benches, Ecological Monographs 50(1): 55-75, 1980. In: Smith, 1986. Loftus, S. A., Impacts of U.S. Military Presence on U.S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Lovelace, N., Office of Territorial Programs, Guam, personal communication, October 1986. Lowry, G. K., An Overview of Selected Natural Systems Planning and Management Techniques for U, S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. MacInnes, A., Saving the Queen, Marine Biological Laboratory, Science Bulletin 1(1):1112, 1984. In: Wahle, 1986. Manner, H. I., Department of Sociology, University of Guam, personal communication, September 1986. Maragos, J. E., Coastal Resource Development and Management in the U.S. Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Mark, S., et al., Development of the Agricultural Sector in the American-Affiliated Pacific Islands, UOH-HITAHR (Honolulu, HI: October 1982). In: Raynor, 1986. McElroy, J., Department of Business Administration and Economics, St. Marys College, Notre Dame, IN, personal communication, July 1986. McElroy, J., Department of Business Administration and Economics, St. Marys College, Notre Dame, IN, personal communication, September 1986. McElroy, J. L., and de Albuquerque, K., Small Scale Agriculture in the United States Virgin Islands, 1930-1983, Proceedings of the 20th Annual Meeting of the Caribbean Food Crops Society, St. Croix, USVI, Oct. 21-26, 1984. McElroy, J. L., and de Albuquerque, K., Federal Perceptions and Policy Versus Virgin Islands Reality, paper presented to the joint ICLAS/MALAS Conference on the Role of the Caribbean in Latin America, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Nov. 4-5, 1983, McGowan, J. A., The Trochus Fishery of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: A Restraints on Guam, Technical Report, AES Pub60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67< 68! 69, port and Recommendations to the High Commissioner, unpublished draft report, April 1958. In: Smith, 1986. Mead, A. R., Economic Malacology With Particular Reference to Achatina fulica in Hawaii, F.V, Pulmonates and J. Peake (eds.) (New York: Academic Press, 1979). 1rI: Eldredge, 1986. Morales-Carrion, A., Puerto Rico: A SociaZ and Cu]turd History (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1983). Merrill, W. T., and Dyke, B., A French Community on St. Thomas, Caribbean Studies 5(4):3-11, 1965. In: Tyson, 1986. Morris, G. L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal communication, September 1986. Morris, G. L,, and Pool, D. J., Assessment of Semiarid Agricultural Production Technologies for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Munro, J. L., and Williams, D. Mcb., Assessment and Management of Coral Reef Fisheries: Biological Environmental and Socioeconomic Aspects, Fifth International Coral Reef Congress Tahiti, 27 May -1 June, 1985 (mimeographed), 1985. In: Callaghan, 1986. Nishi, M., An Evaluation of Japanese Agricultural and Fishery Developments in Micronesia During the Japanese Mandate, 19141941, A4icronesica 4:1-18, 1968. In. Nelson, S. G., Aquiculture and Mariculture Development in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Nufer, H.F, Micronesia Under American Rule: An Evaluation of the Strategic Trusteeship (1947-1977) (Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 1978). Ogden, J. C., Director, West Indies Laboratory, Fairleigh Dickinson University, St. Croix, USV1, personal communication, September 1986. Oliver, D. L., The Pacific Islands (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962). 70. Olwig, K., Households, Exchange, and Social Reproduction: The Development of a Caribbean Society, Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1977. In: Tyson, 1986. 71. Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, personal communication, September 1986, 72. Oxholm, A, H., Report on the Virgin Islands, Senate Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, Committee Print, 81st Cong., 2d sess. (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950). 73. Oxman, B., and Udall, A, T., Fiscal Incentive
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_ 126 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for US. Insular Areas 74. 75. 76. 77. 78, 79. 80. 81, 82. 83. 84. 85, 86. 87, Social Support Programs, The Caribbean Basin Initiative and the Development of Renewable Resources in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Pangelinan, M., Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association, Saipan, CNMI, personal communication, July 1986. Pico, R., The Geography of Puerto Rico (Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co., 1974). Poison, S., The Marshall Islands Coconut Industry: Prospects for Expansion and Development, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Pool, D. J., Tropical Research and Development, Inc., personal communication, September 1986. Pool, D. J., Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Development Potentials in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Posner, B., Effects of U.S. Macroeconomic Policy on Puerto Rico and U.S. Territories, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Price, R., Caribbean Fishing and Fishermen: A Historical Sketch, American Anthropologist 1966, In: Tyson, 1986. Putney, A., Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Program, West Indies Lab, St. Croix, USVI, personal communication, July 1986. Ramsey, C., U.S. Department of Defense, The Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense, personal communication, September 1986. Raynor, W., Commercial Crop Production Technologies and Development Potentials for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Rolph, T., A Brief Account, Together With Observations Made During a Brief Visit in the West Indies (Dundas, Upper Canada, 1836). In: Tyson, 1986. Salvat, B., Preservation of Coral Reefs: Scientific Whim or Economic Necessity? Past, Present or Future, Proceedings of the 4th International Coral Reef Symposium, Manilla, 1981. In: Wahle, 1986. Salvat, B., Utilization and Trade of Coral Reef Molluscs in French Polynesia, Past and Present, Proceedings of the 4th International Cora] Reef Symposium, Manilla, 1981. In: Wahle, 1986. Sanchez-Nieva, F., Assessment of Food Processing Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986, 88 89 90. 91. 92 93 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. Sauer, C. O., The Early Spanish Main (Berkely, CA: University of California Press, 1966). Schwalbenberg, H. M., The Critical Role of the U.S. Congress in Fostering Self-Reliance in the Freely Associated States of Micronesia, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Simon, L., Statement Before Joint Hearings of the Subcommittee on Inter-American Affairs of the House Committee on Foreign Relations and the Subcommittee on Department Operations, Research, and Foreign Agriculture of the House Committee on Agriculture, 97th Cong., 2d sess., July 20 and 22, 1982 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982). Smith, B. D., Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Steward, J. H., et al., The People of Puerto Rico (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1956). In: Tyson, 1986. Sudo, K., Social Organization and Types of Sea Tenure in Micronesia, Senri EthnoZogy Studies 17:203-230, 1984. In: Johannes, 1986. Tahal Consulting Engineers, Ltd., Programma Estrategico Para el Desarrollo Itegrado del Sector Agropecuario en el Proximo Decenio, Report to the Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, San Juan, PR, 1983. In: Morris and pool, 1986, Tisdell, C., Giant Clams in the PacificThe Socio-Economic Potential of a Developing Technology for their Mariculture, paper presented at the Australian National University Workshop for New Marine Technology and Social Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13,1985. Tyler, M. J., The Cane Toad Bufo marinus: An Historical Account and Modern Assessment, Vermin and Noxious Weeds Destruction Board, Victoria and Agricultural Protection Board, Western Australia, 1975. In: Eldredge, 1986. Tyson, G. F., Notes on Caribbean Resource Use History, OTA commissioned research notes, 1986. Tyson, G. F., A Landuse History of St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands 1718-1950, St. Thomas, USVI, 1983. In: Tyson, 1986. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Report of a Committee of the U.S. Department of Agriculture on Agricultural Resources, Needs, and
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Ch. 4Island Renewable Resource History and Trends 127 101. 102. 103, 10 4 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. Possibilities of the Virgin Islands (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of PopulationGeneral Population Characteristics, Guam, PC80-1-B54 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). ln: Callaghan, 1986. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of PopulationGeneral Population Characteristics, Northern Mariana ]sZands, pC80-1-1357A (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). In. Callaghan, 1986. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of PopulationNumber of Inhabitants, Guam, I?C80-1-A54 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982). In: Callaghan, 1986. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of PopulationNumber of Inhabitants, American Samoa, PC80-1-A56 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982). In: Callaghan, 1986. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980 Census of PopulationNumber of Inhabitants, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands excluding the Northern Mariana IsZands, PC80-1-A57B (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982). In: Callaghan, 1986. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas Islands Coastal Resources Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1980. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 1, 1979. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Guam Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, vol. 2, 1979. 110. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of 111. 112 113 114 115. 116, 117. 118 119 120 121 122 Coastal Zone Management, The Virgin Islands Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1979. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, 1978. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Sanctuar y Programs Division Proposed La Paraguer a National Marine Sanctuary, Draft Environ mental Impact Statement/Management Plan, 1983. In: Wahle, 1986, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants, January 1, 1986, 152-564 0-86-1 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986). US. Virgin Islands and the Sea, The, report prepared by the Advisory Committee for the U.S. Virgin Islands and the Sea, at the request of the Marine Resources Council of the U.S. Virgin Islands, Office of the Lieutenant Governor, St. Thomas, USVI, 1970. Uwate, R., et al., A Review of Aquiculture Activities in the Pacific Island Region, Pacific Islands Development Program, East-West Center, Honolulu, HI, 1984. Vicente-Chandler, J., Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Vitarelli, M., Handicrafts Industry Development and Renewable Resource Management for U, S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Wadsworth, F., Institute of Tropical Forestry, U.S. Forest Service, personal communication, September 1986. Wadsworth, F., Notes on the Climax Forests of Puerto Rico and Their Destruction and Conservation Prior to 1900, Caribbean Forester January 1950, pp. 38-47. Wahle, C. M., Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986, Wells, S. M., International Trade in Ornamental Corals and Shells, Proceedings of the 4th International Coral Reef Symposium, Manilla, 1981. In: Wahle, 1986. Wiles. G. T.. and Payne, N. H.. The Trade in
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128 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Fruit Bats Pteropus spp. on Guam and Other nornicas de 10S Obreros Agricola en Puerto Pacific Islands, BioZogicaZ Conservation 38: Rico, Agriculture Experiment Station, Mayaguez, 143-161, 1986. PR, October 1983. In: Castillo-Barahona and 123. Zapata, J. Z., et al., 131 Mercado de llabajo en Bhatia, 1986. la Agriculture y las Caracteristicas Socio-Eco-
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Chapter 5 Islands As Integrated Systems
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CONTENTS Page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . ,. .., ... .., ....131 Erosive Energy Buffer Systems.. . . . . . . . .,, ,...132 Freshwater and Flood Buffer System . . . . . . . .,134 Saltwater and Storm Surge Buffer System. ..........................13 6 Biological InteractionsNutrient Cycling and Faunal Interactions .......137 Nutrient Transport and Cycling . . . . . . . . ..,.137 Faunal Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . ..138 Conclusions . . . . . . . . ......................139 Chapter preferences . . . . . . . ...............,140 Figures Figure No. Page 5-1. 5-2. 5-3. 5-4. Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands ................,.,.....133 Resource Degradation Due to Modification or Disruption of Island Buffer Systems . . . . . . . ..............,...134 Relationship Between Topography, Traditional Agriculture, and Rainfall/Runoff Erosion Buffers on High Carolina Islands ........ ..135 Relationship Between Insular Species, Island Size, and Distance From Colonizing Source . . . . . . . . .....,.,.138
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Chapter 5 Islands As Integrated Systems Islands are by definition small areas of land isolated by water, and it is small size and isolation that make them different from continental land areas (3). The small size of islands means that many different ecosystems may exist in close proximity. Thus, the interrelationships among ecosystems are critical to the functioning of the entire islands renewable resource system. The smaller the island, moreover, the higher the ratio of coastline to land area and the more important the land-sea interface in fulfilling human needs. Renewable natural resourceswater, soil, vegetation, fish, and wildlifeby definition have a resiliency to recover from human use. Their ability to renew themselves makes them especially valuable in the support of human life, a fact understood by most people but sometimes forgotten in their continuing process to improve their quality of life and supply the desires of society. Inadvertently, these resources can be abused and can sustain damage that is slow to repair. The various island ecosystems maintain an equilibrium when in an unmodified state, or when modification is done in such a way as to allow the natural flow of energy, freshwater, 1 Ecosystemsum of biotic and abiotic components of a specific environment. Photo credit: A. Vargo Intimately interlinked terrestrial and nearshore marine areas comprise the island ecosystem. 131
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132 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and nutrients through the system. Understanding the linkages between the various parts of the renewable resource base and incorporating them in development activity design is necessary to keep these resources truly renewable and to allow their sustainable use. The integrated management of island renewable resources is a sound way to enhance their longterm renewability and ensure that benefits derived from the resources will be long lasting. Sometimes resource renewability is sacrificed to accommodate certain other goals. For example, certain islands or parts of islands are set aside for such military uses as practice bombing sites or the impact areas for artillery or naval gunfire. Even if such practices were to cease at these sites and if some renewable resource systems recovered, it is unlikely that such lands could be brought back into productivity for decades. Some islands which were inhabited perhaps 40 years ago no longer exist as a consequence of nuclear bomb testing. Similarly, colonial authorities of the Pacific island of Nauru decided to mine the islands considerable phosphate deposits quickly, irrespective of effects on the island. Integrated renewable resource management plays no role in such cases. Conversely, some islands have been established as wildlife refuges, such as Rose Atoll in American Samoa, and Howland, Baker and Jarvis Atolls. Human interaction with the environment is minimized, renewable resources are not exploited and thus the need for management is primarily limited to the protection of the refuge. The multitude of island resource problems (summarized inch. 4), however, largely are of a different nature. They typify instances where one island resource was exploited without adequate consideration for its impacts on other island resources (cf: 8). In many of these cases, recognition of the interrelationships between resource exploitation in one place and unintentional resource damage elsewhere on or near the island has led to imaginative, sound management approaches that benefit all of the resource users. Island resource damages have occurred over long periods of time; many of the corrective actions have taken place relatively recently. These recent encouraging actions seem likely to continue and perhaps expand while certain of the old causes of resource damage probably will fade away. To accelerate this process it seems likely that an increased understanding of the working components of the renewable resource systems of islands, including the integrated nature of different resources, is an important first step. Consequently, technologies and various management practices described in this assessment have been examined to identify unforeseen adverse impacts that they might generate; technologies that are likely to foster numerous serious impacts were omitted. In such analyses, fresh water and its movement seem to provide the common link among different parts of islands and their resources. EROSIVE ENERGY BUFFER SYSTEMS Islands have at least two major physical forces acting on them: 1) the flow of water from higher altitudes to the ocean, and 2) ocean wave action moving from the ocean onto land. Both of these forces have strong erosive powers abilities to denude the land and nearshore ecosystems of biological productivity. Thus, the magnitude of these movements of water, coupled with the islands form, largely determine the technological options available to its residents to improve the long-term production of food and fiber. Natural island ecosystems, however, are arranged in such a way as to buffer the erosive forces of water movements (figure 5-1). The individual components of the freshwater/flood buffer range from highland vegetation to seagrass meadows and each may fill several specific ecological functions. The latter also is
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Ch. 5Islands As Integrated Systems 133 Figure 5-1 .Erosive Energy Buffer Systems on Islands Y Freshwater and flood buffer A system A A \ \ 1 Salt water and storm surge buffer system SOURCE Off Ice of Technology Assessment 1986 true of the saltwater/storm surge buffer which generally is comprised of coral reefs, seagrass meadows, littoral vegetation, and lowland forests. Development activities that modify or degrade parts of these buffer systems may result in repercussive changes to connected ecosystems (figure 5-2). For example, if a part of a reef is mined, the opening which results will allow wave energy to impact directly on the shoreline. The previously quiet environment of the back-reef 2 habitat will be disturbed and shoreline erosion may ensue, as well as increased water turbidity. These changes consequently may affect the biota dependent on the back-reef habitat. Similarly, if upland vegetation is removed and, thus, terrestrial erosion increases, streams may become sediment-laden and ultimately discharge sediment into the nearshore waters. ExBack-reefthe lagoon/shallow bottom side of the reef. cessive sedimentation may adversely affect freshwater communities, smother nearshore marine bottom communities, and kill corals. Thus, damage to one part of an islands renewable resource base easily can adversely affect others. Though such damage may be unintentional, nevertheless, it may result in the loss of valuable resources that do not regenerate quickly. Island form and composition largely determine the natural communities that develop and also affect the way these natural systems respond to human stress or disturbance; different island types have different environmental vulnerabilities. For example, high volcanic islands may be highly susceptible to erosion because of their steep slopes, whereas raised limestone islands may be particularly sensitive to groundwater pollution and the rapid loss of soil nutrients. A knowledge of island structure should help to predict the environmental impacts of various development possibilities (3).
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134 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Figure 5-2.Resource Degradation Due to Modification or Disruption of Isiand Buffer Systems Flooding. eutrophication, I SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986 Freshwater and FIood Buffer System Tropical storms are more violent than those in temperate areas. More water falls per storm, quickly saturating the soil. Consequently, a larger proportion of the rainfall runs off the soil surface. Furthermore, in tropical storms raindrops commonly are larger, thus having great kinetic energy and high erosive power (13). Tropical foreststhe common natural vegetation of upland island areasprotect soil and modulate water flows in several ways. The canopy of trees, undergrowth and litter layer intercept rainfall and provide temporary water storage. Vegetation intercepts rainfall, reducing its energy and allowing it to reach the soil at slower speed and over a longer period of time than precipitation striking unprotected soils. The organic litter in undisturbed, closed tropithick, the majority of organic matter being in vegetation root systems. Water is stored in the organic litter on the soil surface and in the porous topsoil. These mechanisms minimize the impacts of intense rainstorms, reduce peak stormflows, and help mitigate flooding (13). The steepness of high volcanic islands promotes the rapid flow of rainfall from uplands to the ocean. The rapidly flowing water carries nutrients and sediments through a series of ecosystems that change with elevation. vegetation of the various ecosystems slows runoff, trapping some of the sediment and nutrients. Each topographically lower ecosystem is successively less tolerant of siltation (5). For example, on a typical high volcanic island, the erosive force of torrential rainfall is first buffered or moderated by highland forests. Surface water, flowing on its way to the ocean, cal forests is typically only several centimeters is slowed by and deposits some of its silt in
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Ch. 5Islands As Integrated Systems l 135 Figure 5-3.Relationship Between Topography, Traditional Agriculture, and Rainfall/Runoff Erosion Buffer Systems on High Caroline Islands I < n I Savanna and I Cloud forest open canopy (Pohnpei gardens and Kosrae) + .. -. -. -. -. .. I Ravine and I Lowland and riverine forests montane forests I I I I I b SOURCE M C V Falanruw, Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia, OTA commlssioned paper, 1986 coastal plains. Mangrove forests further remove sediment and seagrass meadows filter out remaining silt. This filtering system serves to maintain the clarity of lagoon waters necessary for marine life (figure 5-3) (5). Many plant and animal species of the intertidal zone are adapted to certain salinity ranges in the water. Without such mechanisms to control the level of fresh water discharged to their habitat, damage easily may occur, Mangroves are sensitive to changes in salinity balance which may occur from increase or decrease in freshwater input into the mangrove ecosystem. While mangroves can develop in freshwater regimes, they generally are outcompeted by terrestrial vegetation, thus mangrove development primarily occurs in saline environments. Hypersaline environments can be equally detrimental to mangroves, resulting in stunted growth and eventually mortality (2). Development activities which alter the periodicity or amount of freshwater input may cause damage or loss of mangrove forest area with a concomitant loss of the benefits afforded by the ecosystem (i.e., nutrients for nearshore aquatic life, filtration of sediments). Primary productivity of the damaged mangrove ecosystem declines, providing fewer nutrients for associated primary consumers (mollusks, crabs, polychaete worms); the effect continues through the food web to which the mangrove is linked (7). The composition of the buffer system may vary from island to island depending on geologic structure. However, the system is generally comprised of upland forests (cloud and submontane forests), lowland forests, riverine forests, swamp and mangrove forests, and seagrass meadows. All of the island terrestrial vegetation acts to protect island soils from the impact of rainfall and contributes to soil moisture storage. The highland forests are particularly important in soil moisture recharge, and contribute to flood and erosion control. River-
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136 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ine and swamp forests also play important roles in flood control and stabilization of water flow to the ocean. Freshwater flora may serve to filter some sediment from streams, however, large sediment levels may degrade the habitat of these plants. While these vegetation formations cannot prevent such natural events as flooding, landslides, and erosion, they comprise a gauntlet of resistance. The freshwater buffer system provides a range of beneficial effects that enhance and sustain the environmental quality of the island. The individual components are inextricably linked through the flow of fresh water, each modifying the flow and thus creating viable habitats for the components further downstream. Saltwater and Storm Surge Buffer System Wave action may easily erode large areas of beach in the absence of any protection. Most islands possess a natural wave energy buffer composed of several closely interrelated ecosystemscoral reefs, seagrass meadows, and littoral vegetation (mangrove communities and beach strand). These ecosystems are closely interrelated and function not only to reduce wave energy but also to protect areas further inland from salt spray. The coral reef comprises the first physical barrier to wave energy impacting on the island. The structure is solid and acts to dissipate the bulk of wave energy before it reaches the shoreline. Although waves maintain momentum after breaking over the reef, the energy level has been reduced. An active reef can build islands like the atolls of Micronesia, provide sand for beaches, and repair itself after storm damage. If the reef-building processes are disturbed, however, marine erosion will take over and the reef will deteriorate. Shallow, back-reef seagrass meadows dotted with individual coral heads increase friction, further impeding the waves progress towards shore. The seagrass meadows capture larger particles of eroded coral sand and act to stabilize bottom sediments, thus helping to prevent coastal erosion. Still, some wave energy reaches the shore. Here, littoral vegetation acts to stabilize shorelines by holding soils in place through a network of roots. Littoral vegetation, including the specialized formation of mangrove forests, will hold sand and soil particles firmly, eventually allowing for the outward extension of the formation. Mangrove forests are particularly well suited to this type of expansion, advancing seeds that germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Littoral vegetation also acts as a physical barrier to salt spray released by wave action on the shoreline, as well as that carried by wind. Littoral species such as Pandanus, coconut, and mangroves typically are highly salt-tolerant. The wave energy buffer system in its entirety comprises a valuable resource for islands to maintain and stabilize a commonly tenuous shoreline against ocean energy. Where parts of the system are removed, the remaining components of the buffer may not be able to fulfill the entire stabilizing function and shoreline erosion and saltwater damage to inland vegetation may ensue. Raised Limestone Islands and Atolls The geologic structure and low surface altitude of atolls obviously makes them extremely vulnerable to wave action, storm surge, wind, and salt spray. Raised limestone islands, in part, have a similar structure although a higher surface altitude. The porous nature of the soils of these islands allow for ready percolation of rainfall directly through the islands surface and through the coralline limestone solution cavities into the freshwater lens or to be discharged through coastal springs. Although raised limestone islands may have freshwater streams, they generally do not empty directly into the ocean. Thus, the freshwater filtration system of high islands does not exist on raised limestone islands or atolls. However, shallow coastal depressions and seagrass meadows may act as filtration mechanisms for sediments discharged by coastal springs. A wave action buffer system exists, however, and operates similarly on atolls and raised limestone islands: the reef offers protection from
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Ch. 5Islands As Integrated Systems l 137 wave energy and shoreline vegetation fosters soil-building, shoreline stabilization, and retards shoreline erosion. Vegetative formations also serve as partial barriers to wind and saltwater spray which present major limiting factors to plant growth particularly on atolls, Littoral vegetation on the windward side of atolls often is maintained to serve as a natural Terminalia samoensis, Clerodendrum inerme, and Barringtonia asiatica are some of the more common Pacific trees and shrubs which provide protection from salt spray. The coconut palm Cocos nucifera, is a highly salt-tolerant species which thrives in well-drained, saline soils common on atolls. While young palms initially may require protection, older plants do barrier to saltwater spray. Pandanus tectorius, well in areas of Messerschmidia argentea, Cordia subcordata, BIOLOGICAL INTERACTIONS-NUTRIENT FAUNAL INTERACTIONS high salt spray (11). CYCLING AND The U.S.-affiliated islands contain a number of individual ecosystems which in their entirety can be considered an island ecosystem (3). Individual ecosystems commonly fill several ecological functions within the island biotic structure. The interaction of all of the biotic components of island ecosystems transport and cycle nutrients and form a food web which is of critical importance to the sustainability of the island fauna and flora and ultimately affects the quality of human life. Nutrient Transport and Cycling The vegetation components of the freshwater buffer system, while ultimately maintaining clarity of nearshore waters and protecting marine organisms intolerant of high levels of fresh water, also are integral in maintaining soil fertility. Most tropical ecosystems have little 1ongterm nutrient storage capacity; rather nutrients are cycled through the biomass of the systems. Most nutrients are added to the systems through transport of nutrients in water or by fauna, and through specialized plants which can fix nitrogen from the air. Seabirds bring nutrients from the ocean and deposit them on land (guano), increasing soil fertility; conversely, landderived nutrients enhance fisheries and the productivity of coastal waters by fertilizing the macroand micro-algal base of the food web. Forest Nutrient Cycling Systems High rainfall in most tropical areas leaches out basic plant nutrients, thus, forest canopy and vegetation is critically important for maintaining soil fertility by returning organic matter and its contained nutrients to the soil through the natural plant lifecycle (9), Undisturbed tropical forests have an efficient nutrient recycling system. As long as the forest is undisturbed, the nutrient supply remains stable. Soil shaded by the closed forest canopy is cool enough for the abundant organic material to decay gradually. Detrital decomposes such as bacteria, fungi, and arthropods are important in nutrient cycling within vegetation formations as well as in soil building; the nutrient value of the detrital layer is increased when it passes through the systems of many of the decomposes. Thus, the humus content of forest soils acts to hold the nutrients released by microorganisms until they are absorbed back into the web of tree roots to be recycled again. Soils with low humus content hold fewer nutrients and, when rain falls, runoff and leaching deteriorate the soils fertility. If land is returned to forest fallow soon enough after clearing, a new growth of trees can reestablish the soils humus, the web of roots, and the nutrient recycling system. The successional sequence from pioneer plant species to mature
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138 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas forest, which helps restore soil fertility in fallow areas, depends on the presence of nearby seed sources, and often on animals for seed transport. Mangrove forests provide considerable amounts of organic material to adjacent and nearby ecosystems. Although obviously dominated by mangrove trees, these forests actually comprise a complex and diverse association of marine and terrestrial animals and plants whose members range from tiny filamentous algae to epiphytic bromeliads, and from microscopic zooplankton to frigate birds, turtles, and alligators (10,16). Marine plants and invertebrates, in particular, contribute to the nutrient cycling function of the mangrove forests generating significant amounts of particulate and dissolved nutrients which augment growth of adjacent seagrass and coral reef communities (16). Coral Roof Nutrient Cycling Reef corals and algae extract calcium from the seawater to make solid calcium carbonate: the coelenterates build the hard theca or homes in which they live and the algae form a hard lime crust, both of which comprise the solid reef structure. The waves and currents on the fore-reef 3 carry nutrients to the reef organisms and thus the reef tends to grow outward (11). Clearly, the interaction of the biotic components with their environment contribute to the maintenance and expansion of an ecosystem. In an undisturbed coral reef ecosystem the individual components interact to maintain equilibrium. Proper distribution of trophic levels is necessary to the efficient maintenance of the ecosystem. Various species graze on the coral reefs or in nearby seagrass meadows, while larger species feed on the grazers. When activities of one component exceed a sustainable level, the balance of the ecosystem is affected. For example, if primary consumer populations are reduced dramatically the food source for secondary consumers correspondingly is reduced. Similar adverse impacts may arise if secondary consumer populations are 3 Fore-reefthe seaward side of the reef. reduced, allowing overpopulation of primary consumers. While tropical ecosystems are among the most productive in the world (cf: 1), they are also vulnerable to natural and man-induced disruptions. Because most of the needed and available plant nutrients in the systems are held in the biomass, a high percentage of nutrients can be lost rapidly from exploitation. The number of species an island can support (species diversity) and species populations both decrease with decreasing island size. Because of low population levels, biota on very small islands are vulnerable to extinction (cf: 4). The equilibrium of island populations depends on rates of immigration and extinction and, hence, indirectly on distance and size (figure 5-4). The likelihood of an extinct species being replaced through immigration from a continent or another island decreases with the distance from such sources. The interrelated nature of island ecosystems is apparent in island faunal behavior. It is not uncommon for species to migrate among several ecosystems during their ontogeny. For example, the queen conch Strom bus gigas spends its larval stage sheltered in mangrove forests and moves to reef environments as an adult (16). Similarly, larvae of spiny lobster commonly setFigure isiand Island size increase: Distance from colonization source increases SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986.
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Ch. 5lslands As Integrated Systems l 139 tle among the prop roots of mangroves, move onto adjacent seagrass beds or shallow reefs as juveniles and then into deeper reef habitats as they mature (6). Some fish seek shelter on the reef, feed in seagrasses, and breed in mangroves. Spawning habits of some species result in movement between freshand seawater environments. The freshwater eel, for example moves downstream to the ocean to spawn. Coconut crabs live on the land but breed in the ocean; turtles live in the ocean but breed on land. The breeding areas of these animals are critical habitats (3). It seems that movement among ecosystems is the rule and not the exception. Thus, removal or degradation of an ecosystem may affect not only those plants and animals which continually reside within it, but also may block a migration pattern other species depend on to complete their lifecyclethus compounding the adverse effect. Interactions of the plant and animal species within each forest community commonly result in a number of beneficial effects such as nutrient cycling, expansion of vegetation through seed dispersal, and biological control of pests. Birds and bats, in particular, are often important for plant pollination and seed dispersal. CONCLUSIONS Individual island ecosystems are closely interdependent and, while each component may have unique functions, they are also important as components of the island ecosystem. Thus, in many ways, an island is a single system; the degradation of any part of it may affect the productivity of the whole (3). The closely interconnected nature of island ecosystems can constitute a major advantage or disadvantage. while the interdependency of ecosystems may compensate for deficient operation of one biological aspect (e. g., moving nutrients from an undisturbed to a degraded ecosystem), it may also result in disruption of another to such a degree that damage to the entire system is compounded. Thus, unwise use of a particular resource may result in degradation of larger resource areas. Damaging a single watershed of a large continental area may not be as devastating as damaging a small islands watershed where negative impacts may quickly affect many parts of the island ecosystem. Additionally, alternate water sources may not be as easily available as on continental areas. Clearly, then, islands cannot be considered scaled-down versions of continents (12). The difference in scale is too great, and their very natures differ considerably (3). Modification of the environment obviously is necessary to accommodate human populations. However, options exist in the methods and types of modifications to be enacted. Selection of a development approach which mimics or acts in concert with the desired natural process will result in fewer impacts on associated ecosystems. For example, agricultural expansion into previously unused forestland may take the form of gradual replacement of existing trees with fruit trees. Potential exists here not only to improve agricultural productivity but also to maintain the natural functions of the vegetative cover in the process. Observations of the linkages between ecosystems and repercussive impacts are documented in representative management plans. The programs offered by various plans offer mechanisms to manage development activities (cf: 14,15). Traditional island societies demonstrated a keen sense of the interrelated nature of the island ecosystems. Damaged or degraded areas were allowed a fallow period in which to recover in order to restore productivity. Present population pressures coupled with heightened economic desires preclude most resource uses which rely on time for recovery. Today, efforts to reclaim degraded resource areas still require recovery time. In addition, these efforts often are costly, sometimes requiring research infor-
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140 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas mation and adequate protection or regulation. However, sustainable management of a resource area offers an alternative to a lengthy recovery period. Maintaining and protecting resource integrity from the start would allow productivity over the long term without the high-cost inputs of restoring productivity or loss of productivity during recovery periods. Island peoples continue to depend on natural communities for many of their needs. Each island ecosystem, natural or modified, provides benefits to the food and fiber production of islands and contributes to the supply and effective sustained use of island renewable resources. Even areas developed for human use depend on natural ecosystems for many essential services. The cycles of water and nutrients, the flows of materials, and the movements of animal populations therefore require careful management for the island as a whole (3). Through application of rational management activities, these benefits may be sustained over the long term. CHAPTER 5 REFERENCES 1. 2. 3, 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Birkeland, C., Ecological Interactions Between Mangroves, Seagrass Beds, and Coral Reefs, Ecological Interactions Between Tropical CoastaZ Ecosystems, United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 73, 1985, in B.D, Smith, 1986. Cintron, G., Lugo, A. E., Pool, D. J., and Morris, G., Mangroves of Arid Environments in Puerto Rico and Adjacent Islands, Biotropica 10(2):110-121, 1978. Dahl, A. L., Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies To Sustain Renewable Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Eldredge, L. E., Case Studies of the Impacts of Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Resources in the U. S,-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Falanruw, M.V,C., Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Goodwin, M. L., and Sandifer, P. D., Aquiculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Hamilton, L. S., and Snedaker, S. C., Handbook for A4angrove Area iManagement (Honolulu HI: Environment and Policy Institute, East/West Center and United Nations Environment Programme, 1984). Kramer, W. P,, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service Report of Forest Investigation of Virgin Islands and Recommendations (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1930). 9. Lucas, R., Assessment of Commercial Agriculture Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 10. Smith, B. D., Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U. S.Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 11. Soucie, Edward A., Atoll Agriculture for Secondary SchooZs (Pohnpei, FSM: Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, 1983). 12. Towle, Edward, The Island Microcosm prepared for the National Park Service under contract to U.S. Agency for International Development (Washington DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, 1984). 13, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984). 14, U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmopsheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa Coastal Management Program and Fina) En vironmental Impact Statement (Washington DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1980a). 15. U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1980b). 16. Wahle, C, M., Non-Food Marine Resources Development and Management in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986.
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Chapter 6 Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry
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CONTENTS Agricultural Development Affiliated Islands . Pacific Agriculture . Caribbean Agriculture in the U. S.. . . .....,,. . . . Common Constraints to Agricultural Development in U.S.-Affiliated Islands . . . . . . Biophysical Constraints . . Social and Cultural Constraints ... Economic Constraints . . . Infrastructural Constraints . . Opportunities for Agriculture Development. . . . . Import Substitution. . . . Increased Subsistence and Commercial Production . . Export Development, . . . Agricultural Development Strategies. Page ..143 ..14 4 ..151 ..155 ..155 ..15 6 ..157 ..159 ..15 9 ..159 ..16 0 ..16 0 ..161 Characteristics of Sustainable Tropical Island Agriculture ...............16 1 Potential Strategy: Support Nonmarket Agriculture . . . . . ..166 Potential Strategy: Develop Smallholder Agriculture ..........170 Potential Strategy: Integrate Characteristics of Traditional Agriculture Into More Productive Systems . . . . . .. ...173 Potential Strategy: Develop Intensive Commercial Farming . .. ...176 Technologies Supporting Agricultural Sustainability . . . ........192 Potential Strategy: Minimize Soil Erosion and Degradation .........192 Potential Strategy: Enhance Revegetation Programs ...........198 Potential Strategy: Develop Local Soil Amendments ...................20 1 Potential Strategy: Reduce Agricultural Crop Losses .........203 Summary . . . . . .. ...207 Opportunities. . . . . . .208 Agricultural Development .........,208 Potential Strategy: Improve Research and Extension Services. . .. ...209 Page Potential Strategy: Improve Education in Agriculture. . . . .210 Chapter 6 References . ..........212 Boxes Box Page 6-A. Spice Cultivation Research ..,... ..186 6-B. Terracing. ...................19 5 Figures Figure No. Page 6-1. Traditional Agriculture on a Typical Micronesian High Island ... ... ....144 6-2. Main Categories of Land Use and Vegetation Types on Yap ... 14 7 6-3. Slopes and Appropriate Conservation Measures . . .......,....196 Tables Table No. Page 6-1. Principle Crop and Livestock Commodities in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands ...,.,.. ., ........15 1 6-2. Trends introduction of Selected Commodities in Puerto Rico ......153 6-3. Comparison of Population Density and Arable Land Acreages in the U.S. Affiliated Pacific Islands ... ...155 6-4. Comparison of U.S. Mainland and 6-5. 6-6. 6-7. 6-8. Island Farm Sizes by Acreages . .165 Comparison of Farm Sizes by Sales Class .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ... .... ..,.166 Indicators of Subsistence and Commercial Agricultural Production in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands . . . . ..,.......167 Comparison of Yields Under Drip and Conventional Irrigation Systems in Semiarid Zones of Puerto Rico .189 Salt Tolerance of Certain Common Crops . . . ............. 203
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Chapter Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry Few areas in U.S.-affiliated islands remain unmodified by man. Most are or have been managed to some extent to provide for human needs, and many land areas have been degraded in the process through deforestation, soil erosion, and nutrient depletion. Terrestrial resources and resource systems still supply many subsistence needs on the Pacific islands, but subsistence agriculture has been declining in many areas of the Pacific, and has not been a significant activity on the Caribbean islands in this century. Semicommercial and/or intensive commercial agriculture (on smallholder or larger scales) can play a significant role in the islands economic development and progress toward greater self-sufficiency. Development of agriculture or forestry on any scale must, however, be sustainable and commercial operations will require considerable expertise and probably importation of new technologies. Developmental research also may be required. Subsistence systems, where they exist, can be protected and fostered and/or made more productive and dePhoto credit: C. Hodges Eighty percent of the American Samoan population provides or supplements family nutrition through subsistence agriculture. 143
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144 c Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas veloped to semicommercial scale. Which strategy is selected as appropriate will depend on the geographic, environmental, economic, and social characteristics of individual islands. Terrestrial resource sustainability will depend on several supportive technologies for minimizing soil erosion and crop losses and for improving the productivity of nutrient depleted soils. Revegetation programs (including reforestation efforts) could also be considered. Pacific Agriculture The maintenance of an environment meeting the needs of Pacific islanders involved a complex system of integrated resource management. Rather than rearrange the environment and expend great amounts of energy, peoples activities were directed to the most effective use of microhabitat and natural phenomena. This technology can be classified as being nature-intensive, and can be contrasted with what might be classified as Asian labor-intensive agriculture and Western energyand chemical-intensive agriculture. Many traditional practices had conservation value resulting from technological limitations of natural materials, taboos and religious beliefs, territoriality, and stratified societies (23). Traditional Agricuture 1 The terrestrial activities of early inhabitants of Caroline and Samoan high islands, whether by design, necessity or both, seem to have modified the vegetation of the freshwater runoff filtering systems to meet human needs without altering their basic functions (figure 6-l). For example, swamp forests and low areas inland of mangroves were converted to taro patches which maintained their function as silt traps. Traditional agriculture activities further inland under conditions of low population pressure probably also produced minimal increases in 1 A review of traditional Micronesia high island practices currently is underway at the University of Guam Water and Energy Resources Institute (45). Figure 6=1.Traditionai Agriculture on a Typicai Micronesia High Voicanic island Natural I Modified Traditional Ecosystems Agroecosystems Montane vegetation on ridges and in ravines L Open canopy agriculture v Lagoon agroforest J SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1987.
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. Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 145 soil erosion (24). Atoll agricultural practices were developed to protect crops from salt spray and to place them in proximity to the freshwater lens. Traditional agriculture systems still can be found throughout the Pacific territories, although some areas have developed these to a greater extent than others. Common systems are: l culture of wetland tare, l atoll pit taro culture, l mixed tree gardening, l intermittent tree gardening, l lanchos and backyard gardens, and l traditional open canopy culture. The tree gardens and taro patch systems offer stability and the intermittent gardens offer variety, resilience, and a means of adapting to each years weather conditions. Taro Patch Systems.Species and varieties of food plants in the family Araceae, generally thought of as tare, can be grown in wet or relatively dry situations. The latter are dealt with in the section on mixed gardening. Culture of wetland taro generally involves preparation of taro patches and management of water and is considered here as a distinct system. Sites chosen for taro patches are mostly marshy lowland areas such as exist in swamp forests just inland of mangroves. These are deepened as needed and water is generally directed to flow through the patch. Cyrtosperma taro is more shade tolerant than Colocasia (true tare), and is thus more compatible with tree culture, and is an integral part of the agroforestry system of Yap. Taro patches are generally managed on an individual or family basis, the individual taro patch having been handed down from one generation to the next. Where taro patch habitat is extensive, the area is subdivided into separately tended subplots (22). Palau appears to have the most highly developed cultural methods for Colocasia tare. There, the development of a taro patch involves the clearing of a suitable area, in many or perhaps most instances, the site of a previously worked patch. The area may be drained and soil is dug up and leaves, twigs, seagrasses, and other locally available forms of green manure are laid down and covered with soil. The patch is then thoroughly mixed and cultured to obtain a nutrient-rich muck of desired consistency. planting material consists of small corms or the tops of corms which have previously been harvested. These are planted in depressions and soil is mounded about developing corms to encourage large growth. A considerable body of expertise exists involving the choice of green manures; choice of cultivar suitable for the site and intended use; management of water; and planting and tending the plant in order to obtain the desired shape, size, and consistency of the corm. Palauan taro patches are divided into sections in which the intensity of management is related to the end product: a fairly intensively worked area to provide for a families caloric needs, a section with optimal conditions for producing especially high-quality corms for special people or occasions, and sections which are worked less intensively for reserve supplies (107). Colocasia is harvested from 6 months to a year after it is planted depending on the variety and other conditions. The harvested product will not keep long, so only as much as can be consumed is harvested. A continuous supply is provided by successive plantings throughout the year. Once a Colocasia patch has been established, it is not necessary to repeat the process of moving soil and adding large amounts of green manure unless the quality of the growing media declines. Culture of Cyrtosperma chamissonis is less labor-intensive than that of Colocasia and seems to rely more on the natural transport of nutrients in water directed through the taro patch. Green manure is not commonly added, and cultural methods involve the periodic removal of fallen vegetative material and debris in order to maintain the flow of water through the system. Replanting of Cyrtosperma is done at the same time as harvesting, and there is no hiatus required to recondition and replant the patch. Atoll Pit Taro Culture.Atoll soils are largely made up of sand and silt-sized particles of limestone and are typically low in organic carbon,
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146 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas nitrogen, and potassium. The soil has a low water-holding capacity because of its coarse texture, and the activity of soil microorganisms is limited (102). Cultivation of giant taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis) on atolls involves excavating pits down to the level of the freshwater lens, commonly several feet, inserting a bottomless basket made of woven twigs, and filling it with mud mixed with leaves and other organic matter. Then cuttings of giant taro are planted in the muddy substrate in the basket (41,148). Fertilizers are derived from composted leaves, coconut fronds and husks, manures, dried starfish or shark, or rotted sea cucumber (22,102). Thus, taro pit culture is effectively similar to container agriculture, wherein the water and soil management efforts are concentrated in a small area. Placing the taro plants in pits allows their roots closer access to freshwater and provides some protection from salt spray. Bananas may be planted on the margins of taro pits to take advantage of the higher organic content in nearby soils (102), further protecting taro plants from sea spray. Tree Gardens. One special form of Micronesia agriculture is the tree garden, found throughout the high islands of Micronesia, and containing a high proportion of food producing species. In their simplest form, such gardens consist of a mix of coconut (Cocos nucifera) and breadfruit (Artocarpus spp.) with occasional other trees. Such areas are extensive in Truk. More complex systems developed on other high islands in the Pacific. Tree gardens on Yap involve about 50 tree species, including betel nut (Areca catechu), a wide variety of bananas Musa spp.), mangoes (Mangifera indica), many varieties of Citrus spp., cacao (Theobroma cacao), papayas (Carica papaya), guava (Psidium guajava), and other food trees mixed with timber and wild tree species, and with an understory of shrubs and herbs useful for food, fiber, medicine, condiments, ornamentation, etc. (22). Animals maintained in Yapese village tree gardens include penned or tethered pigs and chickens and feral chickens in the bush. Fruit bats may forage in these areas at night. Within the crop and tree species that have long been cultivated by Yapese, there are numerous locally recognized varieties. There are, for example, 21 names for coconut varieties, 28 names for breadfruit, and 37 names for varieties of bananas. Such tree gardens represent a considerable collection of genetic diversity. Unlike temperate seasonal agriculture, traditional tree gardens are a permanent fixture and take years to develop. Existing natural vegetation is gradually manipulated into agroforest (22,94). The likely process on Yap was the planting of food trees and other useful trees about homesteads, and in the drained areas created by the excavation of taro patches and construction of paths between homes and villages. Backyard and pathside tree gardens became confluent and today make up about 27 percent of Yaps vegetation (figure 6-2). The objective of traditional tree gardening systems is to achieve a permanent, long-term, stable agroforestry system, primarily on poorer/ marginal lands. Tree gardening can be considered a long-term investment, taking up to a lifetime to complete, with large initial labor and energy inputs for planting and maintenance. Once a stable-state tree garden system is established, little labor and energy are expended for activities other than harvesting (99). Tree gardens recycle nutrients through leaf falls. They are maintained largely by the pruning activities of their owners, who select for desired trees by cutting or girdling those trees that are not desired. Many of the trees propagate themselves by root growth (as with breadfruit), or seed. Fruit bats aid seed dispersal in some cases. People preserve certain volunteer species as well as planting other desired varieties and species. Intermittent Gardens.Areas around and generally inland of villages are used for gardens of yams and other crops generally grown in mixed, multilayered culture and alternated with a fallow period in which secondary forest growth develops. Mixed culture of yams and other food crops is practiced on most high Pacific islands, especially on Pohnpei where culture of especially large or old yams can pro-
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 147 Figure 6-2.Main Categories of Land Use and Vegetation on Yap I Freshwater wetlands and ponds Savanna fernlands (very degraded) Tall forest Low forest ~ \ Open canopy cultivation Urban Agroforest, coconut grove Agroforest Agroforest with secondary vegetation Weedy secondary vegetation Low and secondary forest with weedy vegetation SOURCE: M.C.V. Falanruw, Traditional Agriculture and Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. vide the grower social status. Four general types of areas are typical: 1. Early second-growth forest fallow: Areas on the outskirts of villages which have become covered with a characteristic set of small second-growth trees and often with an understory of ferns. Such areas are generally the site of a previous garden (and are indicated as weedy, replacement vegetation in figure 6-2). 2. Advanced second-growth forest fallow: Areas on the outskirts of villages which are covered with secondary forest consisting of a characteristic set of tree species (indicated as low and secondary forest with weedy vegetation in figure 6-2). 3. Bamboo gardens: Areas on the outskirts of villages which are covered with a mix of secondary vegetation and two species of bamboo. These areas resulted from the planting of bamboo in earlier days when the large and small bamboo were needed in house construction, and the large bamboo was used to build rafts, the most common type of water transport. Now that rafts are used less, other building materials are available, and the style of houses built by young couples is less traditional, areas of bamboo are often burned to be used as gardens. 4. Special-purpose yam gardens: Areas within villages where neat raised beds are constructed and bamboo poles brought in to build a series of yam trellises. These areas generally are the work of a group of women growing yams to present on a special occasion. Such gardens are limited in size, more labor-intensive, and do not generally have a variety of other crops planted in the same site. Sites chosen for intermittent gardens are relatively well-drained areas of secondary vegetation (often the sites of previous gardens) within the land available to the family or borrowed for such use. The soil in areas of secondary forest are richest and there is a nearby supply of poles for trellises, so such areas are preferred.
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148 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas The first step in making a garden is to open a skylight in the canopy by clearing herbaceous vegetation. This is piled about trees and burned. Sometimes trees may be girdled before being burned. Standing logs and surrounding vegetation commonly are left to shade young plants, or the canopy may be removed gradually so that young plantings are shaded the first part of their lives. The major crop grown in such gardens are yams of the genus Dioscorea. The tops of tubers which have been previously harvested, as well as small whole yams are planted. A border of fallen logs often is formed about the yam plantings and mulch is piled within this area. Trellises of poles, often of bamboo, provide pathways for yam vines to grow up into the sunlight and produce large tubers. In areas rich in bamboo, trellises may consist of tall teepees of three or more poles tied together at the top. In Pohnpei, vines are trained to climb trees along a string, often made of Hibiscus bark, which is tied to a stone and thrown up to the first branches of the tree. When the yam vines reach the first branches, additional strings may lead the vine to higher branches. The tree may be injured or killed so that it drops part or all of its leaves as the vine covers the tree. This new vegetation forms a canopy similar to that furnished previously by the tree. After yams are planted in the choicest microhabitat, the rest of the garden area is filled in with a mix of other crops, generally in a predictable succession: pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.) and wax gourds (Benicasa hispida) which grow fast in the ash fertilizer and form a protective layer of vegetation over the soil. These often die back by the time the yams and other crops have made their major vegetative growth. Sweet potato vines may be planted in raised mounds although they are more often planted in open areas. Pineapples and sugarcane maybe planted in suitable areas. Other crops include certain taro species, bush spinach (Abelmoschus manihot), and winged beans (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus). Banana may be planted and weeds that are cleared from the garden piled about the trees as mulch. Papaya, passionfruit, and luffa vines may grow voluntarily or from old plantings in the area. Sometimes a few fruit trees from nearby agroforests may be present. These crops grow rapidly so that a multistoried canopy of leaves is formed by the time the rainy season starts. Intermediate crops are harvested as they mature and yams are harvested at the end of the growing season. The garden may then be replanted if the soil remains fertile, otherwise it is only sporadically tended to harvest tree crops and other long-term crops, and gradually is abandoned. Gardens are seldom used for more than 3 consecutive years. After gardens are abandoned, they go through a series of successional stages as the wild canopy reforms. They are invaded first by her-
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 149 baceous weeds followed by woody species. Seed dispersal commonly is aided by birds and fruit bats (21). "Lanchos" and Backyard Gardens.Traditional agricultural activities in the Marianas are not well documented. However, wild food plants found in the Marianas indicate that the original inhabitants ate the food found on other high islands of Micronesia (22). The neotraditional agriculture system of the Marianas was the development of lanchos or ranches where food was grown by people who resided in village areas. Lanchos were generally located in rural wooded areas and consisted of a simply built cooking and sleeping house surrounded by food trees, chickens, pigs, and gardens. Although many lanchos still are in use on Guam (84], they are harder to find in the Marianas where population increases, division of family lands, economic development, and food stamp programs result in competitive uses for land and decrease the need to raise ones own food. Fresh local produce remains important for fiestas, however, and is reflected in poaching of deer and fruit bats and importation of traditional foods from other islands (22). Traditional Open Canopy Agriculture. Crops grown in openland areas include sweet potatoes, cassava, and vegetables. Garden beds are reconditioned by clearing or burning unwanted vegetation from the site. Debris is piled on the garden, sometimes with additional mulch such as seagrass. Ditches are dug or deepened around the garden bed and the soil piled on top of the mulch. The result is drainage of the garden, suppression of weeds and development of a sandwich of soil, mulch, soil. Cuttings may be planted directly or in raised rows (22). Commercial Agriculture Developmemt After western contact, traditional agricultural technologies were modified to varying degrees by voluntary incorporation of methods or implements introduced by settlers, missionaries, and colonial governments. Few wholly subsistence farmers remain. In Micronesia, numerous attempts have been made to develop commercial agriculture, beginning with the development of the copra trade by the Germans in the late 19th century. Coconut palms were planted on many islands and villagers were organized to process dried coconut meat (copra) for export to Germany (86). The Japanese expanded commercial agriculture through the cultivation of sugarcane in the Northern Marianas; cassava, sweet potato, coffee, and other crops in Pohnpei; and various other commercial farming and related industries throughout Micronesia. Agricultural colonies were established, generally with imported Asian workers. The Japanese provided support for agriculture through provision of materials, technical advice and assistance, selection of technologies that maximized use of local resources, and a comprehensive marketing program. Both the German and Japanese efforts primarily served the colonial power and natives were used mainly for unskilled labor. With the advent of the U.S. administration at the end of World War II, the Japanese-supported commercial agriculture development which had led Micronesia to become a selfsupporting part of the Japanese Empirequickly disappeared. Initially, exploitation of existing island resources was a very low priority with the new U.S. administration; securing military interest was a primary goal. Without expatriate managers, shipping services and markets, most commercial agriculture was soon abandoned and the islands again returned to subsistence food production (94). Commercial agriculture development in American Samoa, which became a U.S. possession in 1900, has progressed even less than in Micronesia. Although a small copra industry was developed, most agriculture activity is still at a subsistence level (94). Within the last 30 years, there have been renewed efforts to develop commercial agriculture, but progress has been slow and results disappointing. Several crops have been designated for commercial development in Micronesia, notably cacao in the late 1950s and early 1960s,
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150 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ramie in Palau, and banana on some high islands. More recently, efforts have been directed to developing a black pepper industry on Pohnpei and introducing vegetables throughout Micronesia (99,103,105). Efforts in American Samoa have been mainly directed at increasing local food production with some effort made to introduce commercial vegetable production. All have been introduced as small-scale projects for limited-resource farmers and many have been unsuccessful for reasons including: 1) lack of markets or low market prices, 2) technologies dependent on imported inputs, 3) lack of management skills among farmers, 4) diseases and pests, and 5) a general lack of commitment by farmers and U.S. and local governments (94). The most persistent efforts of the Pacific island government Departments of Agriculture, at least during American Administration, seems to have been the encouragement of open canopy vegetable gardens involving crops such as Chinese cabbage, green peppers, tomatoes, and corn, and introduction of western techniques of clean-field gardening using fertilizers, pesticides, etc. Several farmers successfully operate enterprises on Guam and in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) and the numbers are increasing as farmers become more adept at cultivation practices and techniques (84). However, many attempts have been unsuccessful due to high ratio of input cost to output value; soil degradation; and invasion of noxious weeds, such as the spiny Mimosa invisa, which are difficult to clear. Nonetheless, outside advisors continue to recommend such technology and outside funding continues to be made available for such efforts (22). The incidence of soil erosion is probably greatest in clean-cultivated vegetable gardens where the soil must be made friable and vegetative growth does not provide adequate protection against heavy rainfall or invasion by weeds. An increasing number of pests hinder sweet potato culture, and the repeated burning, depletion of soil nutrients, and changes in soil texture associated with cassava culture results in soil degradation (22). The environmental impact of the multilayered mixed gardens varies with the extensiveness and intensity of burning. Today, more forest and secondary vegetation is burned than is used. Part of this is due to careless gardeners and part to arson. There appears to be little concern for controlling fires that have gotten out of hand, and local fire departments tend to respond only when residences or other infrastructure are threatened (22). The expected result from too many attempts at open canopy gardening, too frequent burning of garden lands with too short fallow periods is a decrease in forest fallow areas, use of preferred sites to exhaustion and degradation of the soil. The end result of prolonged degradation of soils seems to be swordgrass savannas or Gleichenia fernlands. On Yap, extensive areas of degraded soil bear the sign of toofrequent burning and over-intensive use, and the islands genetic heritage of wild endemic species is small compared to surrounding islands (22). Current Status of Agriculture The diets of Pacific Islanders, in general, consist mainly of starchy foods, probably reflecting the kinds of crops which have been adapted to the local environments. Principal commodities produced in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are listed in table 6-1. On most islands, tare, coconut, banana, and breadfruit are grown in large quantities, primarily for home consumption. In American Samoa and the Compact States, the coconut is used for food, drink, and for making tools and utensils important in the household. In areas such as Guam and CNMI, where western and Japanese influence has been greatest, meat and vegetables have become more important parts of the diet. Pork and chicken are popular throughout the Pacific Islands, and are raised mainly for home consumption. Pigs and chickens are raised in most rural areas (108). In most of the territories eggs are produced in small volume for the market, but per capita consumption is small compared with Hawaii and
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 151 Table 6-1 .Principal Crop and Livestock Commodities in the U. S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands Commodity Islands Crop Livestock American Samoa . Banana, breadfruit, Chicken, coconut, taro eggs, pork Marshall Islands. . Banana, breadfruit, coconut, pandanus Federated States of Micronesia . . Banana, black Eggs, pork pepper, breadfruit, cassava, citrus, coconut, mango, pandanus, papaya, sweet potato, taro t yam Northern Marianas . Avocado, banana, Beef, eggs, breadfruit, cassava, milk, pork cucumber, mango, other melons, papaya, sweet potato, tare, yam Guam . . . .Avocado, banana, Chicken, breadfruit, cassava, eggs, pork chinese cabbage, cucumber, eggplant, green beans, head cabbage, melons, papaya, sweet potato, tare, tomato, watermelon, yam SOURCE: R. Lucas, Role of Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the U. S.Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. continental U.S. consumption. Backyard gardening in urban as well as rural areas is a popular means to supplement the diet and income of wage earners. No shortage exists of people in Micronesia, especially young people, to form a labor pool. It is likely that the ratio of children to adults has never been as high as today. However, it is difficult for mothers of young children to care for their babies and do the strenuous work of gardening or gathering. With considerable time now spent in school, where traditional agriculture is not taught, and with motherhood coming at an early age, young women sometimes do not learn and experience all that is needed to be effective gardeners. A number of young women work in town, and leave small children with relatives, thus reducing the available work force of experienced food producers (22). Caribbean Agriculture Because of diverse factors, there is relatively little heritage of traditional, subsistence agriculture in the U.S. Caribbean. In Puerto Rico, traditional shifting agriculture was adopted by subsistence farmers of European descent and later by those of African extraction. This subsistence sector continued into the early 20th century, but little remains today. The Virgin Islands were unpopulated at the time of colonization, thus there was no tradition of indigenous agriculture passed onto later inhabitants as occurred in Puerto Rico (116). In addition, these areas experienced an extended period of agricultural production for export to colonial powers, continuing well into this century. Puerto Rico Early in Puerto Ricos nearly 400-year history of colonization, the forests were cut and up to 90 percent of the plains and mountains were tilled, largely for sugarcane, coffee, tobacco (131) and, to a lesser extent, for bay trees (Pimenta racemosa) (11). The island was no longer self-sufficient in wood and paper products as early as 1830 (131). Even 50 years ago, Puerto Rico had an agricultural economy based primarily on sugarcane and, to a lesser extent, on coffee, tobacco, and cattle. With the notable exceptions of rice, beans, and codfish (dietary staples), most food was produced locally. Heavy hillside soil erosion severely hindered tobacco cultivation and contributed to reduction in already economically stressed sugar operations. The sediment laden runoff silted water supply facilities; seven major reservoirs lost a total of 32,500 acre-feet of storage capacity and two were totally filled and had become grazing areas (131). Hillside tobacco and sugar land was abandoned as the profit margin decreased. The land returned to scrub brush and tree cover having little economic value. Sugarcane cultivation on flat coastal lands continued. Substantial reduction in damage to land and water resources has occurred over the last 25 years primarily be-
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152 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas cause of natural revegetation of abandoned croplands, and aided by some adoption of conservation practices such as strip and contour cropping, drainage, grazing and brush management, and spring development (131). Harvested land in Puerto Rico declined from 724,000 acres to 283,851 acres between 1959 and 1978 (157). Abandoned farms commonly belong to persons over 50 years of age who may farm part-time, but who derive much of their income from sources outside farming. The causes of abandonment include lack of working capital, advanced age of the owner, or a preferred course of income outside the farm (10). Economic and sociological studies (8,31, 64) have shown that family-sized farms are rarely profitable due to their limited size; steep, unproductive soils; and lack of credit, entrepreneurial abilities, and technical assistance with production and marketing. Sometimes beef cattle are raised on grass-covered abandoned lands. In 1950, agriculture provided 215,000 jobs (36 percent of total employment) and contributed 18 percent of the commonwealth product. There are now 40,000 jobs in agriculture, which accounts for 5 percent of the commonwealth product. Production at the farm level is valued at about $580 million with a retail value of about $1.2 billion. Sugarcane production has fallen 90 percent since 1952, and tobacco production has almost disappeared. Coffee producers still provide for three-fourths of local consumption, but they are protected from competition with imported coffee by locally set tariffs (143). Puerto Rican diets also have changed significantly in recent decades. Despite declining per capita consumption of starchy vegetables, the total amount of food consumed per capita has increased (131). Production of milk, eggs, poultry, and pork has more than doubled since 1952 (table 6-2) (89,90,143). Meat and dairy products now comprise 60 percent of the value of farm output in Puerto Rico. Approximately 600,000 acres are used for pasture, however, approximately 500,000 tons of feed for cattle, pigs, and poultry are imported yearly, mostly from the U.S. mainland; none is produced locally (143). The Puerto Rican Government has instituted a number of measures to increase and improve local agriculture. Farmers are exempt from 90 percent of local income taxes. Land taxes are low and land used for intensive agricultural production is exempt. Agricultural land also is exempt from inheritance taxes (143). Of the approximately 1,500 college-trained agriculture specialists on the island, 800 are employed by the government in agencies related to agriculture. The Puerto Rican Government also has made a number of costly and largely unsuccessful efforts to develop modern, large-scale farming in several parts of the island. A local rice industry was developed on government lands on
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 153 Table 6-2.Trends in Production of Selected Commodities in Puerto Rico Product ion Production Consumption a 1951-52 1981-82 1981-82 Imports Commodity (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) (thousands) Sugar (tons) . . . . . . Tobacco (Ibs.) . . . . . Coffee (Ibs.) . . . . . . Fresh milk (qts) . . . . . Beef (lbs) . . . . . . Pork (lbs) . . . . . . Poultry (lbs). . . . . . Eggs (doz) . . . . . . Pineapple (tons) . . . . . Plantains (thousands). . . . Bananas (thousands) . . . . Tanier (lbs) . . . . . . Sweet potatoes (lbs) . . . . Yams (lbs) . . . . . . Oranges (thousands) . . . . Grapefruit (thousands) . . . Citron (lbs.) . . . . . . Pumpkins (lbs) . . . . . Tomatoes (lbs) . . . . . Pepper (lbs) . . . . . . Cabbage (lbs) . . . . . Pigeon peas (lbs) . . . . Taro (lbs) . . . . . . Cassava (lbs). . . . . . Potatoes (lbs) . . . . . Rice (lbs) . . . . . . Beans (lbs) . . . . . . Onions (lbs). . . . . . Corn (lbs.). ..,... . . . . Grapes (lbs). . . . . . Garlic (lbs) . . . . . . Cocoa (lbs) . . . . . . 1,360 61,949 52,249 48,305 24,700 18,800 12,600 9,500 22 170 1,120 95,239 61,729 56,438 144 16 16,094 40,124 39,683 17,416 14,550 25,573 25,353 28,660 103 3,527 55,115 395,318 38,000 40,000 52,500 21,900 42 330 720 52,910 46,297 70,768 162 7 19,621 100,750 14,991 17,637 17,637 24,251 16,535 13,228 22,046 1,764 140 85,979 401,660 114,000 113,000 195,000 39,400 3 330 720 91,491 70,547 70,768 192 9 100,750 77,822 30,203 37,478 27,558 16,535 18,739 291,669 683,426 97,002 78,704 992,070 5,100 3,600 37 30,864 6,342 b 76,000 C 73,000 d 142,000 17,500 38,581 22,046 287 3 1 e 2 62,831 13,228 23,369 3,307 5,523 291,669 661,380 94,798 81,570 992,070 5,100 3,600 l0,000 f a Exports from Puerto Rico to the USVI and to others account for some of the discrepancies between imports, local production and consumption b The equivalent of about 158,550,000 quarts are imported in dry or condensed form. c 28,000,000 pounds from the U.S. and 48,000,000 pounds from foreign countries. d Plus 28,000,000 pounds of ham. e Plus 4,000,000 gallons of concentrate, f Plus 15,000,000 pounds of chocolate candies, SOURCE: Vicente-Chandler J., Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean islands;" OTA Commissioned paper 1988. the north coast in 1978. A rice mill was constructed and the lands were precision-leveled at considerable cost in time and money (143). However, the rice project has not become self sustaining. Seven years ago, the Government of Puerto Rico started a modern vegetable industry on about 5,000 acres on the south coast by leasing lands and providing credit and facilities to two large Israeli companies and 13 local farmers. Approximately 2,500 acres now have drip irrigation systems and two packing plants were constructed. Crops were grown for both local and export markets with some success. However, in 1986 one project (April-Agro) reportedly was foreclosed by the Puerto Rican Government due to nonpayment of a large government loan although some of its activities are continued. The remaining operationISPRAC continues operation. Today, Puerto Rico annually imports about 1.2 billion dollars worth of food (with a retail value of $1.8 billion), and about 400 million dollars worth of wood products. About 29,840 Puerto Rican farms comprise a total of l,259,700 acres (135). Several large processors of agricul-
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154 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas tural products exist in Puerto Rico but, with few exceptions, they depend almost exclusively on imported materials and are not interested in processing small periodic agricultural surpluses (143). Agriculture at present is generally characterized by low yields, high production costs, older farmers (averaging 55 years of age with a fifth grade education), and inefficient marketing systems. Attitudes are generally negative toward farming on the part of technicians, farmers, leaders, and the general public (143). Young, well-trained, and motivated farmers are scarce in Puerto Rico, probably due to the way agriculture developed on the island. Sugarcane, coffee, and cattle plantations were developed with cheap labor; landholders often delegated responsibilities to poorly trained managers. As the islands economy boomed, many landholders preferred land speculation to learning new techniques and investing in agriculture. Their offspring generally entered other professions; higher wages are paid in manufacturing, tourism, and construction. Children of subsistence farmers went to work elsewhere or migrated to the U.S. mainland. Consequently, agricultural work is considered of low status. U.S. Virgin Islands Early colonial land modification in the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) included clearing of forests both for the establishment of export crop plantations and for their commercially valuable timber species. Early in this century, St. Thomas and St. Croix were severely deforested and consisted largely of secondary scrub growth characterized by small woody shrubs. The scrubcovered land consisted of thin soil with many rock outcropping. The removal of timber species and subsequent burning damaged the soil further reducing its fertility. Historically, the majority of desirable land has not been available for small-scale subsistence agriculture. Initially, the majority of the highest quality land was held in large plantations and later, with the emergence of the tourism industry, land speculation and increased real estate prices has made much of the land inaccessible (117,143). Since 1930 there have been sharp decreases in average farm size, harvested cropland, and agricultural employment and marked increases in the percentage of operators engaged in offfarm work. In the context of waning farm effort and acreage, there have been three major adjustments in the structure of USVI agriculture (80 percent of which is concentrated on St. Croix). First, an increase in mechanization and use of fertilizers; second, the noticeable shift away from cropping toward livestock; and third is a growing bimodal structure in which there are a large number of small farms alongside a few large commercial farms. Over the past century, USVI agriculture has adapted to resource encroachment basically by reducing farm effort and size, replacing capital-intensive inputs, and changing the composition of output from export crops to domestic fruits, nuts, and vegetables. Small-scale holdings largely are secondary income-earners. The largest commercial tracts now specialize in cattle and dairy products (56). There have been some clear increases in the production of fruits, nuts, rootcrops, sheep, goats, and cattle since 1970, in part because of inflation of the prices of imported goods, slowdowns in tourism growth associated with economic recessions, and new farm efforts by Rastafarians and West Indian migrant workers who have become a permanent component of the local work force. These gains, however, occur in the long-term context of continuing reduction in farm scale and reduction in farm sales (56). Some landowners among the French agriculturists of St. Thomas have begun to sell land for residential development and many young people are looking to alternative livelihoods (117).
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 155 COMMON CONSTRAINTS TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS Major constraints to agricultural development which apply to all of the U.S.-affiliated islands generally fall into the following categories: biophysical, economic, social and cultural, and infrastructural, Major biophysical constraints are low soil fertility, limited or irregular water resources, and limited arable land of suitable soil types and level topography. Economic constraints include the small size of domestic markets for agricultural products, availability of high-paying government jobs and ready emigration opportunities, high cost of imported livestock feed and other inputs and, in tourism-dominated islands, the relatively low value of agricultural lands vis-a-vis nonrural residential or commercial real estate uses. The arduous nature and declining status of agricultural employment provide social constraints to agricultural development on some islands (13), and land tenure systems characterized by fragmented landholdings and clan influence over use rights can be primary cultural constraints to commercial development. Constraints posed by undeveloped infrastructure include lack of rural farm roads in high islands, scarcity of transportation from rural and outlying areas to central markets, and costly and irregular transportation to overseas markets (43). The degree to which the above constraints apply to U.S.-affiliated islands varies but, nevertheless, is significant in all of them, For example, cultivable land is sparse on all islands. However, there is more arable land in Pohnpei and Palau relative to population than in the Marshalls, Truk, and American Samoa (table 6-3). In all of these areas, available arable land typically is owned in relatively small parcels, few areas have flat terrain, and contiguous soils of a given type (i.e., soils suitable for a given crop) are not common. Some constraints tend to apply only to certain of the islands, for example, some islands have significant dry seasons while other islands receive evenly spread rainfall. In areas experiencing dry periods, lack of irrigation capabilities compounds limitations on farm productivity. The incidence of destructive typhoons and other tropical storms, although experienced by the majority of the U.S.-affiliated islands, tends to be much greater in the Marianas and western Caroline Islands (43). Biophysical Constraints Biological and physical (biophysical) considerations include availability of land and Table 6-3.Comparison of Population Density and Arable Land Acreages in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands 1984 Arable area Population density Islands Population a (acres) b per arable acre American Samoa . . . . 35,300 14,000 2.45 Guam . . . . . . 119,800 6,900 C 16.41 CNMI . . . . . . 18,600 30,000 d 0.65 Marshalls . . . . . 34,900 n/a FSM: n/a Kosrae . . . . . . 6,300 17,900 0.35 Pohnpei . . . . . 26,900 57,700 0.47 Truk . . . . . . 44,600 13,500 3.30 Yap. . . . . . . 10,600 21,500 0.43 Palau . . . . . . 13,000 63,500 0.20 SOURCES: a Land Use Planning Report, 13(46):365, November 25, 1985; U.S. Department of State, 1984 Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, report to the United Nations on administration of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1985; R Lucas, Role of Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the US.. Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986 b Data derived from U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service tysoil surveys of American Samoa (1984), K OS rae (1983), Ponape (1962), Truk (1983), Yap (1983), and Palau (1983), except where otherwise noted, c Arable area is based on a soil survey of lands designated as potential agriculture lands (9,920 acres) by the Guam Bureau of Planning, and exclude a large portion of Guam controlled by the military, as well as lands designated for urban and conservation use d CNMl arable acreage IS based on surveys sponsored by the Trust Territory government and cover only Saipan and Tinian Most of the acreage would need irrigation to be considered good in terms of productivity for agriculture, 63-222 0 87-6 QL. 3
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156 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas water resources, soils, topography, and climate. In general, land is in short supply on all of the U.S.-affiliated islands, but particularly in the majority of the Pacific islands and the USVI. Additionally, the quality of soils, population density, land tenure, and topographic circumstances determine the degree to which land is a constraint (43). Tropical soils in the territories have a number of limitations. Natural fertility is low compared to the nutrient needs of high-yielding crops. High rainfall in many areas leaches out basic plant nutrients and erodes the soil. Thus, conservation methods such as terracing, contouring, and conservation tillage practices become critically important. Maintaining forest canopy and vegetative cover stems erosion and maintains soil fertility by returning organic matter to the soil through the natural plant lifecycle. In clean-tilled crop production, soils are more susceptible to loss of fertility through erosion, leaching, and loss of organic matter. To overcome soil fertility problems associated with clean-tilled crop production, use of compost and organic fertilizers, return of crop residue to soil, application of lime, mulching, and crop rotation commonly are required. On coral atolls and single coral islands, soils are very porous, consisting mainly of sand and, while conducive to growing coconut palms, are not suited for most other crops (127). Annual rainfall is generous in many areas, with a fairly even distribution during the year. However, in the northern Marshalls and, to a lesser extent in Yap, Truk, the Marianas, and the Caribbean, there is a more distinct dry season which can bring drought conditions harmful to crop production. Lack of water is the main physical factor limiting agriculture in the U.S. Virgin Islands; there, evapotranspiration greatly exceeds precipitation (143). The volume of water supplies, while limiting the potential growth of the arid agricultural sector of Puerto Rico, presently does not constrain production in other areas of the island (61). Storms and torrential rainfall creates problems as well. Watersheds of high islands typically are comprised of steep valleys flanked by sharp ridges. Even if vegetated, flooding and landslides occur posing considerable hazards to agriculture and populations located in the coastal valleys. During the rainy season, cyclonic storms frequently occur in some areas. Atolls and low islands, as well as the coastline areas of high islands, frequently experience flooding and saltwater damage to crops caused by storms and storm surges (43). The interiors of high volcanic and continental islands are mountainous; much of the land area consists of steep slopes that preclude cultivation of most crops other than tree crops. For example, almost all of the land on St. Thomas and St. John is very steep to strongly sloping, representing problems for agricultural pursuits. Many agricultural areas on these islands have been terraced or planted with fruit trees (143). Land improvement, such as grading of steep slopes, improvement of drainage and irrigation, is generally quite costly. Social and Cultural Constraints Social and cultural factors may provide opportunities or constraints to agriculture, depending on the development strategy pursued. Those that are commonly perceived to constrain commercial agricultural development include land tenure and clan value systems, acquired tastes for western foods, and attitudes towards farming as an occupation. Traditional values of Micronesians and Samoans place great prestige on land and other resource use rights. Within the clan or extended family, the cultivation and gathering of crops such as tare, breadfruit, yams, and coconuts is determined by communal needs rather than by the economic return which could be obtained by marketing production. Decisions on land use are made by the clan or family head, and land use is an integral part of the social system. For example, slaughtering pigs for feasts or social gatherings involving the extended family is part of fulfilling social obligations. The high prestige value placed on land results in increasing fragmentation of parcels over time, as ownership is retained in families
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 157 that have increased in size (46,47). Acquiring land for commercial usewhere the products of the property are not to be used for subsistence and sharingmay be difficult or impossible (22). Alternatives, such as making landowners part-owners, eligible for dividends from earnings from development projects on their lands, may be required. High social value placed on land is accompanied by clan system values which require the sharing of production with clan members. The sharing extends to individual wage earnings as well. These traditional values toward land and the sharing of wealth and income tend to inhibit individual initiative towards commercial farming. Reluctance to sell or lease land also makes it difficult to consolidate land into larger parcels to enable larger scale farm operations (43). In areas such as Guam and the CNMI, leasing and selling land has become more prevalent, along with western economic values, as most households have become integrated into the wage economy (43). However, residents no longer have access to one-third of Guams land, which is controlled by the U.S. military. Considerable amounts of food could be produced if areas suited for farming that are not actively used by the military are opened for short-term leases with rates comparable to those offered by the local government (113). Land reform has long been a matter of great importance in the Caribbean. The 1940s Land Law of Puerto Rico successfully relocated squatters on small plots where they could build homes and cultivate small farms (143). Attempts at land redistribution in the USVI occurred in the 1930s with a homesteading program, but the program met with only limited success. With large increases in public employment and wage income related to U.S. Government expenditures in the Pacific Islands, western consumption standardsparticularly for convenience foodshave been increasingly adopted. Rice, flour, canned meat and fish, sugar, and beverages such as soda and beer are large import items. Prestige attached to western foods, convenience in preparation of processed foods, and lack of education on the nutritional value of fresh foods have all been contributing factors in the popularity of imported food. In addition, the influence of U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) school lunch and disaster relief food programs, which have distributed large amounts of surplus processed foods to the islands, have contributed to preferences for imported processed foods on most islands. Preferences for some imported foods lessen demand for locally grown crops, and have had a detrimental effect on nutritional status (109). Farming as an occupation is generally held in low esteem by the younger generation in many of the islands. Availability of secure, highpaying government jobs with career advancement opportunities and fringe benefits (e.g., retirement pensions, low-interest housing loans, medical insurance), and education systems which emphasize white-collar occupations result in little interest by youth in agricultural occupations (43). Well-trained, young, motivated farmers are scarce in Puerto Rico and the USVI; many young people opt for more lucrative or more highly esteemed professions (61,143). In the CNMI, where young farmers consider agriculture a potentially profitable undertaking, alien laborers from the Philippines are hired at $150 per month (80). Attitudes towards traditional agriculture systems and official and unofficial government policies range from benign approval to benign neglect. In the U.S. Pacific, it is commonly considered good to produce as much of ones food as possible, although in practice no specific programs are designed to help with traditional agriculture, perhaps because it is so much a part of Micronesia lifestyles that it is overlooked (22). Puerto Ricos attempt to encourage a smallfarm sector through the establishment of family farms (1940s Land Law) largely was unsuccessful. Economic Constraints Small domestic markets, high wage structures, USDA food programs, and lack of appropriate technology are major economic constraints to an expanded agriculture (43). Insufficient eco-
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158 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas nomic resources also may seriously constrain sustainable development of renewable resources. They particularly affect research, public education, and project implementation (15). While development of local food production and markets may be important to local food supply and nutrition, it is limited by the amount of local demand and competition with imported foodstuffs (94). Local markets can absorb relatively little local produce in the Freely Associated States (FAS) and American Samoa as most consumers also are producers; expatriate workers and urbanized locals make up the market on most islands. In some areas, a considerable demand for traditional crops exists, but problems with transport, spoilage, and inconvenience of preparation hinder their marketing (22). Markets for locally supplied commodities in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific are situated in the capital areas. However, they generally account for a small part of total commodity sales. Inadequate marketing facilities contributes to small volume, but a more basic problem is the lack of steady supply by farmers committed to growing for the market on a regular basis, i.e., lack of commercial and semicommercial farmers, as opposed to subsistence growers (43). Generally, outlets consist of combination retail/wholesale/importer market operations. Small market size is a major constraint inherent in island economies located at great distance from large population centers (e.g., Honolulu, Tokyo). Territory populations represent a small market demand for any given commodity; commercial farmers using modern technologies can produce all that can be sold on relatively few acres. For example, in Guam it has been estimated that with modern farming practices, including irrigation, only 226 acres would be required to supply almost 11 million pounds of fruits and vegetables (19 different commodities) per annum (14). In Guam, however, where many people buy a large percentage of their food, most prefer the convenience of imported produce and food products to local produce. In addition, locally grown products also must compete on local markets with products imported from the United States and other developed countries with more efficient agricultural systems, and with imports from nearby developing countries that have lower labor costs. Imports in the USVI offer almost insurmountable competition since they are available in large quantities throughout the year and are generally of good quality although expensive (143). Puerto Rico is similarly constrained by competition from lower wage areas as well as mainland U.S. imports of commodities such as poultry, eggs, dairy products, and meats (98). In Puerto Rico, a tax on imported coffee serves to protect the local industry and increase the incentive for local production. Similar systems may be needed to support development of other agricultural enterprises faced with low-cost import competition (67). Another disincentive to producing for the local market is the availability of USDA surplus food, which is free and available to many people through the extended family. In the CNMI and Guam, food stamp and school lunch programs distribute large quantities of food. For example, in Guam some 22,600 persons participated in the food stamp program in 1983, and received coupons worth $18 million in food purchasing power, The majority of the food obtained from markets with the food stamps is processed food imported from the United States. Micronesians are focusing efforts on economic development, including agriculture. The only advice available for development of food and fiber production, however, refers to nonindigenous systems (22). Many recommended projects involve large capital outlays on the part of the farmer or the government, and require outside expertise, imported energy and chemicals, and technology. These systems commonly are suited to parcels of land larger than those generally available to individuals or groups in the islands. The experts, generally on short-term assignments, frequently leave before problems arise from droughts or storms, delay in arrival of inputs, changes in personnel, lack of markets, lack of cooperation, or vandalism, that effectively end the program (22).
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 159 Infrastructural Constraints Constraints to development imposed by lack of infrastructure exist in varying degrees in all of the U.S.-affiliated islands. The main kinds of facility shortfalls are: farm roads, irrigation systems, water storage and distribution, power generation and distribution, transport facilities and service, and storage/refrigeration capacity (43), In the high islands, such as Palau and Pohnpei, farm roads are needed to enable cultivation of areas which currently are underused. In the CNMI, Palau, Yap and the northern Marshalls, reservoirs, or other sources of water, and distribution systems are needed to increase crop yields (43). In the Virgin Islands, provision for water supply infrastructure is necessary for agricultural development (61). Transportation infrastructure in the Caribbean islands generally is quite good, with welldeveloped roads and regular air and sea transportation to the United States and other Caribbean islands. In those Pacific territories with populations dispersed over a number of atolls and islands, however, inter-island surface transportation typically is inadequate to provide farmers with market access and farm inputs such as livestock feed and fertilizers. In remote U.S. Pacific islands, unreliable shipping has caused shortages of agriculture supplies, forcing producers to ration imported products and to substitute local products for imported supplies, sometimes resulting in reduced production. Because advance orders tie up cash and inventory can be slow to move, some suppliers tend to be unwilling to purchase supplies in advance (80). A combination of the shortages and unwillingness to advance order may cause a shortage mentality, which results in rationing of these agriculture supplies even when they are available. Inter-island shipping services and associated harbor docking/storage facilities need to be upgraded to enable an expansion of agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Likewise, potential for intra-regional commodity exports and exports to Hawaii and Asian countries may not be realized without improved transportation servicesparticularly in the FAS and American Samoa. There is little or no regularly scheduled surface shipping between the FAS and Asian-Pacific cities outside Micronesia. The same situation exists in American Samoa (43). Storage and refrigeration facilities are scarce in all Pacific areas, particularly in the FAS. These facilities are needed to facilitate development by providing for an increased and steady supply of domestic commodities and to improve quality (43). OPPORTUNITIES FOR AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT The constraints discussed above represent ports averaged $18.6 million in the 1981-83 formidable obstacles to agriculture developperiod (4). The CNMI imports more food per ment, but potential opportunities exist for incapita by value than anywhere else in the Pacreased crop production. Opportunities availcific despite its relatively low population denable to enhance island economic development sity (13); food valued at $23.2 million was iminclude: 1) import substitution, 2) potential for ported in 1983 (12). Also in 1983, Federated increased local production, and 3) potential for States of Micronesia (FSM) food imports were export development for at least a few high-value $11.2 million (26), and in Palau, $3.4 million commodities (43). (140). In the Marianas, the USVI, and Puerto Rico, Import Substitution a wide range of fruit and vegetables already are grown commercially (34,43). Although tradiFood imports are substantial in every territional local crops still are favored in the FAS, tory. For example, in American Samoa food imurban populations are consuming increasing
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160 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas amounts of nontraditional fresh fruits and vegetables. The non-Micronesian population in the urban centers account for part of this demand, but prestige attached to imported foods and greater awareness of nutritional benefits of fresh produce may also be contributing factors (43). A large proportion of the fresh fruit and vegetable commodities which are imported could be produced on most high islands of the territories. Examples are pineapple, papaya, cucumber, eggplant, bell pepper, citrus, sweet corn, tomatoes, avocados, green onions, Chinese cabbage, and head cabbage in Pohnpei (47). The Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has determined on the basis of its soil surveys that most of these commodities also can be grown in Kosrae (128), Truk (127), Yap (128), Palau (129) and American Samoa (125). Puerto Rico is self-sufficient in plantain, bananas, pumpkin, and tare, and at least 60 percent of products such as raw sugar, coffee, freshmilk, eggs, taniers (cocoyam taro), sweet potatoes, yams, oranges, and grapefruit are locally produced. Opportunities still exist to substitute some locally grown vegetables for currently imported produce (143), but those that can be imported cheaply from the mainland United States and that require large acreages of land are not good candidates for import substitution (78). The USVI is nearly self-sufficient in egg and milk production (56). Increased Subsistence and Commercial Production In addition to increased domestic production for import substitution, there is substantial scope for increasing subsistence and commercial agricultural production of traditional crops, as well as other crops which are not imported but could be grown locally if domestic demand could be developed. Although semicommercial and commercial farming can be expected to become proportionately larger given a sustained agricultural development program, initially packages of practices for traditional crop and livestock commodities could be developed to raise subsistence productivity. With respect to commercial farming, modern technology already available in other tropical areas can be adapted to selected locally produced commodities. Export Development Large export markets potentially are accessible by island producers: primarily Japan for western Pacific islands and the U.S. mainland for U.S. Caribbean islands. In order to penetrate these markets, several hurdles must be overcome. Export marketing requirements include regular, significant volume shipments of high-quality products; prices competitive with similar productslocally produced and imported in the export market; and, for fresh produce, pestand disease-free products that can pass the commonly strict animal and plant quarantine regulation of importing countries. Depending on the product exported, reliable and cheap transportation may be a requirement. Generally, successful export crops are characterized by high value per unit weight, superior quality, low production cost, and low cost and relative ease of transport. Pohnpei black pepper, which is characterized by these qualities, was able to penetrate the U.S. gourmet market (29). Ornamental plants, honeydew melons, and mangoes are exported successfully from Puerto Rico. Other high-value commodities which might be grown in the U.S. high islands include coffee, cacao, nuts, spices, and essential and perfume oils (94,126,127,128, 129,130). Opportunities for intra-regional trade also are possible for certain commodities such as sweet corn, bananas, pineapple, papaya, and selected vegetables. Coordinated agricultural development planning among Pacific and Caribbean islands would enable some degree of specialization for areas with a comparative advantage for particular commodities (43).
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 161 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES Commercial agriculture development continues to be emphasized as desirable for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Goals of such development include increasing employment opportunities in the rural and outlying areas, stemming migration to over crowded urban centers, building the private sector through development of local renewable resources, increasing local food production, replacing imported food items and build self-reliance, and generating cash for the island economies (94). A basic premise underlying commercial agricultural development is that, in every territory, the private sector must be made more productive to support standards of living to which residents have become accustomed. Further, that economic development options other than agriculture are sufficiently limited so that territorial governments cannot ignore agricultures development potential. Since imports constitute the bulk of island consumption, for territories to improve economic self-sufficiency they must either produce the goods they consume locally or generate overseas earnings (through commodity or services exports) to pay for the imports. Given the currently large food imports in most of the territories, domestic agriculture can contribute to the ultimate goal of overall economic self-sufficiency by producing for import substitution or for exportin either case, agriculture would have to become increasingly commercialized (43). However, in view of the pervasive nature and severity of the constraints to agricultural development, and the present levels of standards of living, consumption, and expectations, total self-sufficiency or even near self-sufficiency in domestic food production is unlikely on most islands. An alternative goal might be optimal use of lands best suited to crop production taking into account other land use requirements; large amounts of arable lands may not be farmed where other uses are deemed more socially important (43). Characteristics of Sustainable Tropical Island Agriculture Successful tropical island agricultural systems generally exhibit ecological characteristics which mimic and extend natural processes by providing for water and nutrient flow, and maintaining a canopy to protect and enhance soil quality at critical periods, especially during times of heavy rainfall. An agricultural system which incorporates a diversity of crop species and varieties strengthens the systems resilience to disruption from pests and disease outbreaks and, further, provides the farmer with a variety of products throughout the year even where erratic weather patterns exist. For such systems to be readily adopted, they may need to be based on traditionally used systems and should require minimal exotic nonrenewable inputs such as fossil fuel energy or derived chemicals (22), Sustainable agricultural systems commonly: l l l l l l mimic natural tropical systems; emphasize or incorporate perennial crops; emphasize optimization of components rather than maximization of yield; emphasize recycling of locally available nutrients; emphasize incremental changes from extant systems; and provide farmer and consumer security in areas prone to natural disasters. Mimic Natural Tropical Systems The major mechanism through which sustainable tropical agricultural systems mimic natural tropical systems is through maintaining a multistoried vegetative soil cover. The vegetation protects the soil from erosion and provides soil organic matter in the form of leaf fall and roots. The growth and recycling of organic matter is similar to that occurring in tropical forests. In agroecosystems, these benefits can be generated through polyculture systems,
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162 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas planting a polyculturea diversity of plant species and varietiescan increase yields by reducing plant competition, by taking advantage of differences in microhabitat, by reducing the intensity of pest and disease infestations, and through beneficial plant interactions. Thus, sustainable tropical agriculture emphasizes managing biotic interactions within the agroecosystem rather than divorcing the agroecosystem from natural factors and replacing them with imported nonrenewable resources. Monoculture. The cultivation of a single crop on a unit of land has been the main commercial cropping technology introduced to the islands to date. Historically, colonial powers in the Pacific and the Caribbean have favored the monoculture approach (e.g., in the Pacific: the Germans with coconut plantations, the Japanese with sugarcane, rice, cassava, sweet potato, etc. and the Americans with cacao, rice, banana, ramie, black pepper; in the Caribbean: the Danes and Spaniards with sugarcane). Traditionally, however, very few cases of monoculture existed originally in local agriculture practices (94). Benefits of monoculture are many and, thus, large agricultural systems have been built around this technology. The main advantage of monoculture is uniformityin planting, fertilizing, cultivating, and harvestthus favoring intensive use of inputs such as improved and hybrid cultivar varieties, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and mechanization (94). This uniformity in product and harvest period also simplifies large-scale processing. Monoculture systems also are simpler to research and develop than polycultures, whose permutations can appear infinite. These advantages do not translate easily to small-scale farming systems with limited available resources. Capital often is not available to invest in the improved inputs needed to sustain successful monoculture. Labor, needed for tillage, planting, and harvesting, which tend to be concentrated into peak periods, rarely is available to farmers who must depend mainly on family labor. The uniform harvest and greater yield requires adequate storage, processing, and marketing facilities which currently are lacking on some U.S.-affiliated islands. Monoculture also encourages the spread of pests and diseases in the absence of natural barriers found in more diverse ecosystems. Also, in monoculture, as in any cropping system that needs total land-clearing and regular tillage, erosion can be a serious problem, even when terraces and contour-farming are practiced. All of these factors can add up to a generally unlikely and risky prospect for many island farmers. Few small-scale, limited-resource farmers, who must depend on their farm for their familys food, are willing to take such risks. Another factor, which planners and agriculturists tend to overlook, is that a small farmer, faced with decisions on how best to use his extremely limited land resource, is likely to avoid any technology that will entail tying up a large percentage of land to grow a single crop (94). Thus, monoculture are likely to be undertaken only when markets are guaranteed, when competition is restrained (e.g., if farmers agree to specialize on certain crops) or if crop harvests are staggered (80). Monoculture does, however, hold some possibilities for further development in Micronesia, especially in those areas where landholdings are relatively large (e. g., on government leased lands). Ponape Agriculture and Trade School on Pohnpei has been running a 20-acre mechanized commercial farm for nearly 10 years based on monoculture of sweet potato, corn, cassava, banana, and beans (94). Farmers in Guam and the Northern Marianas also have developed successful vegetable monoculture systems. Each of these systems depends on excellent tillage and cultivation (generally mechanized), well-planned crop rotation schemes, and imported commercial fertilizer and pesticides. Also, markets in these areas are fairly well developed. New methods of monoculture have been developed in Africa and the United States designed to reduce erosion and/or capital investment by replacing tillage with herbicides. Proponents of these systems claim that the dead mulch left after herbicide treatment helps keep
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry s 163 soils cool, suppresses weed growth, encourages water retention and growth of soil building organisms, as well as reducing erosion to as little as 2 percent of that of clean-tilled fields (151). However, with the extremely high cost and irregular availability of herbicides imported into Micronesia, dangers of pesticide misuse and the general reluctance of farmers to practice monoculture technologies, it is unlikely that any of these systems will support commercial agriculture in Micronesia (94). Polyculture. Concurrent mixed cropping of two or more crops on a unit of land is the form of most traditional agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands. A common form of polyculture is intercropping, the planting of two or more crops together at the same time by row, strip, or in a seemingly random mixture. Another form is relay cropping, with a second crop being planted into the original crop before the latters harvest. This allows growth of a second crop without tillage. Agroforestrya mixture of annual and woody perennial species, sometimes including animals is the basis of traditional agriculture in the Pacific. Agroforestry systems depend on creation and maintenance of a multistoried, semipermanent stable system. The productivity of the system is based on the positive interactions between the plants (and between plants and animals) giving the farmer a continuous food supply over the long term (94). Alley or avenue cropping is another form of agroforestry which consists of planting trees, usually a fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing legume species in rows, with annual crops planted in the alleys or avenues. The deep-rooted trees, which act as nutrient pumps and erosion barriers, are pruned at short intervals and the prunings are plowed into the alleys as green manure. A complex form of polyculture is Energy Integrated Farming or Biogenic Farming. These systems incorporate livestock production with algae and fish ponds, annual and tree crop production, and a biogas digester, the effluent of which is used as fertilizer and irrigation water (see ch. 8). These systems are highly energy efficient. Systems have been operational on an experimental level in the Northern Marianas and Yap, but have not been widely adopted on the U.S. Pacific islands (94). Such systems are in operation in Puerto Rico (2). Polyculture systems offer a number of benefits, particularly important in the tropics, that are not available from monoculture systems. The mixture of crops and animals tends to discourage the spread of pest and disease infestations, and the multi-story plant canopy decreases erosion, increases capture of solar energy for photosynthesis, and shades and cools the soil. The varied geometry of root systems exploits the soil profile and nutrients more fully than monoculture systems. Overall production per unit of land often is higher than in monoculture systems, although the yield of individual crops per land unit may be lower (30,115). The increased variety of crops and livestock, as well as beneficial interactions between different species result in a more sustainable agricultural system than monoculture (94). Also, because polyculture outputs closely approximate local consumption requirements, there also is inherent stability in the market or pattern of demand, in contrast to the instability characteristic of internationally sensitive monoculture markets (e.g., sugar, copra) (56). Finally, some farmers may practice polycultures not only because they are traditional in the islands but because the farmers are willing to sacrifice some amount of product yield and quality to save in expenditures on fertilizers and pesticides (80). Polyculture has not been developed for largescale commercial agriculture mainly because it does not lend itself well to mechanization or increased fertilizer and pesticide inputs. Polyculture systems also require more research, planning, and management than monoculture if they are to become fully competitive with monoculture in the short-term, since several different crops must be cared for on the same land unit (94).
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164 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Emphasizes or Incorporates Perennial Crops In addition to incorporating a number of crop species and varieties, traditional agricultural systems commonly are comprised of crops with staggered planting and harvest periods. Perennial crops, usually shrub or tree crop species, are typical members of traditional polyculture systems. Although developing a traditional Yapese agroforest or tree garden may take years, once established relatively little input is required for their maintenance and food and other products can be harvested essentially in perpetuity. Developing a modern agroforest, in which species spacing is carefully planned and individuals are planted rather than allowed to volunteer, can take considerably less time. Most major tropical plantation crops also are perennial crops, such as coconuts, coffee, and cacao. Permanent crops are estimated to occupy at least 8 percent of the total arable area in developing countries (69). One of the most widely grown tropical tree crops is the coconut palm, covering some 15 million acres, although it is mostly grown on smallholdings in densely populated areas (69). Smallholders commonly intercrop coconuts with annual crops during the early stages of plantation establishment, but modern plantations generally maintain their traditional characteristics: monocultural production of an export crop, extensive and, in some cases, underutilization of land, and a high manual labour input (69). With increasing populations and the need for intensification of land uses, planners and policymakers are increasing their attention to the potential of integrating plantation crops, annual crops, livestock raising, and forestry (69). Emphasizes Optimization of Components Rather Than Maximization of Yield A sustainable tropical agricultural system places primary emphasis on maximizing agroecosystem stability through managing biotic interactions and minimizing demand for human and industrial inputs (42). For example, intercropping and crop and field rotations are commonly practiced in tropical subsistence farming systems to minimize weeds and pest infestation and to maintain soil fertility. This is not to say that crop yield per land unit cannot be as high as those in temperate systems, in fact biomass yields may be higher due to the yearround growing season. However, the primary goal of these systems is to derive as many benefits as possible from natural actions and interactions, thus reducing input and labor costs of managing the systems to produce goods for human consumption or sale. Emphasizes Recycling of Locally Available Nutrients Traditional agriculture in the islands relied heavily on infusions of green manures to provide plant nutrients to infertile soils. Agricultural inputs are derived from composted leaves and other organic materials and manures, or even from dried starfish or rotted sea cucumber (22,102). On resource-poor islands such as atolls, the ubiquitous coconut fronds and husks are used to supplement the meager organic matter content of soils for crop cultivation (102). In recent years, introduced agriculture implements and chemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) also have been incorporated into the traditional cultivation systems. Reliable information on the types, amounts, and availability of various organic wastes useful for improving the productivity of agricultural soils is lacking on many islands. Successful planning and implementation of organic recycling programs requires such information as a first step. Several common types of waste that can be used are: 1) animal manure; 2) crop residues and cut vegetation; 3) algae, seagrasses and marine animal products (e.g., starfish, sea cucumber); 4) sewage sludge; 5) food processing wastes (e.g., rum brewery byproducts); 6) organic industrial wastes (e.g., some pharmaceutical wastes); 7) logging and wood manufacturing wastes; and 8) municipal refuse. Information is needed on the quantity currently generated, present and potentially competitive uses, value as fertilizer, and problems and constraints affecting use.
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and forestry 165 Emphasizes Incremental Changes From Extant Systems Although farm size, type of technologies applied, and farming goals are not directly related, agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands can be classified into four general types that make up a continuum of farming systems: 1. Subsistence smallholder: Family (or clan) member(s) producing solely for family consumption, although surplus commodities may be sold. Traditional cropping or gathering techniques commonly are used, and the number of crops produced is usual1y greater than in commercial smallholding systems. 2. Semicommercial smallholder: Individual or family members regularly producing commodities for the market, but only on a part-time basis. Farming mayor may not be regularly directed to home consumption (farmer may have a full-time wage job in the money economy). Commodities may or may not be produced using modern 2 technology. 2 Modern technology is defined to be the package of practices (agronomic methods and procedures, as well as use of labor and material inputs) developed by scientifically based institutions [experiment stations, agriculture departments, specialized institutes) for use in tropical and semitropical areas. A package of practices relates to a given farm commodity or enterprise, and tends to be unique to a particular region. Packages of practices based on modern technology enable a farmer to obtain yields maximized with respect to the scarcest resource (e.g., per acre per crop, if land is scarce; per manhour, if labor is scarce) (43). 3. 4. Commercial smallholder: Individual or family member(s) producing solely or substantially for the market. Commercial smallholders typically are full-time producers who derive their principal livelihood from farming. Commodities are normally produced using modern technology. The range of crops is much narrower than for the subsistence smallholder. The commercial smallholder may have a few wage employees, but most would rely solely on unpaid family labor. Large-scale commercial farming: Usually is characterized by significant investment in operation, and use of paid wage and salary workers. Ownership commonly would be corporate in form, with production using modern, high-input technology. Output per unit of land or labor would tend to be much higher than for smallholder agriculture. Large-scale commercial farming on the islands is not large by U.S. standards (tables 6-4 and 6-5). In the United States, farms average 416 acres acres (132), whereas in the U.S.-affiliated islands large farms can be considered those with more than 50 acres in the Caribbean and more than 20 acres in the Pacific. Small farms in the United States can be defined as those selling less than $20,000 worth of agricultural products in one year (119). While 8.5 percent of Puerto Rican farms exceed this, under this definition, virtually all farms in the USVI and the Pacific islands can be considered small. Table 6-4.Comparison of U.S. Mainland and Island Farm Sizes by Acreages Farm size (acres) United States a Puerto Rico b USVl c Guam d American Samoa e CNM l f Less than 10. . 8.3% (187,643) 45.5% (9,837) 62.4% (189) 93.8% (1,868) 94.7% (1,260) 66.9% (200) 10-19 . . . (included below) 21.1% (4,554) 10.6% (32) 3.2% (63) 3.6% (48) 18.4% (55) 20-49 . . . 20.0% (449,184) 18.2% (3,937) 11.2% (34) 1.8% (36) 1.3% (17) 8.0% (24) 50-99 . . . 15.3% (343,715) 7.2% (1,549) 5.9% (18) 1.3% (25) g 0.5% (6) g 6.7% (20) g 100-174 . . 16.4% (367,734) h 3.0% (658) 4.0% (12) 175-259 . . 9.4% (211,384) i 1.7% (372) 1.7% (5) 260 and more . 30.3% (679,640) 3.3% (712) 4.3% (13) SOURCES: a U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Summary, vol. 1, part 51, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). b U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agrculture; Puerto Rico, vol. 1, part 52, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). C U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: U.S. Virgin Islands, vol. 1, part 54, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). d U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Censis 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam, vol. 1, part 53, (Washington DC: US. Government Printing Office, 1983). e U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: American Samoa, vol. 1, part 55, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981). f U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: Northern Mariana Islands, vol. 1, part 58, (Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981). g Data include farms with 100 to 179 acres. h Data include farms with 50 acres or more. i Data include farms with 180 to 259 acreSs
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166 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Table 6-5.Comparison of Farm Sizes by Sales Class Value of sales United States a Puerto Rico b USVI c Guam d American Samoa CNMI $1 to $99. . . . (included below) n/a 2.3% (6) 13.2% (45) n/a n/a $100 to $499 . . (included below) 9.0 /0 (1,964) 25.7% (68) 31.9% (109) $500 to $1,199 . . (included below) 33.2% (7,236) 26.0% (69) 15.5% (53) $1,200 to $2,499 . . 23.9% (536,437) 20.5% (4,474) 20.4% (54) 12.9% (44) $2,500 to $4,999 . . 12.4% (278,208) 15.1% (3,293) 10.2% (27) 26.9% (92) f $5,000 to $7,499 . . 7.50/0 (168,483) 6.0% (1,302) 3.0% (8) $7,500 to $9,999 . . 5.0% (1 13,319) 3.0% (651) 1.5% (4) $10,000 to $19,999 . 11.5% (259,007) 4.8% (1,043) 10.9% (29) g $20,000 to $39,999 . 11.1% (248,825) 2.4% (529) $40,000 to $59,999 . 6.6% (148,272) 0.9% (190) $60,00 or more. . . 21.6% (484,859) 5.2% (1,138) SOURCES: a U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Summary, vol. 1, part 51 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). b U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture; Puerto Rico, vol. 2, part 52 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). c U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture; U.S. Virgin Islands, vol. 1, part 54 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). d U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam, vol. 1, part 53 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). e lncludes all farms in sales class less than $499. f lncludes all farms with sales of $2,500 or more. g lncludes all farms with sales of $10,000 or more. Even the definitions used by the U.S. Bureau of the Census reflect the wide disparity in farm sizes between the United States mainland and the islands. Farms in the States are defined as a place that produces and sells, or normally would have sold, at least $1,000 worth of agricultural products per year (132). Enumeration in Puerto Rico covers: all places from which $500 or more of agricultural products were sold, or normally would have been sold, during the 12-month period, [and] places of 10 cuerdas (9.7 acres) or more from which $100 or more of agricultural products were sold, or normally would have been sold (135). Farms in the USVI include all those with 3 acres or more on which any field or forage crops or vegetables were harvested, livestock managed or having 10 or more poultry, and places of less than 3 acres if agricultural sales amounted to at least $100 (133). In Guam, a farm is: a place on which any crop, vegetable, or fruit was harvested or gathered during 1982, or on which there was any livestock or 15 or more poultry at the time of enumeration (134). The amount of marketed agricultural produce is small relative to total food consumption in all the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands; most farming is of subsistence and semicommercial scale. Approximately 3,000 persons in the Marshall Islands were estimated to be active in subsistence agriculture, forestry and fisheries in 1980 (49), and 38 percent of gross domestic product in the FSM was attributable to the subsistence sector in 1983. In Palau, an estimated 20 percent of the 1976 work force was in subsistence agriculture and fishing, and many in the wage economy farmed on a part-time basis for home consumption (43]. Truly sustainable agriculture probably should represent an integration of traditional techniques with modern scientific theory and with modern technologies. Progress will ultimately depend on the development of technology and understanding of the fundamental processes underlying soil fertility (42). POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Support Nonmarket Agriculture Traditional cultural practices are laborand nature-intensive, maximizing the use of local resources and mimicking the local natural environment. In the U.S. Pacific islands, a variety of subsistence crop cultivation systems are practiced including root crop cultivation, agroforestry, and backyard or home garden agriculture. These systems have been adapted to varying island environmental conditions. Traditional cropping practices in many U.S. Pacific islands are strongly rooted in the sociocultural practices of the communities. Some
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 167 crops and animals play an important role in traditional exchanges. In Micronesia, specially cultivated taro and yams, and pigs are prepared for significant social and cultural events such as births, marriages, funerals, dedication ceremonies, and for traditional feasts (22,94,108). In urban centers these traditional practices are gradually disappearing. Although subsistence farming sometimes may not result in highly uniform yield, it provides a number of benefits: stable system producing on a sustainable basis; ecologic compatibility with the local environment; beneficial environmental services (e.g., soil stabilization, habitat protection); compatibility with local culture and land tenure systems; high crop diversity and phased harvest enhance nutrition; and generally does not depend on costly and often unreliable imported resources a-rid inputs (e.g., agrichemicals, feed, spare parts, equipment, experts). Subsistence farming systems are gradually abandoned and generally neglected by young farmers because these systems are considered inferior and may involve excessive manual work, However, much can be learned from these time-tested traditional systems because they incorporate certain resource conservation practices and operate on a sustainable basis suitable for islands (22). On the other hand, although these practices are well suited to island conditions, crop yields may not meet the needs of increasing populations on some islands. Traditional root crop cultivation has been gradually abandoned in recent years because it is labor-intensive and relatively low returns are no longer compatible with social and cultural aspirations among young farmers. Because most modern agricultural systems are heavily dependent on imported agrichemicals and have been economically unstable and ecologically unsustainable, in the long run, subsistence agriculture systems probably will not disappear on the islands. They are likely to persist to the greatest extent in situations in which capital is not readily available to farmers or where islanders consider subsistence agriculture practices a manifestation of their cultural identity. No consistent measure of nonmarket production has been derived for the separate territories. Indicators of agricultural production both entering and not entering the money economies of U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, are listed in table 6-6. The terms subsistence and commercial (or market) agriculture are used in a genTable 6.lndicators of Subsistence and Commercial Agricultural Production in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands Measures of Measures of production Islands subsistence production for the market American Samoa Guam . . Northern Marianas MarshalI Islands . 1,405 acres (81%) in subsistence 330 acres in commercial crops crops . More than 1,000 family gardens, 85 commercial farms usually <5 acres <5 acres . Approximately 20/0 of total Approximately 80/0 of total production is for home production is for market consumption . n/a n/a Federated States of Micronesia. ... ., ..$40.59 million is imputed value Market production valued at of subsistence agriculture and $4.32 million fisheries Palau . . . . n/a n/a SOURCE: R. Lucas, Role of Smallholders in Agricultural Development in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986
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168 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas eral sense, but the specific island context is important. For example, in Guam, nonmarket production is largely of the home garden variety but, except for scale and use of machinery, the technology for producing commodities does not differ substantially from the commercial grower whose output is marketed. Virtually all Guamanian households area part of the money economy, and few depend on farming for the food they eat. In contrast, in an area such as Palau, subsistence farming typically not only means use of a different technology but also, for many families, is the main source of the familys food (43). Little true subsistence agriculture exists in the U.S. Caribbean. However, rural and urban backyard gardens are common in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, and several groups practice a sophisticated combination of subsistence and semicommercial agriculture. Opportunity: Project Currently Functioning Traditional Agriculture Systems Without a conscious effort to retain existing food producing systems, it is likely some traditional practices and varieties will become rare or disappear. Because present-day Micronesians have inherited relatively self-sustaining food production systems developed by more dense populations of their ancestors, complacency about continued maintenance presents a danger; without inputs, even relatively stable systems will run down. For example, the productive lifespan of a coconut tree is about 60 years; under good conditions, breadfruit trees produce for about 50 years (103). These plant lifespans are close to the productive years of each human generation. If present-day island populations do not do their part to maintain the systems, the next generation may not realize what it had until its gone (22). Many traditional systems already are declining. On Guam, for example, the percentage of persons involved in fishing and farming declined from 90 percent in 1941 to 6 percent in 1950 to less than 1 percent in 1970. The traditional lancho system has declined precipitously. This was accompanied by a concurrent increase in dependence on food stamps (22). Without conscious efforts to protect currently functioning traditional agriculture systems, local production of food can be expected to decrease. With increases in prices and population, nutritional problems may be expected to result (110,111). Another byproduct would be the loss of Micronesias genetic heritage: the wealth of adapted varieties of food plants and other species developed over a great many years by ancestors of the present generation. Further, the collective body of traditional knowledge relating to the use of island resources could be lost (22). Consideration of development project impacts on currently functioning agricultural systems could be made prior to investment, followed by actions to mitigate adverse impacts. For example, road construction has altered drainage patterns and affected water circulation in some taro patches. In some cases the impact is obvious: the taro becomes buried in silt. In other cases the microbiology of the substrate is changed, generally towards more anaerobic conditions (22). This is particularly important on islands where government economic development strategies favor nonagricultural sectors which will eventually lead to competition for and encroachment on agricultural lands (56). Opportunity Support and Increase Backyard Agriculture Backyard or home gardens, as the name indicates, are located immediately adjacent to permanent dwellings. Backyard agriculture is widely practiced in Pacific and Caribbean islands and it maybe considered as an adjunct to subsistence and semicommercial agriculture. Except for scale, many characteristics of subsistence agriculture systems apply to backyard gardening. Generally it is characterized by mixed cropping of a variety of trees and shortterm crops, high crop diversity, and labor-intensive cultivation of a small plot of ground (commonly less than 1 acre). In general, produce from backyard gardening is for subsis-
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 169 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Although more intensive than other traditional cultivation methods, backyard gardens also commonly rely on minimal soil disturbance and locally available materials such as these bamboo trellises. tence use, although surplus crops or certain cash crops (e. g., spices and herbs) sometimes are sold. As in subsistence field cropping, backyard gardening activities have few market constraints. However, in cultures based on extended family sharing, backyard subsistence gardens may effectively reduce the market for commercial farmers products (63,80). Backyard gardening in rural areas commonly is an extension of subsistence cropping and backyard gardens may serve as a convenient recycling site for organic wastes. They also may serve as trial plots of wild plants or new crop varieties grown under reasonably controlled conditions (22,110,152). Where space is limited or when the soil is extremely poor, crops can be cultivated in containers. When good soil is not available, chopped up fibers from coconut husks and fronds mixed with fertilizer, compost, or animal wastes can be used as substrate in container cultivation for vegetables (46). Backyard gardening in urban areas may contribute significantly to supplementing diets of wage earners. It also may improve the nutritional and economic well-being of increasing numbers of urban dwellers (110). In recent years, primarily in urban areas, backyard gardens are becoming commercialized. Some backyard gardeners use drip irrigation systems, greenhouses, shadehouses, or even hydroponics (10). On some islands where agricultural production costs or land values are high, backyard gardening is popular for part-time, semicommercial cultivation of vegetables and fruits. Backyard gardening is popular in the USVI because it requires low capital investment, is suitable for small parcels of land, affords little economic risk, and provides flexibility in choice of crops or cultivation methods to meet changing local market conditions (16). Backyard gardening, in general, is highly adaptable and can be implemented under varying environmental conditions and social settings (51). Backyard gardening has a number of characteristics making it suitable for the U. S.affiliated islands including: l l l l l l l l l l flexible technology adaptable to varying physical, social, and environmental conditions; useful for subsistence, semicommercial, and some intensive commercial ventures; generally little capital outlay required; generally little economic risk; could be applied in rural and urban settings; little land area needed; simple agricultural methods are applicable; varied choices in use of agriculture inputs (e.g., organic composts, agrichemicals); variety of crops can be grown; and provides flexibility in switching crops or cultivation methods to meet changing demands or market conditions. Opportunity: Enhance Game Wildlife Management Practices Proper management of game may enhance supplemental food supply and nutrition of island inhabitants. Depending on the island, wild game may include feral pigs, goats, and deer, pigeons, fruitbats, and land crabs. Apart from regulating the harvesting of game, appropriate resource management such as setting aside hunting preserves is essential in order to manage and maintain game species populations. In addition to allowing management and harvest
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170 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas of game populations, restriction of some of these animals, particularly feral goats and deer, to carefully defined areas can protect indigenous vegetation from overgrazing. Other methods, such as introduction of certain species to uninhabited islands or wildlife ranching of certain species, are ways of supplementing local food supplies. Traditional practices, still adhered to on some Pacific islands, commonly include rules and restrictions that conserve resources. For example, small uninhabited islands are set aside as sanctuaries where turtles and sea birds, and their eggs, can be harvested at certain times and in certain quantities. However, these practices are declining in effectiveness as traditional values and authorities are disappearing (40). Today, on most islands, local governments regulate the harvesting and management of game species. Generally, they cover three areas: endangered species, hunting laws, and protected habitats. Endangered species protection laws commonly involve a fine for violation. For example, the CNMI Endangered Species Code, based on the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973, carries a fine of $2,000 or imprisonment for a maximum of 30 days or both for illegal taking of species listed under the act. Hunting laws may establish harvest quota limits, restrictions based on size or sex for certain species, and provide for exemptions if it is determined that curtailment of harvest of restricted fish and game may result in hardship or malnutrition to the taker or his/her immediate family. However, such regulations are generally difficult to enforce. In some cases, especially on small islands where extended family ties remain strong, violations carry little sanction. 3 POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Develop Smallholder Agriculture Development of smallholder agriculture would take advantage of the already existing 3 For example, on one United Nations Day celebration on Yap, a Palauan fisherman whose catch included a turtle won first prize in the spear-fishing contest, even though it was against the law to kill turtles at that time of year (20). subsistence, semicommercial and part-time farmers in the U.S.-affiliated islands, and is likely to be more compatible with the present land tenure systems than would be a policy of promoting large-scale farming. Smallholders also tend to produce a large range of commodities which may mitigate some marketing constraints in small size markets. If increased market supply were in import substitution commodities that could be profitably sold at lower prices than the competing products, commodity prices would be reduced. Semicommercial farming could provide opportunities to increase income for part-time farmers or to generate cash incomes for subsistence farmers. Introduction of new technologies or new crops to extant semicommercial agriculture systems could increase income, yield, and make more efficient use of islands scarce resources. Furthermore, introduction of semicommercial farming systems may become an effective method for relatively unsophisticated subsistence farmers to gradually learn the operation of commercial farming systems. Among the three types of smallholder agriculture (subsistence, semicommercial and commercial), competition for resources is not likely to be a concern. Moreover, the three types of agriculture have many characteristics in common, such as relatively modest acreage requirements per operation, generally heavy reliance on family labor, and significantly less capital requirements per operation compared with large-scale agriculture. Smallholder development policies could seek to achieve a gradual transition from nonmarket production to semicommercial and, ultimately, to commercial agriculture. For example, policies could seek to raise productivity in the subsistence sector, particularly in outlying areas which have arable land but lack transport and other infrastructure needed for market access. Concurrently, efforts could be initiated to strengthen urban markets for the products of semicommercial farmers, and to develop more productive packages of practices for selected import substitution commodities (43).
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 171 Opportunity: Enhance Existing Nonmarket and Semicommercial Systems Many constraints to resource management and development do not limit production to provide for personal needs and sharing, while they do limit commercial development. This suggests an initial strategy of encouraging production to meet family needs and, once these are met, surplus production may be marketed. Of course, should employment in nonagricultural sectors remain stagnant, then satisfying extended family needs would effectively satisfy the market (63). The primary goal of enhancing existing nonmarket agricultural systems would be to increase productivity so that surplus could be marketed. In this way, the farmer would earn income and learn the skills needed for commercial agriculture. Methods of increasing nonmarket agricultural productivity include introducing improved cultivars of traditional crops and assisting women gardeners. In addition to these, a number of methods and crops have been introduced successfully on some islands for semicommercial operations. Methods of enhancing extant semicommercial systems include: improving cultural practices for cash cropping, promoting underutilized crops and animals, introducing suitable new crops, and introducing new technologies. Introduce Suitable Improved Cultivars Into Extant Systems. Specialization in agricultural systems and in culture of various crops is found within Micronesia islands and in other tropical areas. Information exchanges among these groups could provide much useful information (22). Similarly, although little is known about ethnobotanical crops or cultivation practices in the U.S. Caribbean, identification of local cultivars and information exchange with nonU.S. Caribbean islands could prove beneficial. In Micronesia, a number of local crop varieties have been introduced from island to island. For example, varieties of coconut are recognized from the size, shape, and color of the nut; number of nuts per bunch; flavor of the coconut milk and meat; and tree sizes (86). At least seven tall and four dwarf coconut varieties are recognized in the Marshall Islands (104), One high-yielding, tall coconut (thifow), originally from Yap, produces twice as much copra as the commonly grown variety. This variety has been successfully introduced to other Micronesia islands including the Marshalls (86). Prior to introduction of varieties from outside Micronesia, an effort could be made to collect and maintain existing varieties. 4 These varieties may be directly transferable among Micronesia islands and can provide germplasm for cultivar improvement programs. Screening systems and facilities for tissue culture probably are needed to ensure provision of disease-free planting material (22). New cultivars could be developed that effectively extend the growing season of seasonal crops. In addition, unusual climatological events, such as the 1982-83 El Nio, have been related to gaps in yearly food production on some islands. With improved predictability of weather patterns, new cultivars and new technologies might be developed to fill some of these gaps. Assist Women Farmers.Women are the agriculturists on many Pacific islands. Extension services directed to collecting and disseminating information to these women could complement more traditional technology transfer systems. Women extension agents might speed this process. Methods of assisting these women with childcare also could increase time available for production and for passing on their experience to other women (22). Improve Culture of Current Cash Crops. Most cash crops currently grown on tropical islands are perennial: coconut, coffee, cacao, and sugarcane, Research efforts for many of these tropical plantation crops have resulted in considerable yield increases (e. g., rubber, the average yield of which has increased over seventeenfold in a century). On the other hand, the yield of crops like the coconut palm has re4 Mechanisms to maintain crop and livestock varieties and wild plants and animals are assessed in an OTA report on Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversify, OTA-F-330 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987) (118).
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172 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas mained low (69). This is due to a lack of research attention and, in part, to lack of maintenance by island smallholders. For example, although copra production represents the only major cash crop for most Pacific islands, very little regular maintenance and replanting is practiced. In the Marshalls, brush growing between coconut palms occasionally is cleared and burned along with fallen coconut fronds and accumulated husks, although commonly they remain on the ground for considerable periods of time. These provide breeding sites for the Rhinoceros beetle, rats, and mosquitos. Fertilizers are not used, and old trees are not thinned. New trees are planted only in conjunction with government programs which subsidize the planting by providing seednuts and mechanized equipment (86). Inadequate maintenance of coconut palms and replanting programs results in reduced yields. Since coconut palms have a very long economic life (60 years), understory cover management is critical. Manual clearing or control using herbicides generally are expensive or impractical. An alternative would be to keep livestock under coconut palms to graze understory vegetation or to intercrop coconut with other crops. Well-managed intercropping increases the productivity of the land, improves income distribution over time, increases return on investment, and thus may increase farm income (100). It could also increase employment. In some instances, pastures under coconuts can be improved by fertilization or planting nitrogen-fixing plants such as Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium trifolium, and shade-tolerant grasses. Although no accurate copra production figures are available for U.S.-affiliated islands, it generally is lower than yields in Asian countries. For example, about 6,000 nuts are required to produce one short ton of copra in the Marshall Islands (86) as compared to only 4,000 nuts in the Philippines (35). Low yield is partly due to improper maintenance or lack of maintenance, and partly due to the use of low-yielding coconut varieties. Many stands of coconuts in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, and particularly in the Marshalls, were planted during the German administration of the islands and are now senescent. Little planned replanting is occurring. Although technologies to improve coconut production are available, people are reluctant to replant for several reasons: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Yet, from a rectangular to a triangular arrangement may substantially increase yield per acre (86). the substantial investment of time and effort required, the length of time before trees bear fruit (5 to 7 years), unattended nuts will sprout and grow by themselves, the government is likely to provide superior seednuts and replanting assistance (86), in some cases it is more lucrative to plant short-term crops than to plant coconuts (63), and substantial migration from outer islands makes it uncertain whether planters will be able to collect benefits of replanting (13). techniques as simple as changing spacing Promote Underutilized Crops and Animals. Every island has indigenous or naturalized species, either gathered from the wild or raised in small farms, that have been used traditionally for food, fuel, medicine, livestock feed, construction, fiber, and other purposes. These potentially marketable resources may be ignored by some planners in favor of introduced western crops, livestock breeds, and methods (121). In recent years, however, there is renewed interest in the potential for developing such resources (22,40,76,94). Many crops and animals now found on U. S.affiliated islands were introduced after western contact. Many have adapted to the local environment and are now considered local resources, including crops such as sweet potato, cassava, papaya, mango, and soursop; and animals such as goat, deer, water buffalo, and rabbit. Systematic introduction of crops reached its peak during the Japanese administration in
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 173 Micronesia. A total of 157 varieties of plants producing food, medicinal, and fiber crops were field-tested in Palau; 88 varieties remained after World War 11 (53). Crops include cassava, pineapple, jackfruit, limes, oranges, groundnut, soybean, coffee, cacao, clove, nutmeg, cinnamon, teak, mahogany, ebony, and others, some of which are still present today. Mahogany planted during the Japanese period has largely replaced native hardwood (ifil) used in traditional woodcarvings (storyboards). Other crops have potential to provide marketable products Benefits are obtained from using indigenous or naturalized plants and animals because they are adapted to the local environment conditions and stresses. For example, indigenous crops have adapted to local soil types, climate, and terrain and animals have adapted to local food sources. These indigenous species are efficient users of minimal available resources, and also tend to be resistant to local diseases and pests. Thus, using indigenous crop and animal species adapted to suit the local environment can effectively replace some inputs (e.g., pesticides) which are designed to change the environment to suit the crops or animals (121). Some indigenous plants offer opportunities for commercial-scale development if markets are available. For these, improved cultivation methods to increase production may be economically justified. However, to develop the potential of native plants, more effort needs to be devoted to identifying potentially valuable species (121). Introduce Suitable New Cash Crops.Cash crops (i. e., crops usually providing raw materials for processed products and grown primarily to generate income) can be cultivated on islands for either local or export markets. Local crop varieties generally are preferable to supply local markets, because they are palatable to the local taste and have a number of advantages over introduced crops (22). However, introduced cash crops can provide the means to develop export products. Characteristics of crops providing products suitable for export markets include: 1) high value of product per unit weight, 2) ease of cultivation and harvest, and 3) ease of processing and transport (43). Pohnpei black pepper, which has these characteristics has been successfully exported in small quantities to the U.S. gourmet market; potential exists for increased production. Other high-value crops that appear suitable to the Micronesia high islands include clove, cacao, cinnamon, nutmeg, vanilla, cashew nuts, and coffee (126,127,128,129,130). All are present in the islands (25). Introduction of new crops and animals must be carefully weighed against potential undesirable effects on the local environment. For example, introduction of nitrogen-fixing plants generally is considered favorable because they provide an essential nutrient usable by other plants, are fast growing, and can grow on marginal lands. However, giant Leucaena, because it grows so rapidly, can effectively outcompete and shade out other, desirable species (22). POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Integrate Characteristics of Traditional Agriculture Into More Productive Systems Neotraditions of resource use may, in some cases, be suitable for fulfilling local and extended family needs, thus allowing sale of surplus production in local markets. These would involve technologies adapted, via a combination of traditional knowledge and experience and modern science, to todays conditions (22). This would require evaluation of existing systems to determine which characteristics enhance their productivity and sustainability. Few data currently are available on the productivity or even extent of traditional agriculture systems. One attempt was made to census traditional agriculture production in Micronesia (116), but the results are unreliable (22). 5 Once existing production systems have been evaluated, they can be compared with other systems and enhanced as needed. Comparisons of caloric and other inputs and production by 5 Planning for Micronesia agroforestry and subsistence agricultural systems research is underway at the University of Guam (45).
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174 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas extant and introduced technologies could indicate technologies which could be improved and evaluate needs for new technology. Concurrently, guidelines for development that would assure at least sustainability of a subsistence base of resource uses and foster sustainability of economic development projects are needed (22). Several common characteristics of traditional systems might be integrated with modern practices to arrive at more productive, sustainable systems. Two of these are interplanting trees with crops and incorporating animals in cropping systems. Opportunity: Incorporate Trees in Cropping Systems Agroforestry is a collective name for landuse systems and technologies where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, etc.) are used on the same land management unit as nonwoody crops or animals. In agroforestry systems there are both ecological and economic interactions between the different components. The goal is to achieve an efficient use of space, to optimize crop combinations so as to maximize overall productivity, to optimize the ecological balance of the system and, at the same time, to achieve a sustainable yield (121). In addition to products derived from agroforests, agroforestry systems serve as sanctuaries for wild plants and animals and provide recreation areas. Agroforestry also can retain much of the flood and erosion control services provided by forested watersheds, thereby protecting the productivity of the land. Traditional Pacific agriculture largely is based on tree crops and on preserving the environmental services of trees in cropping systems. Commonly, only small areas of land are cleared at any one time, forest trees and shrubs are selectively cut, and useful plants (producing food, medicines, or building materials) are mulched with leaves and twigs of unwanted species. In the Caribbean, Puerto Ricos shade-coffee system can be categorized as an intermediate agroforestry system (121). Several plantings in western Puerto Rico, sampled in 1959, contained shade, fruit, and valuable timber species (114). Charcoal, prepared from annual shade tree prunings had a value of $3 million and accounted for over half of the total charcoal produced on the island in 1949 (106). The coffee forest production system was probably the start of modern agroforestry practices in Puerto Rico. Other agroforestry technologies practiced in Puerto Rico include coconut/pasture in coastal regions, mangoes/papaya, plantains and bananas intercropped with rootcrops and citron (87). In the Virgin Islands, with the exception of bay tree plantations, traditional subsistence agroforestry incorporated root crops; vegetables; fruit trees; livestock; and forest species for charcoal, firewood, and construction. The most prevalent type of subsistence agroforestry is found in backyard gardens, which typically have a mixture of perennial fruit tree crops interplanted with short-term food crops. A more specialized agroforestry system is practiced by French farmers who grow herbs and spices along with fruit trees that serve as windbreaks and mark field (87). Opportunity: Incorporate Animals in Cropping Systems A primary means of increasing and enhancing local food production is by incorporating livestock in small-scale cropping systems. Island livestock generally are of mixed breed, resistant to diseases and parasites, and suited to island environments. On some islands, particularly in the FAS, chickens, pigs and, more rarely, goats may be allowed to roam and forage in or near villages. On more developed islands such as in Puerto Rico, Guam, Saipan, and the USVI, free-roaming husbandry of animals other than chickens generally is not practiced (9,app. F). Free-roaming livestock require minimal care and feeding and, thus, cost little to raise. However, productivity of free-roaming livestock is low compared to yield from more intensively raised livestock. Free-roaming livestock also may present a health hazard, by carrying and spreading diseases.
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Moreover, free-roaming animals can seriously threaten endemic flora and gardens. They also can denude island watersheds, causing serious degradation of downstream habitats and structures. Most Pacific island vegetation did not evolve with herbivore pressure and does not contain defenses such as thorns, bad taste, or protective alkaloids. Introduced herbivores may thus feed preferentially on native species and provide inroads for the loss of native species and spread of exotic vegetation (7). Penning these animals would permit greater control of their diets, can provide an easily accessible supply of manures for comporting or direct application to soils, and would protect valuable endemic species and natural ecosystems. Considerable labor is required to care for penned animals (e.g., feed procurement, feeding, and waste disposal), which may hinder adoption of this technique. Penned animals currently are fed with leftover food, crop wastes, and forage such as Leucaena leaves (108), which might otherwise be used as soil amendments and conditioners. However, because manures are more decomposed than food and crop wastes, their nutrients are more readily available to plants. In addition to penning, the yield and efficiency of livestock production can be increased by using improved breeds, better feeds, and more intensive husbandry. Although imported, improved breeds may increase production, most Micronesians prefer local livestock over imported breeds (93). The high costs of both imported and locally produced feed concentrates hamper widespread adoption of this tech-
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176 c Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas nique. Since most livestock raised in the U. S.affiliated Pacific islands are for subsistence use, farmers generally will not invest in processed commercial feed. Little research has been conducted on improving livestock productivity on those islands and much is unknown about its performance under intensive management. Grazing of livestock on pastures grown under coconuts is a major land use activity in many parts of the tropics, especially the Pacific islands (69). Cattle or goats can be raised on natural or managed grasses and legumes. The carrying capacity of both improved and unimproved pastures varies widely depending on the type of forage plants, climate, age and density of the coconut stand, etc. The effects of grazing under coconuts has been studied by the Coconut Research Station in Sri Lanka, indicating that grazing will have no depressive effects on nut yields if fertilizers are applied to both palms and intercrops (69). Primarily because coconut palms are shallow rooting, the potential competition for nutrients with other, interplanted forage crops is considerable, requiring careful management to maintain high productivity of both. However, where enough land is available to rotate the animals among fields, goats, in particular, can help to reduce weeds that also compete with coconut palms for nutrients. POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Develop Intensive Commercial Farming Conditions in the U.S. Pacific and, to a lesser extent, in the U.S. Caribbean islands generally are not favorable for large-scale commercial agriculture development. Constraints include relatively poor resource bases, small land areas, poor and/or expensive transportation services, and relatively high wages compared to labor productivity. In addition, land tenure systems in U.S. Pacific islands and high land prices in the U.S. Caribbean islands are not conducive to large-scale commercial development (43,61, 87,143). Despite these hindrances to commercial agriculture, some opportunities for development exist. Profitable commercial agriculture develPhoto credit: A. Vargo Increased mechanization appropriate to small-plot semicommercial and commercial farms, such as rototillers, is a goal of agricultural development on most U.S.-affiliated islands. opment is generally accomplished through the use of modern technologies and careful selection of crops. Technologies range from intensive field farming to containment of crops in hydroponics and greenhouse systems. More specifically, some techniques used in intensive, large-scale farming can be adapted to the U. S.affiliated islands, including mechanization, irrigation, and agricultural drainage. Mechanization. Increased mechanization gives the farmer the ability to prepare farmland with less labor or to farm larger amounts of land. Given islanders relatively high wage rates and the difficulties of hard physical labor in tropical areas, mechanization probably will be an agricultural goal in the U.S. Pacific (94) and Caribbean (10). Guam has large areas of flat, well-drained, cleared, and accessible land, as do Saipan, Tinian, and Rota, which can support large-scale mechanization. Pohnpei and Palau and, to some extent, American Samoa also have such areas. Primary tillageloosening the soil surface to disrupt weed growthby hand is extremely labor-intensive and arduous, and is not a common practice in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Animal power has been, for the most part, bypassed in the U.S. Pacific except for
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 177 carabao (a Southeast Asian water buffalo introduced during Spanish administration) which are used mainly for transport. A project to breed and train carabao in Palau by the TTPI government did not meet with success despite determination that carabao seemed to be the only sensible farm power for hilly, shallow soils and capital-poor farmers (94). Small-scale rototillers and tractors have met with some success in the U.S. Pacific islands, although few farmers own farm machinery. Several farmers on Guam and Saipan own tractors, discs, and boom-sprayers (84). On some islands, rototillers and other small machinery are loaned to farmers. Some FSM State Agriculture Divisions till land for a nominal fee using government equipment. A Pohnpei State program provides farm clearing and bed preparation at subsidized rates of $10 and $6 per hour respectively. This program has been responsible for an estimated 152 farms cleared and 10 miles of farm roads completed in 1984 alone. Demand is such that farmers may wait 6 months before they receive machine service (94). A 12-horsepower rototiller should be able to handle up to 5 acres of crops per year, more than sufficient for the average farmer in the U.S. Pacific, Capital investment in this type of tillage machinery is not prohibitive (about $2,000$3,000) and machinery could be purchased cooperatively. Secondary mechanizationseeders, sprayers, harvesting equipment, processing equipment, chainsaws, grass-cutters, pumps for irrigation, etc. may need to be tested and made provisionally available as agriculture develops. Private business could eventually be encouraged to import and sell farm machinery, but the local government could do the initial evaluation and selection of suitable equipment. Cooperative ownership, as with the black pepper processing machinery on Pohnpei, may increase the availability of equipment to local farmers (94). Irrigation. Irrigation services are needed for commercial production on islands experiencing a dry season, such as Puerto Rico, the USVI, Guam, Yap, and the CNMI. In traditional agriculture, planting usually coincides with the rainy season, while harvest coincides with the dry period. Only Guam, the Northern Marianas, Puerto Rico, and the USVI have developed notable irrigation systems (61,94). In the U. S.affiliated Pacific islands most irrigation systems are multiple-user, government-subsidized systems (94), while small-scale irrigation systems are common in the Caribbean (59). Major irrigation technologies are flood, furrow, sprinkler, and drip irrigation systems. Flood irrigation is practiced in level areas and is well suited to rice and taro production. This type of system was practiced by the Japanese in some areas. Of all the systems however, flood irrigation requires the greatest amount of water, and is relatively ineffective on rolling lands. Furrow irrigation involves planting on raised beds on level or leveled land and irrigating in furrows on each side of the beds. Furrow irrigation seems applicable to the CNMI with large level areas of land where sufficient water storage can be developed (94). Furrow irrigation has two main drawbacks: high operation costs because more water is pumped than is necessary and low crop yield because water cannot be applied evenly and at optimum frequency. However, in southern Puerto Rico, furrow irrigation helps maintain a stable groundwater balance because excess irrigation water reinfiltrates the aquifer; the only net loss of water caused by irrigation is due to evapotranspiration (61). Interestingly, infiltration of irrigation water has provided a greater volume of groundwater recharge than rainfall along most of Puerto Ricos south coast (28,59). Sprinkler irrigation is more suited to sloping and hilly lands. The system also is suited to annual, perennial, or polyculture systems. This technology requires a water source, a pumping system and movable pipes with sprinklers. This system is used to some extent in Guam and the CNMI, especially where water is available through government irrigation projects (94). Drip or trickle irrigation is the most versatile system in that it can be applied to all kinds of crops or crop mixtures, on sloping or flat
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178 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Pboto credit: Office of Technology Assessment Rainwater is collected from outbuilding rooftops and pumped to a water tower on this Taiwan-sponsored agricultural research station on Majuro (Marshall Islands), using gravity flow to distribute it to the crops during dry periods. lands, and even in greenhouses. This system requires a water source under some pressure (gravity can be sufficient in some cases) fed into a series of hoses or pipes that have small openings or drip nozzles feeding water near the base of the crop plants. Drip irrigation uses much smaller amounts of water than the other systems, and waters only the crop plants, thus reducing weed infestations between crop plants. Fertilizer and other nutrients can easily be fed into the system. No energy or labor is required to move the system once in place, and a biodegradable drip hose has been developed in Hawaii that can be plowed into the field after crop harvest. However, drip irrigation systems are costly, and water flow must be continually monitored to ensure effectiveness (94). Construction of irrigation systems in the U. S.affiliated Pacific islands seems limited to largescale farm development projects primarily due to the high cost of underlying water storage and distribution systems (94). There are 72 irrigated acres on government land on Tinian made available for farmers during the dry season; Rota has a water system that 20 farmers are using and Kagman Station on Saipan provides irrigation to nearly 35 farmers from a well on the Station grounds. In Guam, municipal water is available to farmers for irrigation at 25 percent of cost, but supplies are insufficient. No other areas have irrigation systems operating at present, although infrastructurecanals and ditchesare still left from the Japanese occupation on some Micronesia islands. Considering the existing situation in U.S.-affiliated islandslack of water storage and distribution systems, limited capital, and sloping landdrip irrigation seems to hold the greatest possibility for future development (94). Agricultural Drainage.Although a less common problem than arid lands, some agricultural lands on the high islands, particularly in the Carolines, are constrained by water saturation. Because the roots of most cultivated crops will not penetrate saturated soil and oxygen uptake is hindered, poor drainage can result in a shallow root spread and a commensurate reduction in plant size, stability, and yield. Water-saturated lands also promote surface runoff of rainwater, inducing erosion and increasing the problem of flooding on downslope land (123). Surface drainage can channel water through shallow-grassed ditches and into outlets, reducing erosion on sloping soils and surface ponding on flat soils. To lower the water table, subsurface conduits, or tiles, must also be used. Drained soils allow surface water to infiltrate the soil, reducing erosion and can help control health hazards to man and livestock such as mosquito and fly-borne diseases. Drainage of wet cropland also can enhance crop production significantly; wet soils often have high potential productivity because they contain more organic matter than soils that are not as wet (123). However, drainage has been specifically
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 179 exempted from most USDA cost-sharing programs, primarily because of its adverse impacts on mainland wetland wildlife. Adverse impacts also could accrue to island endangered species such as the Guam Gallinule and migratory waterfowl (113). Opportunity: Intensive SmallhoIder Commercial Agriculture Commercial small-scale farms outnumber large-scale farms in both the U.S. Pacific and U.S. Caribbean islands. In Puerto Rico, the average farm size is 33 acres with an average of 16 acres for each farm worker (37). Commercial farm size on Puerto Ricos south coast varies from 25 to 2,000 acres, but only 10 percent are more than 50 acres (135). In the USVI, commercial farm sizes average less than 1 acre per farm, and only three commercial farms in St. Croix consist of more than 100 acres (61). To be competitive in the market place, smallscale commercial agriculture has to be made highly productive, This can be achieved in several ways: l l increased agricultural inputs in field farming and improved pasture systems; increased efficiency in methods for delivering agriculture inputs (e. g., irrigation, hydroponics); and cultivation in controlled environments (e.g., greenhouses, shadehouses, soil-less agriculture). These technologies also are ways to overcome constraints posed by land scarcity, high land prices, scarcity of fresh water, unpredictable weather, and pest and disease outbreaks. The technologies have several things in common: capital outlays can be considerable, most require mechanization, and nutrients and energy have to be continuously supplied or replenished from outside the system. In addition, to implement the systems successfully, the operator must have both technical and business skills, and access to skilled labor and market outlets. Although increased agricultural inputs commonly increases yields, they may not be sustainable. Yields may suffer if agricultural chemicals are not applied properly or in sufficient quantities. Furthermore, supply shortages, sudden price increases, changes in credit policies, or unreliable transportation services may also contribute to economic instability. High levels of agricultural chemicals applied to fields also may contribute to degradation of nearby environments. Agriculture development may be constrained by the availability and the willingness of people to work in agriculture. The number and skill requirements of agriculture workers required for intensive small-scale commercial agriculture technologies vary and, thus, different systems have different employment-generating effects. Generally, small-scale farming requires more labor per acre than large-scale farm operations. Several small-scale commercial agriculture ventures have been implemented on U.S.-affiliated islands with varying degrees of success. Technologies tried include high-input, intensive field cropping systems, hydroponics, cultivation in greenhouse or shadehouse, and intensive backyard gardening. Intensive Field Farming Systems.A number of improved agricultural practices have been proven profitable, have increased productivity, have exhibited reduced soil erosion rates as compared to clean-tilled fields, and have been successfully implemented on islands. Examples include intensive sun-coffee and plantain cultivation systems in the humid mountain regions of Puerto Rico. In the past, coffee was cultivated under shade trees. However, research has shown that high density plantings of heavily fertilized coffee, grown without shade, produces higher yields per acre, and is economically profitable (144). A government-sponsored rehabilitation program for the coffee industry, based on intensive cultivation and providing financial assistance for new plantings, fertilizer, and hurricane insurance has met with some success. About 10,000 acres of intensively managed sun-coffee now yield 1,200 to 1,500 pounds/acre. On about 20 farms, harvesting is done with plastic nets rather than by hand; this reduces costs and loss
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180 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas of berries and effectively increases production. Intensive cultivation methods apply to semicommercial as well as commercial development. In recent years, small-scale growing of coffee on a part-time basis has become popular among public servants in Puerto Rico. As is the case for sun-coffee, plantain can be grown in high-density, intensive cultivation, even on relatively steep slopes, using heavy fertilization and intercropping (143). In the semiarid areas of Puerto Rico, plantains can be grown commercially year round by employing drip irrigation systems. Plantain can also be interplanted as a temporary shade tree and a source of income while permanent crops, such as sun-coffee and cacao, are being established (143). Vegetables can also be interplanted between plantain rows, at least for the first few months after plantain planting. Using appropriate techniques, plantain cultivation can be compatible with conservation (147). Plantains are suitable for family-size commercial farms in the humid mountain regions of Puerto Rico since they provide a high return, do not require mechanization and are drought tolerant. About 3.3 million plantains are produced on 15,000 acres, mostly in small farms in the mountain regions of Puerto Rico, all of which are marketed and consumed locally (143).
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources. Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 181 While increased yields are achieved in both sun-coffee and high-density plantain systems, the high levels of agricultural chemicals required may have adverse effects on island water supplies. The cumulative effect of this is not known. It is likely that nutrients levels in rivers and streams will increase due to fertilizer runoff, increasing eutrophication in ponds and streams and, possibly, adversely accelerating spread of aquatic weeds such as the water hyacinth. Increased water hyacinth growth has been associated with such adverse effects as hindering fishing and fish culture, clogging rivers and canals, and increased schistosomiasis infestations, resulting in increased flood and disease control expenditures (72). Container Agriculture. -Among the most intensive systems of commercial crop production are greenhouse, hydroponics, and container cropping. These production technologies hold the greatest promise in areas where soils are not productive, as in urban areas or on atolls where high alkalinity and saline conditions preclude standard cultivation practices. These technologies also hold promise for cultivation of some high-value crops that are limited by pests and disease. When yields are calculated on a per-acre basis, yields from container agriculture are commonly very high and sometimes sensational. A yield of only 3.5 ounces of edible produce from a 0.1-square-yard pot is approximately equal to a yield of 4 tons/acre, a good yield in conventional agriculture. Container agriculture can be used for subsistence or commercial production of salads, herbs, cooked greens, and other vegetables for variety in the diet (50). Small containers suitable for use in urban areas or on atolls, can be derived from old milk cartons, plastic garbage bags, cans, tires, and other receptacles as long as containers are 1 gallon or larger. Containers made from porous materials lose water through evaporation and thus, although they may require more frequent watering, are more suitable for plant growth in the tropics than nonporous materials (50). Large, permanently located containers allow use of more conventional techniques for plants grown in the ground. Photo credit Office of Technology Assessment Containers for intensive agriculture can take nearly any form and size, although use of abandoned boats for container agriculture, such as on Ulithi Atoll (Yap), can be considered rather unusual. Soil fertility must be maintained and as much of the plant as possible must be used to make commercial container cropping worthwhile (94). Greenhouses are a special site for container agriculture. Plants in greenhouses are protected from wind and driving rain, but may be exposed to high temperatures, high humidities, and infestations by insects that find greenhouse conditions comfortable (50). If care is taken to ensure that enough water is available in the soil, excess heat radiated from nearby walls or other structures can be reduced by shielding the plants with screen or shade covers. A friable soil is best for container agriculture it has good aeration and drainage, may have a high organic content and is likely to relatively free of pests and diseases. Coconut husk fiber can improve aeration and peat and sphagnum
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182 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas moss will increase moisture-holding capacity. Crushed shells (including eggshells), coral or limestone, and coral beach sand can be added to neutralize acid soils. Because relatively small amounts of soil must furnish the nutrients needed in container agriculture, soil fertility must be enhanced by adding commercial fertilizers, liquid fertilizers, or compost. Composted organic material is preferable to raw organic material such as garbage or fresh manure because the latter must deteriorate before they are useful to plants. If the organic content of the soil is high, it will contain a wide variety of micro-organisms, most of which are beneficial (50). When plants have been harvested and removed from their containers, the soil should also be removed and refertilized. Large containers will be needed to store soil to be used in pots, soil to be recycled, and finished compost. Container agricultures main requirement is water. Plant size, container size, location, and weather all affect the amount of water needed. Watering devices can be purchased that can water a pot continuously for as much as 1 or 2 weeks; or ropes can be used to absorb and transport water from a basin below the container to any part of the container (50). plants most suitable to commercial container agriculture are those that can be harvested frequently over along period of time. Some plants, such as leaf vegetables, can be crowded and, thus, profitably planted several to a container. These tend to produce large quantities of edible materials over a long period of time and some act as perennials in the tropics. Many spices and herbs tested also grow well with one to five plants per container. Others, such as tomatoes, produce better when planted only one per pot (and commonly do better outdoors where they have access to greater root areas). Weeds should be removed as soon as they are noticed, before they produce seed or otherwise spread (50). Greenhouse and Shadehouse Cultivation Systems.Greenhouse systems were developed in temperate zones to produce fruits, vegetables, and flowers during the cold winter season. In the tropics the greenhouse allows farmers to control irrigation and disease. Crops are cultivated in flats or containers to which water is delivered. Irrigation systems include sprinklers, automatic drip irrigation systems and, for certain ornamental plants, plant misting devices. Many crops cannot be grown under heavy rainfall typical of the tropics. By growing these crops in a greenhouse, foliage can be kept dry and soil sterilized. Greenhouses in the tropics usually have only roofs which are vented to emit excess heat. Materials such as fiberglass, plastic, or polyethylene netting, or saran shade-cloth are used for walls and roofs (10). It also is possible, by using canvas dark cloth, to simulate short day lengths, making it possible to grow crops that are day-length sensitive (94). Shadehouses also are used throughout Micronesia, especially for tree and perennial crop propagation. A shadehouse consists of a wooden or metal frame covered with wood slats or fine netting or commercially available shade cloth to allow part of the sunlight to enter. Shadehouses have the dual advantage of subdued light, important for rooting of perennials, and lower temperatures. Shade houses also may be used to grow cool-season crops sensitive to high temperatures and day-length (94). Although cultivation in greenhouses and shadehouses requires high initial capital outlays, it has a number of advantages over conventional field cultivation methods. It overcomes the need for large tracts of lands, scarcity of fresh water, and can ameliorate seasonal and climatic fluctuations. Types and size of crops that can be cultivated commercially are dependent on the size of greenhouse. And, as in any other commercial venture, business and marketing skills are critical for success. Insular government agricultural experiment stations in the U.S. Pacific all have greenhouses, mainly for seedling propagation. At Ponape Agriculture and Trade School (PATS), a greenhouse was used for growing tomatoes for a number of years. The project was eventually terminated because of the high labor requirements (the entire soil of the greenhouse had to
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agrotorestry, and Forestry l 183 be sterilized after every production run) and the relatively low demand for tomatoes (94). The high capital costs of building a greenhouse probably limits its use to only high-value vegetable crops. In Puerto Rico, growing ornamental plants in greenhouses or shadehouses can offer a high investment return, depending on the building design, the type of ornamental plant grown, and the cultural practices used. However, the initial capital outlay for such an enterprise is relatively high, and growing ornamental plants in greenhouses or shadehouses is labor-intensive (lo). Hydroponic Culture Systems.Hydroponics are totally controlled systems where plants are grown in a sterile, artificial mediacommonly sand, perlite, or gravelwith a premixed nutrient solution continually pumped throughout the system, usually inside of a greenhouse type structure. Crops are grown in containers which, for commercial cultivation, commonly are either long troughs covered with wire meshing or plastic (PVC) pipes with perforations on the top side. Crops are placed in the holes of the perforated PVC pipes or held in place by wire netting that is placed over the containers. Water, plant nutrients, and other agrichemicals are circulated throughout the grow-out containers. Foliage and stems above the water may be treated by spraying. Most advantages of greenhouse/shadehouse cultivation methods also apply to hydroponic cultivation methods. Hydroponically grown crops commonly are of high quality and crop yields are higher than conventional field cropping methods. For example, yield of hydroponically grown tomatoes is about 10 times greater than tomatoes grown under drip irrigation, and 25 times greater than tomatoes grown using conventional field cultivation methods (10). Within limits, hydroponic systems are flexible. Varying types and qualities of water may be used as the substrate for growing crops. For example, water that was used for aquiculture can be recirculated and reused for hydroponic cultivation. Research on such an integrated hydroponic-aquiculture system is being conPhoto credit: A. Vargo A highly specialized form of container agriculture is the hydroponic greenhouse. While greenhouses and hydroponic systems provide a number of benefits individually and in combination, the high capital outlays required largely restrict them to production of high-value crops unsuitable to field agriculture. ducted at the College of the Virgin Islands (CVI) (92,141). The CVI system, based on tilapia and tomatoes or lettuce (92) recirculates water collected on a one-quarter-acre plastic rainwater catchment. The water is directed into freshwater tilapia grow-out tanks, channeled through the hydroponics system, and any surplus is used to irrigate a nearby garden, Combined fish culture with hydroponics systems probably is more economically viable than either hydroponics or fish culture alone (5,91). Because of marketing constraints, however, this technology may not be applicable outside of high-demand urban areas.
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184 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Hydroponic systems are technically suitable for atolls and high islands in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific, as long as adequate water supplies are available. Hydroponics were used to produce food for soldiers stationed on atolls during World War II (33). Currently, six hydroponic farms produce vegetables, mostly tomatoes, in Guam; one hydroponic farm grows tomatoes on American Samoa and The Gardens Hydroponic Farm on Majuro (Marshalls) grows cucumbers, tomatoes, and peppers commercially (94). Because of high capital outlay and operation costs, choice of crops is critical for profitability of commercial operations (10). As a result, hydroponically-grown produce typically is more expensive than field-grown produce. Thus, crop choice commonly focuses on a few very specialized crops and is directed toward upper-income specialty markets, such as English cucumbers in Puerto Rico (60). In the U. S.affiliated islands, crops grown in hydroponic systems largely are restricted to high-value vegetables and herbs. While hydroponics probably will not have a significant impact on the overall produce market, especially in view of the yield-increasing technologies being applied to field-grown crops (e.g., drip irrigation), it has potential for satisfying some specialty market demands currently fulfilled by imported products. Opportunity: DeveIop Spices, Essential Oils, and Other Specialty Crops for Export Historically, spices, perfume and flavoring oils, and specialty crops such as tea and coffee have been highly sought after crops worldwide and evidence exists that markets are growing. For example, the American Spice Trade Association estimates that U.S. annual per capita spice consumption has risen from 10 ounces in 1932 to 36 ounces today, growing 33 percent in the last 10 years (88). Most species are native to warm tropical regions similar to the U. S.affiliated Pacific and Caribbean islands. Yet, few of these islands grow spices for commercial sale. With the small size of Micronesia landholdings (usually less than 5 acres), relatively high labor costs compared to the rest of the Pacific, and general high expectations of farm financial returns, spices, essential oils, and other specialty crops seem to hold potential for future commercial development. Numerous spice and specialty crops have been introduced into Micronesia, among them allspice, nutmeg, pepper, vanilla, ginger, and coffee. Moreover, several local and introduced plants can undergo extraction to produce high-priced oils which can be used in soaps, perfumes, etc. (94). Black pepper was introduced to Pohnpei in 1959 and has become an increasingly important crop for the islands farmers with nearly 70 farmers growing from one-quarter to 1 acre or more. Nutmeg also is produced from six trees growing at the Kolonia Agricultural Station. Ginger is grown commercially at the Protestant Mission at Ohwa. Coffee is grown in the Sokehs area, propagated from the remainder of a Japanese plantation, and the Agriculture Division is investigating the possibility of introducing high-yielding coffee varieties from Costa Rica. Japanese and Fijians have expressed interest in importing sakau (a drink made from Piper methysticum) from Pohnpei in the near future. Other local beverages are being investigated for commercialization (94). A perfume oil from a tree that grows wild on Pohnpei, Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), has been successfully processed at Ponape Coconut Products at PATS and samples of the oil have received favorable reception in Paris and New York (97). Other crops such as Fragraea sair and citrus oils also could provide highvalue, low-volume products. In areas with a considerable expatriate or urban population, crops such as ornamental plants or Norfolk Island pines (for Christmas trees) may provide a potential local specialty crop (94). All of these specialty crops give a high return to labor and management and can be profitable in small plantings. However, because of the small volumes each island could produce, development of spices, essential oils, and specialty crops probably should aim for the gourmet or health food markets where small quantities of product can demand high prices.
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry s 185 While there are little or no duties on dried spices imports into the United States, spice company quality specifications are among the highest in the world (88). The U.S. gourmet spice market is almost entirely controlled by large spice companies such as Spice Islands and McCormick & Co. (36). Even through these companies, however, gourmet-quality spices can sell for as much as five times the price of standard spices (57). Production of gourmet-quality spices depends partly on site conditions and cultivation practices (box 6-A), and partly on handling, processing, and packaging. Some spices are collected from the wild, others are semicultivated and still others, like pepper, take careful cultivation and tending. Those spices harvested in the wild commonly pass through several parties before being sold at the port to a spice company representative. The spice sold at the port, therefore, is a blend of the harvests of many smallholder farmers (57). The more a spice is handled the greater the chance of its contamination with dirt and insects. The final seller must clean the spice before sale to rid it of foreign matter and pests. The harvests of larger producers pass through fewer hands and therefore, are likely to be cleaner and more desirable to the final buyer. Penetration of the gourmet-quality spice market, then, entails strict quality control and processing standards, which may require farmer cooperative, private joint venture or government oversight during startup. Spice industries also are especially well suited to vertically integrated contract farming (see ch. 8). For example, black pepper exports from Pohnpei have declined in recent years, partly due to sale of poor quality product; the PohnPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment Black pepper has become an increasingly important crop for the farmers and economy of Pohnpei (FSM). Because of its special characteristics, it is estimated that Pohnpei pepper could capture as much as 5 percent of the U.S. gourmetquality pepper market, even though it currently is grown on plots of 2 acres or less. Other spices may have similar potential.
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186 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas pei State government has plans to repossess the government-purchased processing equipment so that it can be more closely supervised (94). To date, the centralized dryer on Pohnpei has provided a check point for quality control but also has proved to be an impediment to farmers in outlying regions; research is underway on solar dryers which would allow initial processing to occur on the farm (38). Despite the relatively small quantities of product that might be produced on U.S.-affiliated islands, this could have a significant impact on the livelihood of the islands smallholder farmers. Under current cultivation practices, Pohnpei pepper could capture as much as 5 percent of the U.S. gourmet-quality pepper market with product grown on only 80 acres of land (36), or eight times the acreage currently de-
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 187 voted to pepper on Pohnpei. At present an estimated 70 farms ranging from 0.1 to 2 acres produce pepper (38); growth of this industry could support, at least partially, numerous other smallholder farmers, Opportunity: Develop New Products From Extant Crops Local processing of crops can provide higher returns to growers, compared to exporting raw materials, and can provide import substitution opportunities. Major opportunities for development of new products from locally available crops are coconut oil products, fruit juices, and animal feeds. The major commercial crop in the U.S. Pacific is the coconut, from which copra is made. Copra oil processing plants exist on Majuro, Moen (Truk), Palau, and Pohnpei. Yap is in process of building a plant, The Pohnpei Coconuts Products plant has developed a line of productslaundry and bath soap, dish soap, cooking oil, body oils, and shampoofor the local and tourist markets, Plants on Truk and Yap will offer similar products, mainly for import substitution. Copra oil is a potential substitute for diesel oil, but its cost ($4.00/gallon) compared to imported diesel oil ($1.50/gallon) is prohibitive at present (94). Surplus fruit crops can be made into jams and jellies, juiced and bottled, or used in production of fruit ices, currently popular in areas having refrigeration, Small-scale juicing machinery, suitable for small quantities, are available and are employed on other Pacific islands. Through a successful Yap government sponsored radio campaign, coconut milk has replaced large amounts of imported canned beverages; similar campaigns could promote locally produced juices (94). Opportunity: Support Large-Scale Farming Systems Large-scale field farming operations need large tracts of uniform soils suitable for the chosen crop. For row-cropping, soil topography should be fairly level to accommodate mechanization and other farm management practices necessary for high uniform productivity. Large parcels of land of uniform type soil are scarce in most of the Pacific territories. While relatively large parcels of uniform lands are available in the U.S. Caribbean islands, land prices are exorbitantly high (87,143). Conventional, mechanized, clean-tilled field farming that characterizes most large-scale commercial farming generally requires considerable levels of agricultural chemical inputs, such as fertilizers and pesticides, to maintain crop yields. In addition, large-scale conventional field-cropping of short-term crops generally entails greater risks of soil erosion and other ecological damage than other systems such as smallholder farming (22,43,94). Finally, large-scale commercial farming requires large markets to absorb production volume. Since local markets on islands are small or the local buying power is low, large-scale producers generally export the products. While export potential exists, it is difficult to achieve (43). Despite these constraints, opportunities for large-scale commercial farm development exist, particularly in Puerto Rico. Careful selection of technologies and crops is crucial for profitable large-scale commercial operations. Business and operational skills, marketing skills and careful timing (e. g., to supply fruits and vegetables to the U.S. mainland winter market) also are essential. Increased agriculture yields in field farming generally is achieved by intensifying agriculture inputs or using highly efficient input delivery systems, such as drip irrigation. However, under certain circumstances, improved management of crop production alone will increase yields. For example, low yield of sugarcane in Puerto Rico is primarily due to inefficient drainage and irrigation systems, inadequate pest control, and poorly timed and inefficient harvesting operations (143). In other cases, new technologies may be needed to increase productivity and product quality (61,143). In addition to the intensive cultivation of sun-coffee and high-density plantain, large-scale intensive pasture improvement for commercial cattle rais63-222 0 87-7 QL. 3
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188 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. lnsular Areas ing has been successfully accomplished in Puerto Rico (9,143). Conventional Field Farming Systems.Conventional field cultivation systems are characterized by mechanized operations, clean-tilled fields, and monocultural crop cultivation. To maintain high crop yields, chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used. Gravity (furrow) or sprinkler irrigation systems are common. In Puerto Rico, principle crops cultivated this way include sugarcane, plantains, pumpkin, pigeon peas, pineapple, and some vegetables (61). Due to high production costs, conventional field cropping for most crops is not economical. High production costs are related to high energy cost, relatively high labor cost (compared to neighboring non-U.S. islands and countries), low labor productivity, and the application of inefficient agricultural technologies. For example, gravity irrigation is considered inefficient compared to the sprinkler or drip irrigation systems, in terms of the amount of water used for irrigation. Although mechanized, clean-tilled agriculture systems have several advantages, given the vulnerability of most tropical soils to erosion from heavy rainfall, the overall effect can be long-term soil impoverishment. High-Input, Improved Pasture Technologies. Large-scale, high-input improved pastures have been used in cattle ranching in Puerto Rico. Pasture improvement is instrumental in increasing beef and dairy milk production. Cattle can be raised on unimproved or improved pastures. Ranching on unimproved pastures is practiced in areas where few alternative land uses exist, such as the semiarid areas of southern Puerto Rico and the USVI (9). Raising cattle on unimproved pastures requires little capital investment and labor. Some landowners in the USVI raise beef cattle on unimproved pastures for investment and tax purposes until these lands can be developed for other uses and sold at a profit (9). However, raising dairy or beef cattle on improved pastures is considered by some to be the best land use of idle lands in Puerto Ricos mountain regions. Well-managed tropical pastures in steep mountain regions helps protect soil against erosion (145). Soil losses on intensively managed pastures amounted to only 1 ton/acre/year; the lowest for any current mountain agricultural practices in Puerto Rico (101,146). In Puerto Rico, as much as 100,000 acres of mechanizable land are in intensively managed pasturesprimaril y for dairy cattleand an additional 500,000 acres are in less-intensivel y managed pastures for beef cattle production. Five thousand acres of improved pastures are reportedly being used for dairy in the USVI, 8,000 acres for beef production, and 12,000 acres are in unimproved grassland (9,81,82, 143). However, only part of this pasturage is truly productive; many smallholders apparently graze a small number of animals on their few acres in order to receive tax reduction accorded to farms; when the price of land rises high enough such land may be sold for condominium development (56). Cattle pastures occupy about 22,500 acres in the Northern Marianas (primarily on Tinian), about 170 acres on Guam, 350 acres on American Samoa, and less then 1,000 acres in various other Pacific islands (12,46,134,135,137). Considerable opportunity exists to expand livestock production in the CNMI (84). Drip Irrigation on Semiarid Lands.Semiarid lands comprise about 20 percent of the land area of the U.S. Pacific islands (primarily on atolls) and about 40 percent of the land area of the U.S. Caribbean islands, including 60,000 acres in southern Puerto Rico (61,143,150). Semiarid lands are generally associated with high salt and alkali levels in soils, brackish water intrusion into groundwater and, on atolls, salt spray. These undesirable conditions make conventional agricultural practices difficult. One way to make these lands more productive is through irrigation. Drip irrigation is a particularly efficient and water-thrifty method of water use for crop production; it is 13 percent more efficient than the sprinkler irrigation, 31 percent more efficient than pipe irrigation, and 56 percent more efficient than
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial/ Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 189 conventional furrow irrigation systems (10). In some cases, drip irrigation systems can reduce fertilizer costs by about 25 percent. Although total water purchase costs can be reduced from 30 to 50 percent (154), the cost per unit of water delivered to each plant (which includes preapplication filtration, higher pumping costs to provide higher pressure and equipment amortization, as well as water purchase costs) typically is higher in drip irrigation than other irrigation systems (59). The systems can be applied on small or large scales and in manual or automated operations, with varying complexity of hardware, capital investments, and severity of freshwater constraints. Crop yield is higher under drip irrigation than under conventional rainfed field cropping. In semiarid lands of southern Puerto Rico, drip irrigated crops produced two to three times higher yields than conventional small-scale commercial field cropping (table 6-7) (61). However, the total net value of products is basically the same due to the high initial capital investment and high operation costs for drip irrigation systems. Installation of drip irrigation systems in Puerto Rico costs between $1,500 to $2,000 per acre for a typical farm (32) compared to $1,000 to $1,400 in the Western United States (6). Sophisticated and costly filtering and backflushing systems commonly are required to keep the systems from clogging due to suspended particles in the water. Because of the high costs, only crops with assured markets can be grown economically. Opportunity: Develop Commercial Forestry Reliable information on the original extent of island forests does not exist, but forests probably covered most of the islands. Most of the islands have been largely deforested at some time during their colonial histories, and some are naturally regenerating second-growth forest on abandoned lands. Today, at least onethird of Puerto Rico is again under forest cover; much of this land is too steep for other uses (121). Some wood products are harvested on most U.S.-affiliated islands, such as fuelwood, wood for charcoal production, poles, and home construction materials. However, most wood products are imported. For example, American Samoa imports nearly all wood products except fuelwood from nearby independent Western Samoa and from the United States and New Zealand. In 1981, Puerto Rico produced about 100,000 board feet of hardwood timber with a Table 6-7.Comparison of Yields under Drip and Conventional Irrigation Systems in Semiarid Zones of Puerto Rico Drip irrigation Conventional irrigation Agricultural experiment station Private growers Private growers Crop (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac) (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac) (Box/Ac) (Tons/Ac) Vegetables: Tomatoes . . . 669 10.0 1,000-2,000 15-18.7 600 7.5 Peppers . . . 528 10.5 800-1,000 20-30 400 8.0 Eggplant . . . 668 13.3 1,000 20 400 8.0 Cucumbers . . 921 18.4 500-1,000 12-25 250 6.0 Squash. . . . 20.0 10 6.0 Watermelon. . . 12.7 2-3 3.0 Cabbage . . . 15.6 10 5.0 Onion . . . . 10.4 10 5.0 Tree crops: Plantain a . . . 35,000 21.0 40,000 24 30,000 18.0 Bananas. . . . 1,200 24.0 1,000-1,300 20-26 700 14.0 Papaya . . . 40 25.0 Avocado. . . . 3.5-5.0 4-5 3.0-4.0 a Yield computed based on 0.6 lb/fruit average weight since this crop is normally sold on a count basis rather than by weight. SOURCE: G. L. Morris, and D J. Pool, Assessment of Semiarid Agricultural Production Technologies for the U, S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1966
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190 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Although forestry research is being conducted on most U.S.-affiliated islands, including this experimental plot at an Agricultural Experiment Station on Pohnpei (FSM), most wood products continue to be imported to the islands. retail value of about $200,000, while the islands imports of forest products totaled $410 million (121). Until recently, the forests in the U.S.-affiliated islands have not been managed actively. In fact, while overexploitation is not now a problem in most areas, poor land uses in the past have left the islands with significant amounts of abandoned agricultural land and relatively unproductive secondary forests. Development and implementation of appropriate forestry technologies could help alleviate rural unemployment, provide local substitutes for some imported products, and help protect land and nearshore resources against erosion, floods, sedimentation, and similar environmental damage. One method to derive economic benefits from forest resources without disrupting their environmental services is to promote the profitable and sustainable use of animals and plant products other than wood. The potential to develop such products is not large in Puerto Rico and the USVI, but some opportunities exist, such as small-scale production of honey, bamboo products, and eucalyptus leaves and oil (121). Because gathering activities are a normal part of subsistence life on the Pacific islands, this sort of development has considerable potential. With careful management to avert the threats posed by gathering activities to indigenous animal and plant life, harvest of products such as essential oils and mangrove aquatic organisms can continue on a subsistence and semicommercial scale without causing forest degradation. Relatively little potential for full-scale industrial logging exists in the U.S.-affiliated islands due to limited acreages, topographical factors, competing land uses, small landholdings, high land prices, and uncertain land tenure. Significant potential for commercial forest plantations exists only for the larger islands of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, Pohnpei, and Palau. However, standard timber stand improvement techniques, such as enrichment planting (wherein higher value species are underplanted in natural second-growth forests) could result in valuable future timber stands on these islands (121). Some of these techniques are being used in the Puerto Rican National and Commonwealth forests. Subsequent harvest provide income for the Puerto Rican Division of Forestry and supports further management of the Caribbean National Forest. Considerable potential does exist for smallscale industries that can serve domestic markets (121). For example, portable sawmills were introduced to Puerto Rico in 1982. Teak, mahogany, and Caribbean pine have been successfully and economically thinned, milled, and marketed by the Puerto Rico Forest Service. portable sawmills, combined with regulation
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 191 Photo credit C. Whitesell Small portable or stationary sawmills (shown here on Pohnpei, FSM), combined with reforestation and regulation of exploitation, probably are the best-suited timber harvesting systems for the U.S.-affiliated islands because they can support rural industries and yet can be temporarily retired without significant economic disadvantage. of exploitation; are probably the best-suited harvesting systems for the western Pacific as well, because they can be used as needed and temporarily retired without significant economic disadvantages. Because they can be pulled to the harvest site behind small vehicles, they cause less harm to thin soils than larger systems. They do not require an extensive road system and they leave bark and branches on the site, thus reducing nutrient loss. Moreover, small-scale sawmills in rural areas can stimulate development of local workshops with corresponding effects on rural employment. These effects could be expanded by introducing facilities such as simple and inexpensive solar kilns or wood preservation equipment. This type of forest industry can be upgraded as workers improve their skills, local management masters the task, and local markets grow to absorb the increased production. Even though managed second-growth forest is not likely to become a major land use in the U.S. insular areas, it merits consideration as an improvement over unmanaged, low-quality brush or forest land unsuitable for agriculture (121). In Puerto Rico, managed second-growth forests can provide a first harvest before conversion to plantation forestry or increase the value of land deliberately held out of intensive production (e.g., recreation sites). The most pronounced impacts of forest degradation in the U.S. tropical territories are on island streams and coastal resources. Deforestation has caused permanent streams on some islands to disappear and contributes to increased
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192 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas runoff, flooding, water shortages, and erosion. agement, and build local forest industries. FurSiltation has harmful effects on lagoons and ther, science and environmental education in reefs, affecting fish and other marine resources primary schools could direct students towards important to island people. Increased financial an understanding of the importance of forests and political support for insular forestry proto quality of island life and encourage them to grams could foster reforestation, development enter relevant fields of study. of plantation and second-growth forest manTECHNOL0GIES SUPPORTING AGRICULTURAL SUSTAINABILITY Agriculture cannot be a productive sector of island economies if soils become too nutrientdepleted or if erosion cannot be controlled. Thus, many technologies supportive of agricultural sustainability are aimed at restoring or improving soil quality, or at minimizing soil loss through erosion. Terracing and contour farming, cultural practices and crop choice, conservation tillage, and revegetation can all be used to control erosion. This will have the additional beneficial impact of reducing sedimentation in shallow coastal watersprobably the single greatest cause of coral reef degradation around high Pacific islands (40). Soil amendments and composts, use of nitrogenfixing intercrops, and salt-resistant crops can increase productivity on infertile soils. Lengthened fallow periods allow natural soil organic matter recovery and growth of regenerated vegetation helps prevent erosion. Finally, reducing crop losses from pests can reduce the extent of land and intensity of use required to meet a production goal. POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Minimize Soil Erosion and Degradation Before human intervention, most lands in the U.S.-affiliated islands were forest-covered. Although tropical soils are diverse and variable, in general, few tropical forest soils can sustain productive agriculture over the long term. The presence of either heavily leached soils of low fertility, thin erosion-prone soils, or dry soils makes the establishment of permanent sites extremely difficult. Although soils on certain deltas, young volcanic materials, and flood plains may be fertile, most soils in hot, wetlands have significant fertility problems caused primarily by leaching of nutrients from rock and soil mineral particles. Often, such soils have a poor ability to hold common plant nutrients; if such nutrients are added to the soil as fertilizer they can be expected to be leached away rapidly (121) In arid/semiarid areas, such as Puerto Ricos southern coastal plain and the USVI, nutrients needed by many plants commonly are in the soil, but become available to the plants only if sufficient water is available. If most of the water evaporates rather than percolating through the soil, dissolved solids or salts can accumulate at or near the land surface in concentrations that few plants can tolerate (121). Tropical mountainous soils are, in general, rocky, thin, and easily eroded (121). U. S.affiliated tropical high islands tend to have substantial areas of steep ridges and deep valleys; mountain slopes are extremely steep. For example, about half of Puerto Rico consists of slopes of 450 or more (137), and only 30 percent of American Samoa has slopes less than 30 (138). Thus, minimization of soil erosion and degradation are integral to maintain productive agriculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Soil erosion is greatest in conventional rowcropping, where soil is loosened and exposed to weathering. For example, studies of test plots in Puerto Rico indicate that, on sloping lands, improved pastures suffer the least (1 ton/acre/ year) and clean-tilled cultivated crops the most (17 tons/acre/year) soil losses (101,146). Row crops grown under clean-tilled agriculture commonly do not provide soils with adequate protection against heavy rainfall. Depletion of soil
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 193 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment These degraded volcanic soils on southern Guam illustrate the potential for reduction in development options caused by uncontrolled soil erosion; few species can survive under these conditions. Revegetation of these lands with more desirable species will be a difficult, costly, and lengthy process. nutrients through erosion and leaching and changes in soil texture associated with cleantilled cultivation methods result in soil degradation. Soil degradation also can be the result of shortened fallow periods. Shortening of fallow periods can short-circuit the natural regenerative capacity of the ecosystem. Natural vegetation contributes organic matter to the ecosystem, and gradual accumulation of this organic matter allows the land to recuperate and become productive. In Micronesia, degraded lands are characterized by depauperate vegetative cover consisting of savanna dominated by swordgrass (Miscanthus) or Gleichenia ferns and Pandanus trees. Frequent deliberate burning of vegetative cover make these lands increasingly unproductive (22,121). Ways to prevent land degradation or to improve marginal and degraded lands include the following: l l l l l lengthen fallowing periods, restrict and control burning, implement soil conservation measures, apply soil conserving cultural methods, and enhance reforestation programs. Opportunity Lengthen Following Periods and Restrict Burning It is well known that shortened fallow periods will degrade tropical soils because organic input into the soil from regenerated vegetation
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194 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas is curtailed (121). Furthermore, too frequent burning of old garden sites, shortened fallow periods, and open field row-cropping practices without sufficient addition of organic matter will rapidly deplete soil fertility (22). Severely depleted soils will support little vegetative growth. Soils with little vegetative cover are prone to erosion and leaching by heavy rainfall and strong wind. Normal fallowing periods might be shortened by planting nitrogen-fixing legumes. Woody species might also provide useful products such as posts and fodder. However, care must be taken in choosing varieties; for example, giant Leucaena can be difficult to control and can grow tall quickly enough to shade out fruit trees (22). Opportunity: Implement Soil Conservation Measures Contour cultivation and terracing on sloping lands and covering freshly prepared soil with mulch may reduce soil erosion problems (143). Terracing. A classic example of soil conservation measures for cultivated lands is terracing of steep lands. One example of terrace farming is perennial herb cultivation on rock terraces in the USVI. Herbs and spices are grown essentially clean-tilled on narrow, irrigated rock terraces along with fruit trees that serve as windbreaks and also mark field boundaries (52). Other terraces have been constructed on steep slopes using contour rows of closely spaced fast-growing trees. Trunks are allowed to stand, serving as retaining walls with the new growth regularly cut and piled horizontally above the trunks. At regular intervals soil is piled up on top of the organic debris for gradual formation of bench terraces. Hardy, tall grasses also have been used to form bench terraces. Both terracing and contours increase water infiltration and organic matter accumulation as well as control soil erosion (52). Terraces are earth embankments, channels, or combinations of embankments and channels built across the slope of the land at suitable spacings and with acceptable grades (box 6-B and figure 6-3). They provide maximum retention of moisture for crop use and reduce soil erosion by removing surface runoff at a nonerosive velocity and/or reducing peak runoff rates (123). Terraces may also facilitate irrigation and drainage, as well as cultivation. Benches can improve drainage by concentrating runoff at the inside of the bench and then draining it along a controlled lateral gradient to a protected waterway. They are suited to annual, semipermanent and mixed crops and can be applied on slopes up to 300 (122). Through these mechanisms water quality in adjacent streams may be enhanced. Terraces may trap up to 85 percent of the sediment eroded from the field, although they cannot stop erosion between terraces. Terrace construction may cause surface compaction and remove topsoil from large areas of the field. Uneven drying, pending, and severe erosion in different parts of the same terrace channel are also common, especially for the first 3 to 5 years after construction. In addition, misalignment of terraces may result in problems with maneuverability of machinery and maintenance of grass waterways. The design and construction of a terrace system is labor-intensive and often expensive, and may require skilled professional assistance. Further costs include loss of land to terrace backslopes, loss of crops during construction year, higher labor and energy costs to work terraced fields, and costs of controlling insect pests that may be harbored in backslope grass strips. In addition, maintenance is mandatory to retain an adequate terrace cross section for proper functioning of the system (123). The applicability of terracing in island areas may best be illustrated by example. During the Danish control of the USVI, the islands were nearly covered with stone terraces, allowing extensive cultivation of sugarcane on steep slopes. This method fostered a sugar economy that persisted for nearly 100 years. Similarly, early inhabitants of some of the Micronesia islands created terracing for agricultural purposes. Remnants of stone terracing still remain in Palau and the Marianas.
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 195 Box 6-B.--Terracing Terraces not only control erosion but also can be used to facilitate irrigation and drainage, as well as cultivation. Reversed-slope benches, continuous or discontinuous, differ in width to suit different crops and slopes. Benches improve drainage by concentrating runoff at the inside of the bench and then drain it along a controlled lateral gradient to a protected waterway. Terraces are suited to annual, semipermanent, and mixed crops and some types can be applied on slopes of up to 300. Variations of conservation structures include: Bench terraces: A series of level strips running across the slope supported by steep risers. These can be used on slopes up to 25 and are mainly used for upland crops. Hillside ditches: A discontinuous type of narrow, reverse-slope bench built across the hill slope in order to break long slopes into many shorter ones. The width of the cultivable strips between two ditches is determined by the slope of the land. They are inexpensive, flexible, and can be built over a period of years. This treatment can be applied to slopes up to 25. Individual basins: Small, round benches for planting individual plants. They are particularly useful for establishing semipermanent or permanent tree plots to control erosion. They should normally be supplemented by hillside ditching, orchard terracing, and crop covering. Orchard terraces: A discontinuous type of narrow terrace applicable on steep slopes up to 300, Spacing is determined by distance between trees. Spaces between terraces should be kept under permanent grass or legume cover. Intermittent terraces: Bench terraces built over a period of several years. Convertible terraces: Bench terraces with the spaces planted with tree crops. Natural terraces: Constructed initially with contour embankments (bunds) 20 inches high on slopes not over 7 and on soils having high infiltration rates. Hexagons: Special arrangement of a farm road that surrounds or envelops a piece of sloping land treated with discontinuous terraces which are accessible to four-wheeled tractors. This treatment is primarily for mechanization of orchards on larger blocks of land and on slopes of up to 20, Contour Farming.The practice of planting on a line perpendicular to the slope of the land is termed contour farming. This practice is relatively inexpensive, basically only requiring a reorientation of planting patterns. The effectiveness of contouring however, decreases as the inherent potential for erosion increases. Some climatic, soil, or topographic conditions may limit the application of contour farming, A variation of contour farming is contour stripping in which relatively narrow strips of crops are interplanted with close growing pasture grasses. The strips are oriented approximately on the contour and perpendicular to the slope. Similarly, strips of erosion-resistant crops can be alternated with strips of erosion susceptible crops, The actual width of the strips varies with the topographic features such as length, degree of slope, and exposure of the slope to winds, and with factors affecting field erodibility, e.g., soil texture, roughness, wind velocity, frequency, and direction (122). Contour strip cropping may significantly reduce soil erosion beyond regular contour farming. The grass strips serve to slow the velocity of the runoff and further reduce soil loss, Contour strips are relatively inexpensive to install, however, some acreage is lost to the maintenance of the grass strips, headlands, and waterways, thus reducing productive acreage. Many tropical areas suffer from severe soil erosion and implementation of some variation of these cropping schemes may serve to decrease soil loss. However, rainfall levels and soil depth may limit the effectiveness of these practices. Mulching.Mulches, nonvegetative, and processed covers can protect areas from severe soil erosion, and contribute to soil moisture reten-
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196 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Figure 6-3.Slopes and Appropriate Conservation Measures Undisturbed Stone-walled level bench bench Limiting slope terraces for planting on { contour between narrow-based terraces or A hillside ditches SOURCE: H.C. Pereira, Soil and Water Management Technologies for Tropical Forests, OTA commissioned paper, 1982, Terraces can be designed for varying farming scales and systems, and to fit differing availability of labor and capital, ranging from handmade stone terraces such as on this communal farm on St. Thomas (USVI) to large, grass-backed bench terraces developed at the Mayaguez Tropical Agriculture Station (Puerto Rico) in the 1930s. tion. Mulches contribute to retention of soil to reducing soil temperature and thus keep root moisture by reducing loss by evaporation as systems cool (102, 122). Plastic mulches, while well as discouraging weed growth. more durable, may increase soil temperature. Organic (grass, leaves, etc.) and inorganic Fertilizer application becomes more difficult (plastic) materials may be used as mulch. Soil in mulched fields; fungi growth may be enquality is enhanced by decomposing organic couraged in more moist areas and insect pests mulches. Further, organic mulches contribute may become established in the mulch requir-
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 197 Photo credit: A. Vargo Mulching is a common agricultural practice on the U. S.affiliated islands to reduce weed infestations, help retain soil moisture, and provide soil cover. Organic mulches, which also provide nutrients as they decay, can be applied by simply cutting weeds on the site and planting through them after they have dried. ing some pesticide application or biological control. However, appropriate mulching techniques, such as leaving space around the stem of the plants to reduce fungi and pest attack of the stem, can be employed to offset inherent problems with mulching. Costs often prohibit widespread application of this method of erosion control. However, it may be appropriate for some open field crop lands, specialty crop lands, and hot spot erosion problems in large dryland agricultural areas (122) such as the south coast of Puerto Rico. Land Leveling. Land is often leveled or benched for purposes of water erosion control, irrigation, and moisture conservation. Land leveling may facilitate drainage and mechanization and reduce wind erosion by shortening field lengths and reducing slope (122). However, land leveling is expensive and is profitable only for high-value crops. Puerto Rico employed precision land leveling to prepare approximately 5,000 acres for rice production in 1978. The effort was costly in both time and money. Currently, only 2,500 acres are producing (143). Opportuntiy: Apply Soil-Conserving Cultural Practices Careful selection of crops and cultural practices can minimize soil losses. Well-managed pastures and, to a lesser extent, certain cultivation methods of plantain, banana, coffee, and cocoa may offer varying degrees of protection against soil erosion on sloping lands. Conservation tillage (e. g., no-till farming) can reduce erosion. However, polyculture is the primary means to minimize the adverse environmental impacts of cropping on sloping lands. Interplanted shrubs or trees also can protect crops from wind damage and salt spray. Soil-Conserving Crops and Intercrops. Groundcover legumes such as Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium trifolium, and Pueraria phaseoloides can be grown to provide fast vegetative recovery on bare soil. These plants fix atmospheric nitrogen, add organic matter (green manure and forage), and shield the bare soil surface from erosion (74). In Papua New Guinea, winged bean traditionally is grown on stakes for pods and seeds or grown unstaked for tubers and as an effective ground cover. Every part of the plant is edible and contains high levels of protein (77). Tree crops are the primary means for limiting soil erosion in tropical agriculture. These can be intercrops, or as boundary hedgerows on clean-tilled agriculture. Conservation Tillage.Conservation tillage involves allowing approximately one-third of the mulch from previous crop harvest to remain above the soil surface after planting (120). This cropping system is designed to reduce soil erosion and aid in soil moisture retention by absorbing the impact of rainfall and protecting the soil surface from wind abrasion. Further, the crop residue contributes to the decrease of soil temperature. In addition to erosion control benefits, economic incentives for adoption of this technology exist. Reduced labor requirementless time is required to till the fields; reduced preharvest fuel requirementfewer passes across the field are required; lower machinery costs
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198 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas lighter, and thus less expensive, machinery can accomplish the tillage, and benefits of reduced soil erosion allow expansion of cropping onto sloping lands. However, the crop residue which remains may also offer habitat for insect pests as well as plant diseases. While disease-resistant crop varieties may be available, increased pesticide applications may be required to control insect pests. In poorly drained soils conservation tillage may prove undesirable. This tillage method also relies heavily on herbicides for weed control which may have far-reaching ecological impacts (120). Most herbicides do not attack the root systems of weeds, thus in tropical areas where the growing season is year long, frequent application of herbicides may be necessary. Conservation tillage schemes have proven successful in reducing sedimentation from agricultural runoff. However, the increased chemical pollutants and nutrients may adversely affect water quality and aquatic life. Additions of nutrients accelerate plant growth in aquatic systems which in turn reduces oxygen concentrations. This accelerated eutrophication can significantly affect fish survival. Increased herbicide and pesticide applications may infiltrate groundwater supplies (120). Since the freshwater lens beneath islands is small, the contamination can be significant, affecting the entire islands freshwater supply. Contaminants contained in runoff and carried to streams and nearshore waters may damage associated aquatic life. The net result of conservation tillage on nutrient pollution of surface water and groundwater will vary under different conditions. For example, losses for either system can be quite high if rainfall occurs shortly after fertilizers or pesticides are applied. Tropical regions generally receive abundant rainfall, thus increasing the chance for higher pollution rates, as well as necessitating increased fertilizer and pesticide applications since much would be lost in runoff. Hedgerows and Shelterbelts.Hedgerows (windbreaks) and shelterbelts which reduce field length and windspeed also help control soil erosion from wind and water (120,123). Further, they enhance water retention in the soil and improve associated stream water quality by capturing sediment from runoff. An early Danish conservation law (1840) in the USVI involved the maintenance of fruit tree stands as shelterbelts to enhance water retention. Applications such as this provide both ecological and economic benefits. The effectiveness of any barrier depends on the wind velocity and direction and on the shape, width, height, and porosity of the barriers. Nearly any plant that reaches substantial height and retains its lower leaves can be used effectively as a barrier. Tree windbreaks have most application on sandy soils and in areas where there is substantial rainfall. Typically, on atoll islands where crops are extremely vulnerable to wind and saltspray damage, the beach strand vegetation is maintained on the seaward side of the island to function as a windbreak. Narrow rows of of tall-growing field crops, perennial grass barriers, solid wooden and rock walls also may serve as windbreaks (121). Windbreaks may interfere with large machinery, however, they should be applicable for small-scale agricultural operations. Maintaining vegetated riparian zones along streams is important for maintenance of water quality and associated aquatic life. Streamside vegetation helps moderate water temperature fluctuations, filters sediments and nutrients harmful to aquatic life, and may provide habitat for fish spawning and breeding (120). POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Enhance Revegetation Programs A primary cause of land degradation is forest clearing, leaving the cleared land without 6 Degradation of tropical land is a physical, chemical, and biological process set in motion by activities that reduce the lands inherent productivity, This process includes accelerated erosion and leaching, decreased soil fertility, diminished natural plant regeneration, disrupted hydrological cycle, and possible salinization, waterlogging, flooding, or increased drought risk, as well as the establishment of weedy plants that displace more desirable plant species. Evidence that the degradation process is advancing includes, for example, a reduction in the water-holding ability of the soil, a decrease in the amount of soil nutrients available to plants, a reduction of the soils ability to hold nutrients, or soil compaction or surface hardening.
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 199 means to replenish soil nutrients. Because the major soil nutrient supply is in the vegetation, productivity of degraded lands could be improved, in part, by revegetation. Methods to enhance vegetative inputs to replenish soil nutrients include traditional and commercial agroforestry, shortor long-rotation forestry, or growing ground covers such as grasses or nitrogen-fixing legumes. Choice of vegetation type for reestablishment depends on the objectives of revegetation. For exampIe, if lands are to be used for pasture, grasses and leguminous groundcovers maybe most appropriate. If direction of surface runoff into water catchments is a primary goal, grasses are probably preferable to trees, which transpire considerable amounts of water. However, if the watershed is steeply sloping, the greater erosion control afforded by brush and tree cover may be required to increase the longevity of the catchment. Further, on degraded lands where weeds easily can outcompete most smaller species, tree species that can shade them out may be necessary, Selection of plant species is critical. Early succession species need to be highly competitive pioneers, able to outcompete weed species, and should have a dense and effective root system to minimize leaching and erosion (7). Many degraded soils commonly retain less moisture than protected soils (147), thus, early succession tree species may need to have tap roots roots that rapidly grow deep into the soil that allow them greater access to soil moisture than shallow-rooted trees. In addition, tree species chosen to increase organic matter in degraded soils must be those that allow establishment of some undergrowth. Therefore, trees such as certain eucalypts probably should be avoided as allelopathic chemicals released by the trees into nearby soils preclude growth of understory plants. Opportunity: Establish Forest Plantations Rotation ages of tropical forest species vary and depend on the product to be harvested. Short-rotation species (first harvest in less than 6 years) like Gliricidia, Leucaena, and Sesbania can be harvested every few weeks for forage or green manure or every 6 months for forage and fuelwood. Harvest of poles from the Caribbean pine can take place several years after planting. Conventional long-rotation forestry of hardwood timber trees, such as teak or mahogany, can require 60 to 100 years before first harvest. Nitrogen-fixing legumes possess favorable characteristics for both short-rotation forestry systems and for improving degraded land. Fast growing nitrogen-fixing shrubs such as Sesbania and Crotalaria (27) or nitrogen-fixing trees such as Leucaena leucocephala, Casuarina and Acacia are suitable for planting on degraded lands (70,71,75). For example, it is estimated that nitrogen-fixing Leucaena can supply 500 to 1,300 lbs of nitrogen per acre per year (75). Moreover, a variety of nitrogen-fixing trees can be used as fuelwood, fodder, nurse trees, timber/pulpwood, food, gum and medicines, or for shade trees. However, many of the fast-growing legumes can become pests in certain cases (e.g., Guam). This needs to be considered before species introduction is undertaken (7). Reforestation of degraded lands provides benefits apart from products. Forests provide many environmental services such as reducing the force of wind, creating cool understory microclimates, protecting and, in some cases, improving the soils productive potential. Foliage dropped by forest plants provide organic matter which, as it decays, improves soil fertility. Forests control soil erosion, regulate soil moisture, and mitigate flooding. Furthermore, forests may serve as sanctuaries of wild plants and animals and, therefore, increase and maintain greater species diversity. Opportunity: Improve the Productivity of Degraded Grass and Fern Savanna Lands Degraded lands have become quite extensive in the U.S.-affiliated islands, especially in southern Guam and the western Carolines. These lands commonly are no longer used for agriculture, although some may be used when more fertile areas are not available. The grass (Miscanthus) and fern (Gleichenia) species which predominate on degraded insular lands are ag-
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200 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas gressive species. Their dense networks of roots crowd out many other species and deprive them of moisture during dry seasons. Plowing and burning may allow temporary use of these lands for grazing, but commonly only encourage further grass and fern growth and expansion. Grass and fern savanna lands could be afforested (or reforested) to increase wood, food, fodder, and fiber production. Trees protect soil from the effects of tropical heat, rain, and wind. Soil temperatures are lower under tree canopies, permitting reaccumulation of organic matter that restores soil structure and microbiota and enhances moistureand nutrient-holding abilities. Bacteria on the roots of some tree roots can convert soil minerals to useful forms. In dry areas, trees can help to prevent the rise of saline groundwater. Where surface soils are dry or infertile, deep tree roots can tap underground reservoirs of nutrients and water and bring them to the surface. Tree species selected for reforestation of savanna lands should possess the following characteristics to counter those factors that allow grass and ferns to dominate: l l l l l l easy establishment, rapid early growth in poor soil conditions, deep rooting, dense crown to shade out grasses and ferns, nitrogen-fixing and soil-improving characteristics, and fire resistance (122). Acacia, Calliandra, Gliricidea, and Leucaena species have been used successfully to reclaim such lands. Best tree growth occurs if the grass is cut and burned prior to planting, and if large seedlings are used to withstand competition with the grass (122). Once an area of such species have been established and soil productivity regenerated, enrichment planting and other second-growth forest management techniques can gradually improve the economic value of the stand. Eventually, agroforestry and agriculture maybe introduced into the area. Steps involved in reclamation might include: 1. inventory of degraded lands to classify them into subtypes; 2. 3. 4. protection of suitable areas of endemic communities; development of fire prevention programs, including construction of firebreaks, public education programs, and improving the means to fight fires and enforcing fire laws; and establishment of reforestation plantings on selected degraded lands using local species as well as selected exotics and development of plans for controlling aggressive exotic species and conversion of areas to more useful species (22). POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Develop LocaI Soil Amendments In traditional systems, nutrients cycle within the system and few nutrients are removed by harvest. In commercial technologies, especially monoculture, these natural cycles are broken and there is a larger resultant nutrient drain on the system. Introduction of additional nutrients is needed, either through manure, organic fertilizers (sea cucumbers, seaweed, dead grass and leaves, compost), or commercial fertilizer. Because most soils in the islands are relatively nutrient poor due to leaching, erosion, and other factors, the need to use soil amendments to obtain commercially acceptable yields is imperative (94). Numerous fertilizer trials have been carried out in the U.S.-affiliated islands, and the use of commercial fertilizer is widespread. Most fertilizer technology has been adopted directly from the United States, despite evidence that tropical soils respond much differently to fertilizer than temperate soils. There also is growing concern about the potentially adverse impacts of fertilizer use on insular groundwater and marine ecosystems (94). The U.S. Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has completed comprehensive soil surveys for all U.S. Caribbean islands; similar studies have been completed for all major U.S. Pacific islands. However, adequate soil testing to determine nutrient deficiencies is limited to Guam where a soils laboratory was set up by the University of Guam in 1975. Few other islands currently make use of this service. Implemen-
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry c 201 tation of this information may depend on further training of agriculture department personnel. Research also is needed on other methods of maintaining soil fertility such as green manuring, intercropping with legumes, fallow periods, and crop rotation (94). Organic Matter. Many organic materials contain components other than nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium which can contribute significantly to increased crop yields, including secondary and micronutrients and, sometimes lime. The crop yield response to an organic amendment, however, follows the law of diminishing returns; the capacity of organic matter to elicit yield responses declines with succeeding crops (83). USDA has identified a number of ways that organic matter could be used more effectively as soil amendments: 1. improve methods of manure collection, storage, and processing (e.g., comporting) to minimize nitrogen losses that often occur in these operations; 2. apply wasted manures to lands; 3. apply wasted crop residues to lands; 4. increase use of sewage sludge on land; and 5. increase use of the organic/compostable fraction of municipal refuse (83). It is well established that microorganisms are beneficial to soil structure and that soil aggregation can be increased by the addition of crop residues presumably due to resultant soil microbial activity during the decomposition process (19). Burning crop residues in place instead of comporting destroys much of the nitrogen contained in the residue, Burning may result in soil erosion problems, destroy any soil-conditioning effects of the residues, and modify the ecological effects of the residue on the soil microflora. In some cases it causes the soil surface to become hydrophobic which can reduce infiltration and water storage (19). It is unlikely that organic fertilizers will totally replace commercial fertilizers, nor should that be the goal. Evidence indicates that higher crop yields are possible when organic wastes are applied in combination with commercial fertilizers than when either one is supplied alone. Thus, organic amendments may increase the efficiency of commercial fertilizers (83), Soil Microorganisms.Soil particle aggregation and, therefore, erosion control can be effected by a range of polysaccharides and other gums that are produced by soil microorganisms (44). The size and composition of the microbial mass present determine the degree of the effect. Mycorrhizae, a group of fungi associated with plant roots, often promote more efficient use of applied fertilizer [62). For example, in several experiments on tropical soils, legumes responded little to the addition of rock phosphate unless they were mycorrhizal. Uptake of minor elements with slow soil diffusion rates, like copper and zinc, also can be increased by mycorrhizal presence. In naturally regenerating degraded tropical soils, the new vegetation will consist predominantly of nonmycorrhizal plants (62). Finally, it is well documented that plants with mycorrhizal associations transplant better than nonmycorrhizal. Composts.Composting is the biologic conversion of organic wastes to humus, a nutrientconserving process carried out by a complex of aerobic organisms and microorganisms that occur naturally in soils. In simple systems, soil, manure, and plant residues, or a combination of animal, human and crop wastes, are layered in a pen or bin. The pile heats as the waste decays and is turned manually and rewetted as needed. The process commonly is complete in 4 to 12 weeks. More complex systems are more labor-, material-, and cost-intensive (73). USDA recently developed a highly successful method for comporting sewage sludge, animal manures, municipal refuse, and pit latrine wastes called BARC (Beltsville Aerated Rapid Comporting). This method has been adopted widely in the United States and in some lesser developed countries. It is simple, effective, inexpensive, and allows considerable trade-off between labor and capital. After compost is applied to fields, waste nutrients and nutrients from the organisms themselves are slowly released, allowing long-term
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202 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas uptake by plants. Compost also improves the physical structure of soil and its water-holding capacity. Inorganic Soil Amendments.One strategy with potentially significant applications to agriculture on U.S.-affiliated islands involves turning rocks into fertilizers using naturally and widely occurring inorganic materials as agricultural inputs. The potential for agricultural uses of natural materials like zeolites and rock phosphates, and for increasing yields by mixing these inorganic materials with organic manures and composts containing soil microorganisms is thought to be considerable (65]. Geologists in Canada and the U.S. Geological Survey who have been studying some of the natural fertilization systems are enthusiastic about their potential uses in a number of countries where the economic and environmental costs of conventional fertilizers are prohibitive. Zeolites are a family of common silicate minerals that often occur in or are associated with volcanic rock. Zeolite minerals participate in chemical exchange reactions that have been shown to increase crop yields in experimental systems and field trials. These minerals can take in nitrogen from manures and other sources and release it slowly in soils in a form plants can use (i.e., they have a high ion-exchange capacity). They can induce the breakdown of rock phosphate, making another important nutrient available to crops. Laboratory tests in Guelph, Ontario (Canada), have shown that zeolite treated rock phosphate releases its phosphate into soils up to 100 times faster than rock phosphate alone (112). Because of their high ionexchange capacity and water retentivity, natural zeolites have been used extensively in Japan as amendments for sandy soils (65). A variety of microorganisms are known to solubilize different insoluble inorganic phosphates, permitting their uptake by plants. Although the relation of these organisms to crop yield has been a subject of much controversy, recent research (58) demonstrated that yields of two study crops were higher after application of composts enriched with rock phosphate than after application of rock phosphate or of composts alone. Phosphate-enriched composts were associated with higher yields than even superphosphate, with its extremely high levels of water soluble phosphate. This may be because of the the slow release of phosphorus from enriched composts. Opportuntiy: Introduce Salt-Tolerant Crops and Systems Salt spray and saline soils are a significant production constraint on atolls and shorelines of larger islands. Research has been conducted on Tarawa, Kiribati, on the salt tolerance of crops and on technologies to minimize salt effects on crops. A variety of strategies, including raised beds, windbreaks, organic matter amendments, and drip irrigation have been suggested to minimize salt damage to crops. Table 6-8 lists the salt-tolerance of some common crops. Further, selecting or engineering strains of highly salt-tolerant crops could permit the expansion of agriculture onto currently unusable lands. Photo credit: A. Vargo Pandanus, or screw pine, is a common beach strand plant on Pacific islands due to its tolerance of salt spray and saline groundwater. Fiber for weaving is derived from the fronds, and the fruit is eaten on some islands.
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 203 Table 6-8.Salt Tolerance of Certain Common Crops Hi ah Medium Low Arrowroo t Broccoli Alocasia taro Asparagu s Cabbage, head Banan a Bee t Cantaloup e Bea n Coconut Carrot Breadfruit Kale Cauliflower Celery Pandanus Corn Colocasia taro Papaya Cucumber Radish Spinach Cyrtosperma taro Lettuce Onion Pea Sweet pepper White potato Squash Tomato SOURCE E Soucie, Atoll Agriculture, Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia 1983 POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Reduce Agricultural Crop Losses Major crop and livestock losses in the tropics are due to diseases, pests, and weeds prior to and after harvesting. Accurate data for postharvest losses are not available for most U.S.-affiliated islands (99). However, crop losses probably are similar to estimates given for the tropics, which is around 30 to 40 percent (155, 156). Application of appropriate pest, disease, and weed control may reduce losses, effectively increasing yields. Various control methods have been applied to combat agricultural pests, weeds, and diseases in U.S.-affiliated islands, including: use of pest-resistant crops; chemical, biological and cultural pest and disease control methods; and integrated pest management. Opportunity: Use of Pestand DiseaseResistant Crops and Livestock Cultivation of pest-and disease-resistant varieties of crops and livestock is a common traditional method of protection from pests and disease (94,142). The use of pest-resistant crop varieties or plants serving as pest repellents make cultural control methods more effective in preventing pest and disease infestations. As with cultivation methods, use of pestresistant crops is effective in avoiding pest and disease infestations, is inexpensive, easily transPhoto credit A Vargo Depredation by the imported Giant African Snail hinders vegetable cultivation on several U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Research to develop an integrated pest management (1PM) strategy is being conducted at the American Samoa Community College. ferable to small-scale farmers, and has little adverse environmental impact. Although this strategy holds promise for widespread application on islands, it is constrained by high costs for research, field trials, and development, Furthermore, little scientific data is available on the performance of resistant crops and livestock on islands (142). Opportunity: Cultural Control Cultural control is the avoidance or reduction of pests and diseases through the use of certain cultivation or husbandry methods. Cultural control methods, such as the traditional cropping systems, provide the most common method of pest and weed control by subsistence farmers on the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands (22,41,94,142). Cultural practices which serve to control pests and weeds include: polycropping, field and crop rotation, time of planting, and irrigation methods. Although cultural controls alone may not eradicate pests, they often can reduce pest populations and enhance other control methods (124). In polyculture, some plants may serve as physical barriers partially concealing or protecting susceptible crops from pests. Other plants may emit or secrete repellents or provide favorable environments for predators or
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204 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas parasites of pest species (3). For example, in American Samoa, taro armyworm may be controlled by intercropping taro with Coleus blumea which serves as insect pest repellant (142). Further, low crop density inherent to polycropping may attenuate the spread of diseases. It is well known that crop and field rotations may suppress pest and weed infestations. Irrigation and regular flooding in wetland taro cultivation (55) and drip irrigation system in semiarid row cropping (61) also reduce pest infestations. Cultural control methods are effective (especially when combined with the use of resistant crops), inexpensive, easily transferable to smallscale farmers, and have little adverse environmental impact. However, development of new cultural control methods is constrained by high costs for research and development and by lack of documentation of local knowledge. Opportunity: Chemical Control This involves application of chemical agents to control pests, diseases, and weeds. Chemical biocides are easily applied and generally have an immediate effect. In the United States, pesticides play a major role in pest control, increase crop yields and give about a fourfold return on investment (85). However, the presence of disease, pests, or weeds does not indicate that chemical application of control is needed, because many potentially harmful insects can be controlled by parasites and natural predators. Unnecessary chemical application may destroy the natural balance and lead to further serious pest outbreaks. Under certain circumstances, chemical control may be the only effective method of dealing with pest infestations, for example for crop pests and diseases in greenhouses (10) or cattle tick control (9). However, little is known on the proper chemical application or formulation for tropical crops and on the long-term effects of these chemicals on the environment (142). Further, on U.S.-affiliated islands, application of chemical pest control is expensive due to costly importation of agriculture chemicals (43,94). Although chemical control has immediate results, its effectiveness is generally short-lived, and it is an inefficient way to control pests in the field. Often, only a small quantity (less than 0.1 percent) of pesticides applied to field crops reaches target pests and the rest of the pesticides remain in the environment to contaminate the land, water, and air (85). Pests may acquire resistance and some chemicals may adversely affect nontarget organisms (124). Resistant pests make subsequent application of the same chemical ineffective. Since extension workers on some islands are few or inadequately trained, pest resistance or upset of natural predator balance may not be noticed (99). On U.S.-affiliated islands, the Environmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972 requires the registration of agriculture chemicals for sale and extends control to actual application by the user. Certain restricted chemicals may only be applied by certified personnel, and penalties may be levied against those who misuse chemicals. Most pesticides, however, are not registered for use on tropical crops. Therefore, under U.S. regulations, special registration is required. This is done by field trials and monitoring of biocide residues in compliance with EPA regulations. These procedures require funds and skilled staff, and thus are beyond the capacity of most existing island institutions (99). Since most U.S.-affiliated island are small, inappropriate application of chemical control may have very serious adverse environmental impacts. 7 Contamination of water lenses by the use of agriculture chemicals on small islands is of major concern (66); limiting or improving agriculture chemical applications may reduce contamination of the environment. Opportunity: Locally Produced Pesticides Certain local products may be able to take the place of some imported agrichemicals. For example, soap sprays were principal insecticides during the early 20th century in the 7 A pesticide spill on Truk resulted in a fish kill estimated at 20 tons and another on Ulithi (Yap) may have contaminated the water supply; however, no tests have been run (24).
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 205 United States (17). Soap sprays are biodegradable, may kill enough pests to prevent serious damage to plants yet leave sufficient numbers to provide food and, thus, build beneficial populations of natural predators. Coconut oil soaps may be an effective pesticide against some insects and are readily available on most U. S.affiliated islands. However, little research has been done on formulations, effectiveness, or tolerance by various tropical plants. Pesticides also can be derived from certain plants that can be locally grown. Crude extracts from plants have been used as pesticides for thousands of years, and a recent compilation of plants used for pest control listed 700 species (l). Twenty-five species possess characteristics making them particularly suitable for propagation and use by resource-poor farmers (e.g., perennial species requiring little space, labor, water, or fertilizer with an easily processed product and possessing complementary uses). The neem tree (Azadirachta indica) seems particularly promising for pesticide production on the U.S.-affiliated islands. The neem is native to the Indo-Pakistan region but has spread throughout the tropical world, including the Pacific and Caribbean islands. A group of biologically active constituents found in neem leaf, fruit, bark, and seed reportedly provide antifeedant, growth regulatory, repellant, hormonal, or pesticidal control in more than 100 pest species (l). Neem leaves, neem seed oil, and the cake resulting from oil extraction can all be used for pesticide. The cake can be worked directly into the soil and neem oil can be spread through a simple sprayer. A number of other products, such as livestock feed, soap, and cosmetic oils can also be produced from the neem. The neem is salt-tolerant, can be grown on relatively infertile soils, and has been demonstrated effective at improving such soils. Research on neem tree cultivation and uses is being conducted by USDA, including the Tropical Agricultural Research Station at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. Opportunity: Biological Control Biological control is a method whereby a predator, parasite, or disease agent is used to combat undesirable pests, diseases, or weeds. Identification of biological agents involves intimate knowledge of both pest and control agent, requiring considerable research, experimentation, and field trials (66). Although biological control of pests and weeds may hold promise, development is costly and time-consuming. It requires funds, special facilities, and skilled staff; and thus it is beyond the capacity of existing island institutions (99,142). Biological control works best on long-term crops, such as trees, which allow the control agent ample opportunity to become established. Biological control has been implemented in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands with varying success for eradication of fruitfly (66), the giant African snail (18), and rhinoceros beetle (79,99, 142). In 1963, USDA succeeded in eradicating both the oriental fruitfly (Dacus dorsalis) and the melon fruitfly (Dacus cucurbitae) from Rota island (CNMI) by a method of male annihilization (killing male flies with a toxic attractant) and the sterile male technique (flooding the area with large number of sterile males). However, in recent years, the melon fruitfly has reappeared on Rota (66) possibly due to an ineffective quarantine program. Recently, introduction of an insect (Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata) has proved effective in controlling a notorious weed (Chromolaena odorata) on Guam (66). Generally, biological control is simple to implement once precise control procedures and control agents have been identified. Sometimes introduction of biological agents may have reverberating adverse effects after the target pest has been controlled. For example, the marine toad Bufo marinus was introduced both intentionally and accidentally through much of the Pacific islands during the last 50 years. The toad was thought to be a good biological
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206 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas control agent due to its large size and wide adaptability. It was introduced to Guam from Puerto Rico through Hawaii originally for insect and garden slug control and rapidly spread over the island. Later it was introduced throughout the remainder of Micronesia and American Samoa. While the toad did reduce slug and other pest populations, it also reduced populations of beneficial insects; contaminated drinking water; killed freshwater fishes, pets and, reportedly, some humans (18). Opportunity: Integrated Post ManagementIntegrated pest management (1PM) refers to the management of pest, diseases, and weeds using a combination of control methods. It relies on a balance of biological and chemical controls, and cultural practices, such as polyculture or timing of irrigation. Its goal is to coordinate multiple pest management technologies to assure stable crop production and maintain pest damage below the economic injury level while minimizing hazards to humans, animals, plants, and the environment (124). 1PM is considered the best long-term control strategy, both economically and environmentally. Under 1PM, chemical controls are used only when a predetermined economic level of damage has been reached. Effective pest and disease control programs may increase productivity, quality, and thereby marketability of crops and livestock. High-quality products can be exported to metropolitan markets with little difficulty. For example, the occurrence of melonfly on Rota (CNMI) and Guam prevent fruit export from these islands to Japan as well as to other islands (66). For subsistence farmers, where the major bulk of the crop is consumed locally and little enters the market sector, reduction of crop losses results in greater security against lean years. On U.S.-affiliated islands, the major stumbling block for the implementation of pest management is neither lack of technologies nor lack of funding, but lack of highly skilled and motivated agricultural staff and good agriculture extension services. Although some pest control methods, such as cultural control and 1PM, hold great promise for effective pest control on islands, government subsidies that lower the costs of agrichemicals may undermine other pest control methods which have less detrimental effects. Furthermore, islands lack aggressive quarantine programs to prevent reinfestation and reintroduction of pests. Strong policy commitments of local administrators to implement an effective pest control together with an effective quarantine program are also absent (66,142). Pest control methods will have little effect on islands without concurrent efforts to prevent reintroduction of pests and diseases from other areas via incoming cargo such food imports from high risk areas. The USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Program (APHIS) operates on most U.S.-affiliated islands (43,142) and is administered by local Departments of Agriculture. However, the current program lacks an integrated preventive program (68), which might include: l l l l l l public education on the importance of plant and animal quarantine; rigorous inspection of incoming cargo, both by ship and air; inspection of planes and ships for insects and other pests; definitions of which countries are high risks for new pests; a list of crops to be protected and from what organisms; and continuous education programs to increase skills of inspectors. APHIS, the University of Guam, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) have developed training programs in plant protection and quarantine, and the FAO project on Strengthening Plant Protection and Root Crops Development in the South Pacific has recently reviewed plant quarantine programs in the FSM, Marshall Islands, CNMI, and Palau (39). Quarantine regulations made along political rather than geographical boundaries also may unnecessarily restrict export of some agricultural products. For example, a quarantine on
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 207 export of all citrus products was imposed on ulations, facilities and procedures for each mathe FSM while its causethe citrus mothis jor exporting island. Such surveys should result reported to be found only in the western Caroin better information for use by both USDA and line Islands. Thus, although unaffected, exports island governments in their agricultural inspecalso were prohibited from the eastern Caroline tion and quarantine activities. This also may Islands (39). USDA entomologists and plant open U.S. and other markets to previously repathologists could conduct surveys of pests of stricted agricultural commodities from the iseconomic importance in the U.S.-affiliated islands (39). lands, review quarantine and fumigation regSUMMARY A variety of agricultural methods are practiced in U.S. insular areas. However, significant constraints hinder application of certain agricultural technologies and agricultural development in many U.S.-affiliated islands. Factors that support and hinder application and implementation of sustainable agricultural technologies for U.S.-affiliated islands are many and vary between regions, islands, and polities, Small land areas and population, fragmented land masses, great distances between islands, and isolation from major markets are not conducive to modern commercial development. Land tenure systems characterized by small parcels also make some forms of commercial development unlikely. Small farm size, however, does not constrain subsistence agriculture development and some forms of smallholder commercial agriculture. Additional major constraints for modern agriculture development in the U.S. Pacific islands are limited arable land areas and low soil fertility. Limited fresh water on low islands and on semiarid regions of islands is constraining to conventional cropping methods. Environmental factors such as droughts and typhoons, and constant threat of pest and disease outbreaks are serious problems for agriculture. Furthermore, costly and irregular transportation services, poor storage facilities, and small markets on U.S.-affiliated islands compound the problems. Universally high energy costs and expensive imported goods and supplies make application of energy-intensive commercial agricultural technologies ical islands. uneconomical for most small tropThis is especially true for adoption of typical U.S. mainland field cropping technologies which is based on a temperate climate, scarce and expensive labor, large-scale and highly mechanized operations, and abundant land. Availability of high-paying government jobs and generous U.S. social support programs, make it difficult to find skilled farm workers at reasonable wages. For some islands, strong traditional social support and extended family welfare systems tend to hinder motivation toward working in low-paying unprestigious agriculture jobs or entering into risky commercial agricultural enterprises. Low labor productivity together with application of inefficient agricultural technologies make commercial farming uneconomical. In U.S. Pacific islands, modern commercial agriculture development is further complicated by the heavy influence of traditional customs. Many islanders are caught between their own aspirations for higher levels of material living, which they hope to attain through commercial development, and the demand for observing customary kinship and family practices. Commercial agriculture often requires regular and long periods of work, prescribed schedules, and also accurate accounting of expenditures and income, Yet, demands to meet customary obligations to share with relatives are difficult to ignore, especially when farmers are dependent on regular reciprocal assistance. Under this system commercial enterprises are likely to operate under suboptimal conditions.
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208 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Opportunities Despite these constraints, most islands have conditions that are conducive to development of certain types of crops, livestock, or agricultural packages (a combination of resources and methods that is productive and can be applied profitably at an acceptably low economic risk) for development. Sustainable agriculture technologies maximize the use of abundant (inexpensive) or renewable resources and minimize the use of scarce (expensive) or nonrenewable resources. For the technologies to be readily adopted, they should maximize output per unit input of the scarcest resource. For example, if labor is expensive or scarce, labor productivity should be increased (e.g., by use of labor-saving equipment); if land is the most limiting factor, land yields should be increased through the use of intensive practices. Similarly, if water is scarce, water use efficiency should be increased through water management practices such as drip irrigation systems or hydroponics. Technology packages should also be tailored to the local ecological, climatic, and sociocultural conditions. Characteristics of crops that generally are appropriate to U.S. island conditions include crops that: 1) are resistant to pests, diseases, and weeds; 2) thrive in poor soils; 3) require little or no irrigation; 4) require relatively little nonrenewable agricultural inputs; 5) require relatively little labor; and 6) produce high yields (48]. Crops should recover rapidly or suffer minimal damage from occasional adverse weather conditions such as cyclonic storms and droughts. For export, crops should be high quality, high value, low weight and bulk, or have a long shelf life. Characteristics of livestock appropriate to tropical islands include those that are resistant to diseases, pests, and parasites; that thrive on poor feed and forage; require little care; and that can adapt to variable weather conditions. Few or no crops or livestock are so ideal as to fulfill each of these requirements. However, these desired characteristics can serve as objectives in crop, cultivar, and livestock choices. Because conditions vary among and within islands, ranking of objectives must be made on a case-by-case basis. Some intensive, high-yielding farming systems are suitable for the larger islands. However, for the most part, agriculture systems on smaller and more remote U.S.-affiliated islands systems should be simple and nearly selfsustaining, including: l l l l systems that use minimal mechanization, thus avoiding expensive repairs, spare parts, and fossil fuel imports. Where mechanization is required, use of smallscale or simple equipment should be developed; systems which require little skilled labor, but which generate employment; systems that maximixe use of local renewable resources and minimize use of nonrenewable resources; and systems which maintain the productivity of local and downstream environments. Agricultural Development Great diversity in agriculture systems is likely to persist on U.S.-affiliated islands. While opportunities for large-scale farming may be exploited by outside investors willing to bear the high risks for the potentially high returns associated with a successful export commodity, development of smallholder agriculture provides a greater likelihood of success and breadth of benefit distribution. Compared with large-scale farming, the benefits associated with smallholder agricultural development include: l l l l l l less risk of adverse impacts on traditional social systems (especially for U.S. Pacific islands); less dependence on foreign capital; larger employment-generating effects; broader distribution of increased farm income; greater compatibility with island ecological conditions; less dependence on imported production inputs;
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 209 l l more widespread nutritional benefits; and potentially greater agricultural stability resulting from greater agricultural diversification (43). Common characteristics of smallholder farming systems include the relatively modest acreage requirements per operation, heavy reliance on family rather than hired labor, and significantly lower capital requirements per operation compared with large-scale agriculture. Also, a strategy which is likely to emphasize import substitution (at least in the early stages of development) probably is more likely to succeed and be less costly than attempting to promote large-scale export-oriented farming (43). POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Improve Research and Extension Services In order to accelerate agriculture development, research programs need to be directed to specific goals clearly relevant to island development. Although the need for research is widely recognized, the capacity of most U.S. Pacific island institutions is limited. Furthermore, effective research is hampered by inadequate or unavailable baseline data and skilled research staff. Levels of research needed for agriculture development include (48): l l l l operational research at the farm level to increase productivity and profitability of farm operations through monitoring and experimentation in farms; field trials at field experimental stations for testing new varieties, fertilizers, pest management, and new technologies; strategic research on broad agricultural development issues affecting many areas, including social and economic issues; and basic research on agriculture problems with no predetermined practical application in mind. The on-farm operational research and field trials are best done onsite at each island institution. However, since the capacity of small island institutions to support complex research is limited, basic and strategic research maybe more effectively conducted at large institutions (48) such as the University of Hawaii or the University of Puerto Rico. Although agriculture research has been conducted in the U.S. Pacific islands, many research activities are not designed to apply directly to the development needs of the islands. Further, research results are commonly not presented in a format usable for development planners or decisionmakers. Although island governments should focus on research that is critical to their special local needs, this should be supplemented by taking advantage of research done at similar institutions at neighboring islands. Research performed by the South Pacific Commission, Caribbean Agriculture Research and Development Institute, and other regional research institutions may provide useful information (48, 87). It would be to the advantage of small island governments to establish cooperative relationships with international research institutions or major universities who can help broad strategic and basic research (48). Integrated development planning of island renewable resources cannot be effectively achieved because research and planning of renewable resources are not well coordinated in island polities (87), After appropriate technology and strategy have been formulated for implementation, extension agents communicate this information to the farmers. Ideally, extension agents should be supported by an extension station with skilled professional staff in various fields. Although this condition may exist on large, welldeveloped islands, provision of agriculture extension services to the widely scattered farmers on U.S. Pacific islands is extremely difficult (48]. Lack of trained and motivated extension staff or the wrong kinds of extension agents may hinder effective communication with farmers. In some areas (e.g., Yap and Palau) where subsistence farmers are women, male extension agents are ineffective because it is considered inappropriate for men to teach women. In such situations, female extension agents would be more effective and appropriate to convey information to farmers (48). Although extension services in Puerto Rico and the USVI are relatively well developed,
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210 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas transfer of modern technologies to Puerto Ricos farmers remains slow. This may be due to the relatively small size of the agriculture sector and scattered geographical location of farmers, and also because extension workers rarely have appropriate prior experience with modern technologies to guide farmers (61). Research knowledge in certain areas (e.g., semiarid agriculture in Puerto Rico) lags significantly behind commercial practice. Generally, the agriculture experiment stations have made little or no effort to incorporate the results of commercial experience in their technology packages. Furthermore, existing links between research and extension, and the present level of funding are inadequate to address the magnitude of the problems which exist in the U.S. Caribbean islands (61). If research is to be effective, the gap of knowledge between researchers and commercial farmers must also be closed. One of the ways of overcoming this problem is to conduct on-farm agronomic research trials. On-farm research provides documentary evidence of the nature and magnitude of biological, technical, economic, and social constraints. Moreover, on-farm research can provide baseline data for extrapolation to other farms where conditions are similar. Finally, on-farm trials make the process of research and development more understandable and accessible to other farmers, decisionmakers, and service organizations. POTENTIAL STRATEGY: Improve Education in Agriculture Apart from agriculture extension services, a need also exists for education and training programs for future farmers on most islands. On U.S. Pacific islands, agricultural education is inadequate. Two schools in Pohnpei offer agricultural education, three island institutions offer programs at the junior college level (Palau, CNMI, and American Samoa), and the University of Guam offers college-level courses. In the U.S. Caribbean islands, agricultural education programs and facilities are adequate. However, strong negative attitudes toward agricultural trade hampers participation of people in agriculture development, especially among the youth. Students also commonly lack hands-on experience with farming. Although agricultural education programs exist, improvement is needed to enhance their effectiveness, particularly for the less-developed islands. In general, constraints to agricultural education in the U.S.-affiliated islands stem from lack of funding, qualified teachers, and of interest on the part of students due, in part, to the status attached to high-paying jobs with the government (app. F). Agricultural education effectiveness could be achieved through improving education in general, providing training for farmers, and providing public education programs. Opportuntiy : Improve Education in General All island areas have public education systems which can accommodate nearly all school age children through the secondary level. However, the educational programs generally do not prepare the students to fill employment needs for island development such as agriculture. Generally, emphasis has been on academic pursuits or preparation for white-collar employment. This has led to outmigration of highschool graduates and persistent shortages of manpower in agriculture trades and other such occupations. Interest in agricultural occupations might be enhanced if ecology and agriculture courses or on-farm training were offered at all educational levels. Opportunity: Provide Training for Farmers Low educational levels of most farmers may pose a problem. In this case, education and training can be presented through nonwritten communication methods with audio-visual aids. Effective education and training may be accomplished by using local examples and by showing rather than telling. Workshops and onthe-job practical training for farmers may also bean effective way to convey information. Involvement of farm organizations in agricultural
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 211 development programs may enhance farmers awareness of new agricultural programs and activities (48). Opportunity: Provide Public Education Programs Public awareness campaigns through the media or agricultural fairs may also be an effective way to convey the importance of the agriculture sector to the general public, and to counter the general negative attitude young people have toward farming as a trade. Agricultural fairs also can serve to introduce new crops or new products to the public and a means of testing public acceptance. The U.S. Virgin Islands holds an annual agriculture and food fair on the two larger islands, St. Croix and St. Thomas (153). Photo credit: USFS-ITF Youth conservation worker programs can introduce local people to basic principles of ecology and help strengthen environmental understanding while providing needed labor for such programs as reforestation and protected area management. Here, Young American Conservation Crops enrollees plant mahogany in a Puerto Rican public forest.
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212 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas CHAPTER 6 REFERENCES 1. Ahmed, S., and Grainge, M., Potential of the Neem Tree (Azadirachta indica) for Pest Control and Rural Development, Economic 130tany 40(2):201-209, 1986. 2. Alexander, A. G., Assessment of Energy-Integrated Farming Technologies for U.S. Insular Areas, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 3. Altieri, M,, and Letourneau, D., Vegetation Diversity and Insect Pest Outbreaks, Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 2(2):131-169, 1984. In: Vargo, 1986. 4. American Samoa Economic Development and Planning Office, Statistica]l?zd]etin 1984, Government of American Samoa, 1984. In: Lucas, 1986; Vargo, 1986. 5. Barnaby J. W., and Busch, R. L., Tropical Production of Tilapia and Tomatoes in a SmallScale Recirculating Water System, Aquiculture 41:271-283, 1984. In: Morris and Pool, 1986. 6, Bassett, C.A. Arid West Trying Drip Irrigation, New York Times, June 3, 1983. 7. Buck, M., Resource Evaluation Forester, Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife, personal communication, September 1986. 8. Calero, R., et al., Estudio Socioeconomic del Programa de Fincas Individuals del Titulo VI de la Ley de Tierras, Estacion Experimental Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, Boletin 236, 1974. In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986. 9. Caro-Costas, R., Assessment of Livestock Production Technologies in the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 10. Castillo-Barahona, F., and Bhatia, M. S., Assessment of Agriculture Production Technologies in Puerto Rico, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 11. Childers, N, F., et.al., Bay Oil Production in Puerto Rico, USDA Agricultural Experimental Station, Circular No. 30, 1948. In: Pool, 1986. 12. Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Planning and Budget Office, Overall Economic Development Strategy 1984, 1984. In: Lucas, 1986. 13. Connell, J., University of Sydney Department of Geography, personal communication, September 1986. 14. Decision Analysts Hawaii, Inc., Agriculture, Municipal and Industrial Water Demand and Benefit Parameters on Guam, prepared for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Pacific Ocean Division, 1983. In. Lucas, 1986. 15. Diaz-Soltero, H., and Oxman, B., Organizations Dealing With Renewable Resource Development and Management in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 16. Dillingham, E. Agriculture Development Needs and Opportunities in the U.S. Virgin Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 17. Dorschner, C., Soap Sprays Can Control Pests Safely, Nationa] Gardening 9(6):20-22, 1986. 18. Eldredge, L., Case Studies of the Impacts of Introduced Animal Species on Renewable Resources in the U. S,-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 19, Elliott, L. F., and Papendick, R. I., Crop Residue Management for Improved Soil Productivity, Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 3(2/3):131-142, 1986. 20. Falanruw, M. V. C., Director, Yap Institute of Natural Sciences, personal communication, July 1986. 21. Falanruw, M. V. C., On the Status, Reproductive Biology, and Management of Fruit Bats of Yap, Institute of Pacific Islands Forestry (in press). 22. Falanruw, M. V. C., Traditional Agriculture/ Resource Management Systems in the High Islands of Micronesia, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 23, Falanruw, M. V. C., People Pressure, Management of Limited Resources on Yap, prepared for the World National Parks Congress, Bali, October, 1982 (appendix to Falanruw, 1986). 24. Falanruw, M, V. C., Marine Impacts of LandBased Activities in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, presented at a seminar on Marine and Coastal Processes in the Pacific: Ecological Aspects of Coastal Zone Management, Motupore Island Research Centre, University of Papua New Guinea, UNESCO, July 14-17, 1980, In: Falanruw, 1986. 25. Falanruw, S., Director, Yap Department of Resources and Development, personal communication, July 1986, 26. Federated States of Micronesia, National Plan Task Force, First National Development Plan, 1985-1989: Working Draft, Federated States of Micronesia (unpublished draft), 1984. In: Lucas, 1986, 27. Fosberg, R., Department of Botany, Smith-
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 213 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33, 34. 35, 36, 37 38, 39. sonian Institution, personal communication, September 1985. Giusti, E. V., Water Resources of the Juana Diaz Area, Puerto Rico: A Preliminary Appraisal, 1966, Water Resources Bulletin, U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources Division, San Juan, 1968. In: Morris and Pool, 1986. Glenn, M., An Analysis of Black Pepper Production in Ponape, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Goldsmith, W. W., and Vietorisz, T., A New Development Strategy for Puerto Rico: Technological Autonomy, Human Resources, A Parallel Economy, Program on International Studies on Planning, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, January 1978. Gonzalez-Villafane, E., et al,, Analysis Economico de 151 Fincas Establecidas a Traves de la Administration de la Explotacion Economica de Fincas de Cafe con un Area Total de 200 Cuerdas o Mas, Estacion Experimental Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, Pub. 74, 1972. In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986, Goyal, M.R. Annual Report No. 3, 1983-1984 Trickle Irrigation in Humid Regions, Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, 1984. In: Morris and Pool, 1986. Gruelach, V. A., Botany Made Simple (Garden City, NY: Doubleday & Co., 1968). In: Raynor, 1986. Guerrero, N. M., Natural Resources in the Northern Mariana Islands: A wealth of Underdeveloped Potential, Proceedings of the Year of the Pacific, Saipan, 1983, pp. 48-56. Hagenmaier, R. D., Coconut Aqueous Processing (Cebu City, Philippines: San Carlos Publications, University of San Carlos, 1980). In: Poison, 1986, Hanes, R,, Senior Vice-President, Specialty Brands Inc., personal communication, September 1985. Hill, M. T., A Preliminary Assessment of the Economic Situation of Puerto Ricos Agriculture, Puerto Rico Business Review, special supplement, 8(5):1-17, May 1983. Hydeman, M., and Raynor, B., Research on Solar Drying of Black Pepper at PATS, PATS Agri-Industria] Bulletin, Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, May 1986. Jackson, G., Director, Kosrae State Department of Conservation and Development, personal communication. SeDtember 1986. 40, Johannes, R., The Role of Marine Resource Tenure Systems (TURFS) in Sustainable Nearshore Marine Resource Development and Management in U, S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 41. Klee, G., Oceania, World Systems of Traditional Resource Management, G. Klee (cd.) [New York, NY: V.H. Winston& Sons and Edward Arnold Publishers, 1980), pp. 245-285. 42. Lopez-Real, J. M., Sustainable Agriculture: the Microbial Potential the Microbiologists Challenge, Biological Agriculture and Horticuhure 3(2/3):143-152, 1986. 43. Lucas, R. L., Role of Smallholder in Agriculture Development in the U, S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986, 44, Lynch, J, M., Rhizosphere Microbiology and Its Manipulation, Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 3(2/3):143-152, 1986. 45, Manner, H., University of Guam Department of Anthropology and Geography, personal communication, September 1986. 46. Mark, S. M., Development of the Agricultural Sector in the American-Affiliated Pacific Islands, Hawaii Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, 1982. 47. Mark. S. M., and Lucas, R, L., The Pohnpei 48, 49, 50( Agricultural Development Plan, Pohnpei State Economic Development Authority, December 1984 (unpublished). In: Lucas, 1986. Mark, S. M., and Plasch, B. S., Strategy Outline for Accelerated Agricultllre Development of American-A ffiliated Pacific Islands, Hawaii Institute of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii, 1982. Marshall Islands Office of Planning and Statistics, First Five Year Development Plan 1985-1990: The Initial Phase of a Fifteen Year Development Program, (unpublished document), Republic of the Marshall Islands, 1984. Martin, F, W., and Ruberte, R. M., Growing Food in Containers in the Tropics, U.S. Depar~ment of Agriculture, Agriculture Research (Southern Region), Science and Education Administration, Agricultural Reviews and Manuals, ARM-S-13, New Orleans, LA, January 1981. 51. Martin, F, W., and Ruberte, R. M., Techniques and Plants for the Tropical Subsistence Farm, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration, Agricultural Reviews and Manuals, ARM-S-8, New Orleans, LA, July 1980.
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214 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas 52. 53. 54. 55. 56, 578 58. 59. 60. 61. Matuszak, J. M., Terracing in 1984Building Soil and Feeding Families, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual St. Thomas/St. Johns Agriculture Fair, sponsored by the St. Thomas and St. Johns Farmers Association and the College of the Virgin Islands Cooperative Extension Service, 1984, pp. 7-8. In: Pool, 1986. Mayo, H, M., Report on Plant Relocation Survey and Agricultural History of the Palau Islands, (Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands: Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1954). McClymonds, N, E., and Diaz, J, R., Water Resources of the Jobos Area, Puerto Rico, Water Resources Bulletin, No. 13, U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources ,Division, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 1972. In: Morris and Pool, 1986. McCutcheon, M., Reading the Taro Cards: Explaining Agricultural Change in Palau, FoodEnergy in Tropical Ecosystems, D.J. Cattle and K.H. Schwerin, (eds.) (New York, NY: Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, 1985), pp. 167-188. McElroy, J. L,, Department of Business Administration and Economics, St. Marys College, IN, personal communication, July 1986. Miller, T., Vice President Procurement, McCormick & Co., Inc., personal communication, June 1986. Mishra, M. M., and Bangar, K. C,, Rock Phosphate Comporting: Transformation of Phosphorus Forms and Mechanisms of Solubilization, Biological Agriculture and Horticulture, vol. 3, 1986, pp. 331-340. Morris, G. L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal communication, September 1986. Morris, G. L., Consulting Hydrologist, personal communication, February 1986. Morris, G, L., and Pool, D. J., Assessment of Semiarid Agriculture Production Technologies for the U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 62. Mosse, B., Mycorrhi~ae in a Sustainable Agriculture, Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 3(2/3):191-209, 1986. 63, Muellm-Dombois, D., University of Hawaii, Department of Botany, personal communication, July 1986. 64. Muler-Manzanares, L., and Santini, J. E., Estudio Socioeconomic de 29 Fincas Individuals del Titulo W de ia Ley de Tierras Distribudas de 1967 a 1970, Estacion Experimental Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, Boletin 241, 1976, In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986. 65, 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71, 72. 73. 74. 75. Mumpton, F. A., Using Zeolites in Agriculture, Innovative Biological Technologies for Lesser Developed Countries U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-F-29 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing office, 1985). Muniappan, R,, Associate Director, University of Guam Agricultural Experiment Station, personal communication, January 1986, Munoz-Roure, J. O,, Director, Caribbean Fishery Management Council, personal communication, September 1986. Nafus, D., Strengthening Plant Protection and Root Crops Development in the South Pacific (Suva, Fiji: United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in association with the South Pacific Commission, 1985). Nair, P. K. R., Agroforestry With Coconuts and Other Tropical Plantation Crops, Plant Research and Agroforestry, P.A. Huxley (cd.) (Nairobi, Kenya: International Council for Research in Agroforestry, 1983), pp. 79-102. National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Casuarina: Nitrogen-Fixing Trees for Adverse Sites (VVashington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984). National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Mangium and Other Fast-growing Acacias for the Humid Tropics (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984). National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Making Aquatic Weeds Useful (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1984), National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Food, Fuel and Fertilizer From Organic Wastes (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1981). National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Tropical Legumes: Resources for the Future (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1979). National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Leu-
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry l 215 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88, 89. caena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop for the Tropics (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1977). National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Underexploited Tropical Plants With Promising Economic VaZue (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1975), National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, The Winged Bean: A High Protein Crop for the Tropics (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1975). Ortiz-Daliot, J., Director, Puerto Rico Federal Affairs Administration, personal communication, September 1986. Owen, R., former Chief Conservationist of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, personal communication, March 1985. Pangelinan, M,, Executive Director, Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association, personal communication, July 1986. Park, W. L., and Park, R. L., Potential Returns From Sheep and Goat Enterprises, Virgin islands Experimental Station Report No.7, 1974. In: caro-costas, 1986 Park, W. L., and Park, R. L., Profitability of Beef Production in St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Island Agriculture Experiment Station Report No.3, 1974. In: Caro-Costas, 1986. Parr, J, F., Papendick, R. I., and Colacicco, D., Recycling of Organic Wastes for a Sustainable Agriculture, Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 3(2-3):115-130, 1986. Perry, J,, Resource Conservationist, U.S. Soil Conservation Service, personal communication, September 1986. Pimentel, D., and Levitan, L., Pesticides: Amount Applied and Amount Reaching Pests, Bioscience 36(2):86-91, 1986. Poison, S., The Marshall Islands Coconut industry: Prospects for Expansion and Developmerit, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Pool, D. J., Forestry and Agroforestry Technologies: Development Potentials in U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Przybyla, A. E., Americas Passion for Spices, Food Engineering 58(6):70-71,7476,78, June 1986. Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, Anuario Estadisticas Agricolas de Puerto Rico, 90, 91! 92. 93, 94. 95. 96. 97 98. 99. 100 101 ( 102. Department de Agriculture de Puerto Rico, 1982. In: Vicente-chandler, 1986, Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture, Consumo de Alimentos en Puerto Rico 19!j0-1974, Department de Agricultural de Puerto Rico, Publication Especial, 1978, In: VicenteChandler, 1986. Rakocy, J. E,, College of the Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station, personal communication, July 1985. Rakocy, J. E., A Recirculating System for Tilapia Culture and Vegetable Hydroponics in the Caribbean, paper presented at Auburn University Fisheries and Aquiculture Symposium, Sept. 20-22, 1984. In: Morris and Pool, 1986. I Raynor, W., Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, personal communication, September 1985. Raynor, W., Commercial Crop Production Technologies and Development Potentials for The U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986, Raynor, W., and Soumetaw, L., Report on PATS Ylang-ylang Project, PATS Agri-lndustrial Bulletin, Ponape Agriculture and Trade School, Pohnpei, Federated States of Micronesia, February 1986, Reynolds, S. G., The Use of Local Resources for Vegetable Production in south pacific, Proceeding for Planning and Organization Meeting: Fertilizer I.N.P. U. T, (Increase Productivity Under Tight SuppZies) Project (Honolulu, HA: Food Institute, East West Center, 1975), pp. 169-180. Sam, C., Ponape Coconut Products, personal communication, April 1985. Sanchez-Nieva, F., Assessment of Food Processing Technologies for U.S.-Affiliated Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Schreiner, I., University of Guam Agricultural Experiment Station, personal communication, February 1986. Sefanaia, S., et. al., A Review of Recent Research on Intercropping Under Coconut, Fiji Agric. Journal 44(1):31-36, 1982. Smith, R. M., and Abruna, F., Soil and Water Conservation Research in Puerto Rico, 19381947, University of Puerto Rico Agriculture Experimental Station Bulletin No. 1241955. In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986. Soucie, E. A., S. J., Atoll Agriculture for Secondary Schools (Pohnpei, FSM: PATS Education Foundation of Micronesia, Inc., 1983).
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216 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108, 109. 110. 111 0 112. 113. 114 0 Sproat, M. N., A Guide to Subsistence Agriculture in Micronesia, Agriculture Extension Bulletin No. 9, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands Publications Office, Saipan, Northern Mariana Islands, 1968. In: Falanruw, 1986; Poison, 1986; Raynor, 1986. Sproat, M. N., Coconut Varieties in Micronesia, Agriculture Extension Circular No. 4, Division of Agriculture, Department of Resources and Development, Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Saipan, Marshall Islands, 1965. In: Poison, 1986. Sproat, M. N., and Migvar, L., TTP1 AgricuL tural Development Operations TTPI Agricultural Extension Bulletin No. 1, January 1964, In: Raynor, 1986. Stella, C., and Olivieri, J. A., Costos y Practicas para Elaborer el Carbin Vegetal en la Zone Cafetalera de Puerto Rico 1952 -1953, Boletin 124, Estacion Experimental Agricultural, University of Puerto Rico, 1954. In: Pool, 1986. Sugiura, K. Taro Culture of Palauans, Geogr. Res. 1(8):1017-1035, 1942. In: Falanruw, 1986. Szentkiralyi, M., ~Assessment of Livestock Production Technologies in Micronesia and Feasibility Study for Locally Produced Pig Feed on Ponape, OTA commissioned paper, 1986, Thaman, R, R., Pacific Islands Health and Nutrition: Trends and Areas for Action (Honolulu HA: East-West Center, June 1985). In: Lucas, 1986. Thaman, R. R,, Deterioration of Traditional Food Systems, Increasing Malnutrition and Food Dependency in the Pacific Islands, Journa] of Nutrition 39(3):109-121, 1982. In: Falanruw, 1986. Thaman, R, R., Food Scarcity, Food Dependency and Nutritional Deterioration in Small Island Communities, Proceedings of the I(lth New Zealand Geographical Conference and 49th ANZAAS Conference, W, Moran, P. Hosking, and G. Aitken (eds.) (Auckland, New Zealand: N.Z. Geographical Society Conference Series No. 10, 1979), pp. 191-197. In: Falanruw, 1986. Toomey, G., Agrogeology: Rocks in the Service of Soil, IDRC Reports, July 1986, pp. 12-13. Torres, E,, Director, Guam Department of Agriculture, personal communication, September 1986. Tosi, J. A., Jr., Forest Land Utilization in Western Puerto Rico, Ph.D dissertation, Clark 115. 116. 117, 118. 119, 120, 121, 122. University (Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms Inc., 1959), In: Pool, 1986. Trenbath, B. R,, Biomass Productivity of Mixtures, Advances in Agronomy 26:177, 1974. Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, Office of Planning and Statistics, Consumption and Production in the Traditional Sector of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, 1981, pp. 102-116. In: Falanruw, 1986. Tyson, G,, Caribbean historian, personal communication, July 1986. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies to Maintain Biological Diversity, OTA-F-330 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987). U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technology, Public Policy and the Changing Structure of American Agriculture, OTA-F-285 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1986). U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies to Benefit Agriculture and Wildlife, OTA-BP-F-34 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 1985). U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Technologies To Sustain Tropical Forest Resources, OTA-F-214 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1984). U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Reforestation of Degraded Lands, Background Paper No, 1, OTA-BP-F-18 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 1983). 123. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Impact of Technology on U.S. Cropland 124< 125, and Rangeland Productivity, OTA-F-166 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, August 1982). U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Pest Management Strategies in Crop Production, vol. 1, NTIS PB80-120-017 (Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service, October 1979). U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the American Samoa, February 1984. 126, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of Kosrae, Federated States of Micronesia, March 1983. 127, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Islands of Truk, Federated States of Micronesia, March 1983.
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Ch. 6Management of Terrestrial Resources: Agriculture, Agroforestry, and Forestry 217 128. 129, 130. 131, 132, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Islands of Yap, Federated States of Micronesia, March 1983. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of Palau, Republic of Palau, March 1983. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Island of Ponape, Federated States of Micronesia, January 1982. U.S. Department of Commerce, Economic Study of Puerto Rico, 2 vols., report prepared by the Interagency Task Force (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1979). U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census: 1982 Census of Agriculture: U.S. Summary (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984). 133. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Virgin Islands of the United States (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). 134. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Guam (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). 135. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1982 Census of Agriculture: Puerto Rico (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). 136, U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: Northern Mariana Islands (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981). 137. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1978 Census of Agriculture: American Samoa (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981). 138. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Coastal Zone Management, American Samoa Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement, (Washington, DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1980). 139. U.S. Department of Commerce, Office of Coastal Zone Management, Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program and Final Environmental Impact Statement (Washington, DC: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1978). 140. U.S. Department of State, Thirty-Seventh Annual Report to the United Nations on the Administration of the Trust Territories of the Pacific Islands, 1984. In: Lucas, 1986. 141. 142. 143, 144. 145. 146. 147, 148. 149. 150. 151, 152. U.S. Virgin Islands Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service, 1983-1984 Report of College of Virgin Island Land Grant Programs St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands, October 1985. Vargo, A., Economic Pests and Pest Management Technologies Suitable for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Vicente-Chandler, J., Assessment of Agricultural Production Technologies for U.S. Caribbean Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Vicente-Chandler, J. Conceptos, Plan y Programa Para una Agricultural Moderna en Puerto Rico, Special Report to the Secretary of Agriculture of Puerto Rico, 1978. In: Pool, 1986; Caro-Costas, 1986; Morris and Pool, 1986. Vicente-Chandler, J., et al., Production y utilization intensiva de las Forrajeras en Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico Agriculture Experimental Station Bulletin No. 271, 1983. In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986; Caro-Costas, 1986. Vicente-Chandler, J., and Figarella, J., Experiments on Plantain Production with Conservation in the Mountain Region of Puerto Rico, University of Puerto Rico Journal of Agriculture 46(3):226-236, 1962. In: Vicente-Chandler, 1986. Vicente-Chandler, J., Irrizary, H., and Llorens, A. A,, Costos e Ingresos en la Production Intensive de Platanos en la Region Montanosa de Puerto Rico, Estacion Experimental Agricultural, Publication No. 137, 1980. In: VicenteChandler, 1986. Vickers, M. E. H., The Cultivation of Taro Cyrtosperma chammissonis Schott., Taro Cultivation in the Pacific M. Lambert (cd.), Noumea, New Caledonia, South Pacific Commission Technical Bulletin No. 22, 1982, pp. 90-97. West, N, E., Desertification or Verification? Nature 321(5):562 June 1986. Wiens, H. J., Atoll Environment and Ecology (Brookhaven, NH: Yale University Press, 1965). Wijewardene R., and Waidyanatha, P., Conservation Farming: Systems, Technologies, and Tools, Department of Agriculture, Sri Lanka and the Commonwealth Consultative Group on Agriculture in the Asia-Pacific Region, 1984. In: Raynor, 1986; Vargo, 1986. Wilkens, G. C,, Role of Traditional Agriculture in Preserving Biological Diversity, OTA commissioned paper for assessment of Technologies to Maintain Biological Diversity, OTA-F-
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218 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas 330 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987), 153. Williams, P., USVI Commissioner of Agriculture, personal communication, November 1986. 154. World Development Forum, Dripping Fertilizer, World Development Forum 4(2):4, January 1986. 155. Wortman, S., To Feed This World (Baltimore MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984). In: Stiles, 1986, 156. Youdeowei, A., and Service, M. W., Pest and Vector Management in the Tropics (New York, NY: Longman Inc., 1983). In: Vargo, 1986. 157. Zapata, J. Z., et al., El Mercado de Trabajo en la Agricultural y las Caracteristicas SocioEconomicas do 10S Obreros Agricola en Puerto Rico, Agricultural Experiment Station, October 1983. In: Castillo-Barahona and Bhatia, 1986,
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Chapter 7 Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture
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CONTENT S Page Introduction. . . . . . . . . ......................221 Common Uses of Aquatic Species. . . . . . . . . .221 Ecology of Coastal and Nearshore Habitats ........................,222 History and Present Status of Resource Use . . . ..............225 Common Constraints to Fisheries and Aquiculture Development ....,...230 Constraints to Nearshore Fisheries Development .....................230 Constraints to Aquiculture Development . . . .................232 Other Constraints to Marine Resource Development ..................233 Common Opportunities . . . . . . . ..........,...235 Expanded Use of Underexploited or Migratory Species ...............235 Collecting and Gathering . . . . . . . ., ..........235 Aquiculture . . . . . . . ......................236 Potential Strategies for Nearshore Fisheries Development in U.S.-Affiliated Islands . . . . . . . ............237 Introduction . . . . . . . ........................237 Potential Strategy: Increase Fishery Exploitation Efficiency ...........237 Potential Strategy: Increase Support for Subsistence and Small-Scale Commercial Fisheries Aimed at Underutilized Stocks ...............238 Potential Strategy: Develop Large-Scale Fisheries Aimed at Migrating Pelagics . . . . . .......................240 Potential Strategy: Manage Nearshore Fisheries for Sustained Yields ....240 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...248 Potential Strategies for Aquiculture Development. . ..................249 Introduction . . . . . . . . ....................249 Potential Strategy: Develop Sea Ranching . . . . . .. ...251 Potential Strategy: Develop Extensive Culture unnatural Waters .......251 Potential Strategy: Culture of Marine Fish in Enclosures. .............253 Potential Strategy: Pond Culture . . . . . . . .. ....254 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . ......257 Summary of Marine Resource Status and Potential Resource Management Goals . . . . . . . . . . . ..259 Research . . . . . . . . ......................260 Extension . . . . . . . . . ....................263 Regional Coordination and Cooperation ............................26 4 Chapter 7 References . . . . . . . ................265 Bo x Box Page 7-A. Culture of Tridacnid Clams . . . . . . . . . .243
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Chapter 7 Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture INTRODUCTION Common Uses of Aquatic Species Since prehistoric times, coastal and insular cultures have harvested tropical aquatic organisms for a wide range of utilitarian, symbolic, and ornamental functions. The sea was traditionally and chiefly important as a source of food; it was estimated to supply, 90 percent of the Pacific islanders animal protein (81). Fishing was an integral part of traditional high island socioeconomy and essential to life on atolls. Today, as in the past, consumption of large quantities of marine organisms, including finfish, algae, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms, and turtles is essential to life throughout the U.S.-affiliated tropical islands. Nonfood resources of the marine environment were traditionally used as fuel; currency; ornaments; weapons; medicinal; religious, magic, and funerary symbols; and construction materials for dwellings, roads, and vessels. Contemporary nonfood uses also include a range of biomedically and industrially important compounds, including pharmaceuticals and hydrocarbons (48,49,114). Harvesting technologies range from use of simple dugout canoes to deepdiving, manned submersibles. The shells of marine mollusks have been valued as ornamental objects since prehistoric times. Various cultures and societies have attributed powers of magic, religion, and virility to shells and valued them as currency and curios (1,38). Shells were also harvested as raw materials for the manufacture of tools, utensils, weapons, and ornaments. Turtle shells were used in the manufacture of fishhooks and other items (106). Pearl shell (mother-of-pearl) was one of the most important raw materials for the manufacture of fishing tackle in traditional systems. Hooks and lures were made from the nacre of several families of gastropod and bivalves, particularly Pteriidae. Mother-ofpearl was also harvested for use in producing ornamental items, and was highly prized on the European market for jewelry, buttons, and other ornamental objects. Today, souvenir hunters purchase shellcraft at resorts throughout the world. 221
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222 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Precious corals have been highly treasured for millennia. Approximately 95 percent of the world harvest has come from the Pacific. The skeletons of precious corals (including Corallium, Gerardia, Lepidisis, Acanella, and Antipathes) are hard and dense enough to be polished to a high luster suitable for jewelry manufacture. Stony corals (Scleractinia), although too porous to be polished for jewelry, are sold as curios and decorations in many parts of the world (85) and used industrially for building materials and lime production (172). Similarly, the large amount of calcium carbonate contained in mollusk shells has given them a number of industrial uses, primarily as constituents of fine pottery glazes, toothpaste, and poultry food (171). Marine plants or seaweeds are used for human and livestock food, fertilizer, soil conditioners, and as a raw material for various chemicals. Many marine organisms produce compounds that are pharmaceutically active. Extracts from brown algae have been used as hypotensive drugs in oriental medicine for centuries (10). Neurotoxins from other algae are being studied for their potential as anesthetics (34). Certain marine algae produce polysaccharide thickening agents (phycocolloids) used as additives in food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, paints, and ink. A variety of biological and inanimate resources are harvested from coastal waters for uses as either construction materials (sand and limestone), fuel for biomass conversion (algae), building materials (mangrove species, coral) or food and artifacts. Several mollusks are harvested for shells in the Caribbean including conchs, helmets, volutes, cones, tritons, spiny oysters, and scallops. Many tropical fish are harvested for sale in the aquarium and curio trade. Colorful fish from coral reefs are prized by aquarium hobbyists around the world. Several exotic species from the Pacific command high prices. Pufferfish, for example, are killed, inflated, varnished and mounted for sale in curio shops locally or on the U.S. mainland. In addition to providing an important source of food and other products, nearshore marine resources are a vital part of the tourist industry: coastal environments (beaches, sheltered lagoons, coral reefs) are among the islands primary attractions. Ecology of Coastal and Nearshore Habitats The biological complexity and variability of tropical nearshore environments are exceeded only, perhaps, by tropical rain forests (168). Taxonomic composition, overall community structure, topography, and oceanographic conditions vary widely within and among islands, even over short distances (60). Nevertheless, nearshore ecosystems in the islands commonly comprise three distinct, but intimately interdependent habitats: mangrove forests, coral reefs, and seagrass meadows and unconsolidated sand or mud bottoms (60,139,159). Some atolls, however, may not support mangroves or seagrass beds (99). The ecological and economic importance of these habitats extends beyond the particular exploitable species within them. Corals and Coral Reefs Corals and coral reefs are a dominant shallow-water feature of tropical marine environments that are remote from major upwellings or freshwater inflows (118). Broadly defined, a coral reef is comprised of both the physical structure formed from calcareous secretions of corals and other marine organisms. Large coral colonies may contain tens of thousands of individual polyps, and reefs can be hundreds or thousands of years old. It is the carbonate skeletons of these shallow water marine organisms that form the massive reef structures protecting coastlines and creating habitats for the associated biota (168). Coral reef ecosystems are productive biologically and geologically. An active reef can build islands such as the Micronesia atolls, and erode by wave action to create sand deposits and beaches. If the reef-building processes are disturbed, however, erosion will dominate and the reef will deteriorate (35). Reef fisheries are considered highly productive, yielding up to 65 tons of biomass per
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture 223 Photo credit: C. Wah/e The coral reef ecosystem is comprised of the physical coral structure and an array of other marine species. Interaction among these reef community members gives rise to the high biological productivity associated with coral reefs. square mile per year in American Samoa (170). Average yields of coral reef fisheries are estimated at nearly 43 tons of biomass per square mile per year at depths less than 100 feet (99). The high biological productivity is maintained by efficient retention and recycling of ecosystem nutrients (35). Coral reefs serve at least three functions of profound economic importance. The physical structures serve as barriers to storm waves and debris, are an important tourism attraction, and create complex habitats for a variety of economically important organisms. A species that contributes measurably to the trophic structure and energy flow of the reef ecosystem can be considered a member of the reef community. Species that feed in adjacent areas (e.g., seagrass meadows) but shelter in or on reefs and thereby transfer energy to the reef system also are considered part of the reef community. Secondary consumers which prey on reef animals but move to other areas when not feeding are part of the reef system as well (118). included under this definition of the fishery. Commonly harvested reef components include hard corals, mollusks, crustaceans, echinoderms (e.g., sea urchins), fish, and marine plants. The dietary preferences and economic desires of the fishing communities thus define the nature of the fishery (118). Representatives of virtually every major animal and plant group are associated with coral reefs and, in many cases, are exploited (168). For example, as many as 500 fish species are found in coral reef areas of Kosrae, some 200 of which are harvested for consumption; at least 300 fish species are found in Puerto Rican reef areas, of which 180 are harvested for human consumption (56,61). Also, many reef-dwelling animals are preyed on by migrating and pelagic fish which constitute a major portion of worldwide commercial fisheries. Mangrove Forests Mangrove forests consist of salt-resistant trees with stilt roots or pneumatophores growing in the intertidal range along ocean shores or estuaries (35). Mangroves are an integral component of coastal ecosystems and fulfill Coral reef fisheries include activities at a commercial, subsistence, or recreational level, which exploit aquatic organisms associated with hermatypic (reef-building) corals. Thus, all edible, marketable or otherwise useful components of the coral reef community are
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224 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas many fundamentally important functions in island ecology and economy (159). Mangroves supply wood and other forest products on some islands and contribute to the productivity of lagoons and reefs. As prop roots develop and spread, they trap and stabilize terrigenous sediment, building land and protecting reefs and lagoons from agricultural and urban pollution. Like coral reefs, mangrove forests protect coasts from storm damage; support an extremely diverse and ecologically important community of marine plants, invertebrates, and seabirds; and provide shelter and nursery for a range of commercially important fish. Mangrove detritus provides an important nutrient base for food webs leading to commercially important food fish and invertebrates, and augments the growth of adjacent seagrass and coral reef communities (168). If mangrove forests are carefully managed, they can sustain a high fisheries output and some limited forestry production. Mangroves are harvested in the U.S. Caribbean and Pacific islands for fuel and building materials. However, they have been removed in many areas, often to gain access to sites used for sand mining; navigation channels; waste dumping; and the construction of buildings, docks, and marinas (35). Storms may damage mangroves, although they tend to regenerate quickly. Humaninduced stress can, however, be disastrous. Mangroves are often killed by changes in land runoff or water circulation which alter the salinity balance. Oil pollution, as in postwar Truk lagoon, can degrade mangrove areas for years. Stressed mangroves will drop their leaves and may die if stress is not alleviated. If conditions permit seedling reestablishment, the forest can regenerate in 10 to 15 years (35,47) 0 Seagrass Meadows Seagrass meadows and mud bottoms within lagoons and between the shore and reef crest serve many crucial ecological functions of direct and indirect economic importance to insular peoples. Although the seagrass itself is of little intrinsic economic value (except perhaps as soil amendments on some islands), the associated sand, coral rubble, fish, and invertebrates commonly are harvested for materials and food throughout the U.S. tropical islands (168). The sand and mud bottoms on which seagrass beds form create habitat for many burrowing and benthic organisms. The leaves and interwoven roots provide extensive shelter for small organisms and grazing surfaces for a variety of species. Many species migrate to and from seagrasses either daily or at a fixed stage during their lifecycle. For example, although many food fish live and are harvested in the coral reef areas as adults, they pass the critical larval and juvenile phases in the protection of seagrass meadows (168). Seagrass beds provide additional feeding areas for species on nearby reefs, and the variety of fish tends to be higher on reefs close to these habitats (61). Seagrasses promote settlement and consolidation of sandy sediments, thus helping to prevent coastal erosion. They accumulate sand on which mangroves further consolidate the land (168). To some extent they can absorb organic wastes and sediment. However, heavy sedimentation can cut off light to bottom communities and eventually smother them. Seagrasses are Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Seagrass meadows are an integral part of the island nearshore ecosystem. Like mangroves, seagrasses may enhance nearshore fishery potential by providing habitat and organic matter, and contributing to stabilization of bottom sediments.
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture l 225 particularly vulnerable to dredging and to anchor and propeller damage; holes cut in the bed may take years to regenerate (35,153). Under natural conditions, it takes from 6 to 100 years for a seagrass bed to recover from a stress once impact has ceased (153). The mangrove, seagrass meadow, and coral reef ecosystems commonly are adjacent and mutually interactive. Mangroves, for example, trap sediment from terrestrial runoff that can be highly detrimental to coral reefs and seagrass beds. Similarly, coral reefs function as breakwaters, protecting seagrass beds and mangroves from the full impact of sea waves. Moreover, a number of animals of subsistence and commercial importance migrate among these ecosystems during their lifecycles (35). History and Present Status of Resource Use Pacific Despite low nutrient levels common to tropical oceans, the nearshore marine ecosystems of Micronesia are among the most productive in the world (119). Since the arrival of the first inhabitants of the Pacific islands some 3,000 years ago, the marine environment has supplied most of the food of the islanders as well as many material needs. (See Lal (97) for an extensive list of nonfood products.) Subsistence harvests continue to make a major contribution to the standard of living even in the most urbanized islands. Given the limited land mass of the islands, the oceans will continue to play a significant role in economic development. Pacific islanders have traditionally relied on the resources of nearshore waters; fishing and gleaning of shallow water benthic invertebrates from the reef have been the primary means of obtaining food from the sea. Traditional fishermen of all islands possessed precise knowledge of fish behavior, food preferences, spawning patterns, predator-prey relationships, and climatic and oceanographic influences (82,84,85). Rich vocabularies for describing fishing and maritime activities exist within the many languages spoken by Micronesians in the Carolines, Marshalls, Marianas, and by Polynesians in American Samoa (20). Seldom in traditional island economies was fishing practiced for its recreational value alone, although sport and competition was sometimes involved, Skilled fishermen enjoyed social prestige; fishing knowledge was handed down through generations and was a form of highly valued property not lightly shared. The market system did not exist nor did monetary profit motivate fishermen. Fish were distributed by complex systems of exchange and barter between and among extended families (76). Today, most fish caught by Pacific island fishermen do not reach monetary markets (96,85,113), Although the elaborate and diverse tradition of fish cultivation reported to have existed in the Hawaiian Islands (93,150) and Nauru (131) apparently did not develop in this region, evidence of stone structures and fish pens suggest some fish culture was practiced in the mangrove areas of Yap, in the lagoon at Pingelap, and possibly near a mangrove area in Guam. Natural coral reef productivity appears to be more than sufficient in the aggregate to meet the subsistence needs of island populations. Regionwide generalization maybe inappropriate, however, because it fails to consider the diversity of reef organisms and their dispersion among widely scattered islands, as well as human population densities on certain islands. On high volcanic islands, which normally have abundant freshwater and other land-based resources, fishing is usually combined with agriculture. On low coral islands, which have a paucity of freshwater and arable land, fishing may be the primary source of animal protein. Villages commonly are located on the lee side of islands at sites with suitable access to the sea, lagoon, and reef resources. A variety of village activities may be based on the fishery, including boat building, repair, net and trap making, processing, and distributing. Despite great differences in language and culture among island populations, each group evolved a distinctive set of traditions which reflect a keen awareness of local ecological rela-
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226 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas tionships. Harvest, distribution patterns, and customs differed, but often were designed with resource conservation as one objective and functioned as effective resource management systems (81). The islanders traditionally practiced principles of property and use rights, resource ownership, and limited entry. Exploitation rights were carefully controlled by taboos to ensure a sustained yield (87). On Yap, for example, the right to fish nearshore waters was subdivided, with particular families controlling reef flat areas and tracts inside the reef. The Yapese considered these sea resources along with associated land resources (i.e., taro patches, gardens, forests) as a single unit. The highest ranked Chief of the Village exercised ultimate control over nearshore waters. The second ranked Chief of Fishing led communal fishing in the open sea, while the Overseer of Fishing directed communal fishing inside the lagoon (149). Some areas were closed to fishing until fish populations returned to preharvest levels, and permitted fishing methods were carefully defined for different social classes. For example, the lowest ranked Yapese class owned no fishing grounds, were allowed only the most primitive fishing gear and were allowed to gather seafood only in streams and estuaries. Magellans landfall at Guam in the 16th century marked the beginning of an era of European exploration and exploitation in the Pacific. From the 17th through the 19th centuries, Spain, England, and Germany exerted varying degrees of influence on Micronesia. Iron was introduced and quickly replaced natural products as the raw material for everything from fishhooks to adzes. Traditional tenure systems were modified or outlawed in favor of ownership, which frequently resulted in uncontrolled abuse of resources (44,135). For the most part, these nations were primarily concerned with land-based resources, agriculture, and trade. These colonial powers paid little commercial attention to fisheries. Important nonfood marine products in early trade, however, were found in pearls and mother-of-pearl from shells of the Pteriidae family. Small-scale, hand harvest of pearl shell began in Palau during the German administration. As merchants eagerly sought pearl and mother-of-pearl for the European market, harvests were unmanaged and stocks were overexploited. By the 20th century, natural populations of pearl oysters were depleted throughout their Pacific range (123). Exhaustion of pearl oyster stocks led to a search for methods of improving productivity and for new nacre sources. The commercial topshell Trochus niloticus was found to produce nacre suitable for button material. Japanese scientists successfully transplanted topshells in the Caroline and Mariana Islands in the 1930s (6,7,8). Truk was the only area that produced commercial harvest before World War II suspended the fishery (108), During the Japanese mandate, four Japanese companies cultured pearl oysters in Palau, In 1938, these companies produced more of the introduced gold-lipped pearl oyster, Pinctada maxima, than any region in which natural populations of the species were exploited (115). However, pearl oyster culture operations ended as World War II moved into the Pacific. Disrupted by war, harvest of pearls and mother-of-pearl never regained its place of importance in island economies. The culture methods developed by Japanese scientists in Palau before the war were regarded as proprietary information. Without transfer of this technology to local inhabitants, natural stocks of pearl shell were not sufficient to support the industry. In the more urbanized district centers and ports, commercial exploitation of topshell resumed under U.S. Administration. Because the war prevented commercial harvest, overexploited populations had recovered to some extent, and harvests were greater in the years following the war than they were just prior to its outbreak (108). However, populations began to decline again by the mid-1950s, leading to establishment of reef sanctuaries in which no harvest was permitted (109). The topshell continues to be a major item of export for several island groups (72). For example, Yap has an ongoing trochus seeding project for the outer islands (162). Steady in-
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture 227 Photo credit: M Vitarelli Nonfood resources gathered from the islands nearshore waters continue to be important in island cultures and economies. Shown here are Marshall Islands shell necklaces and tortoise shell and mother-of-pearl jewelry from Palau. creases in market prices in the last decade have resulted in the trochus harvest becoming an important sector of island economy. It is a principal source of subsistence income, especially in remote areas, and as one of the few natural product exports, it is an important source of foreign exchange for island governments. Good quality Corallium reportedly was harvested off the southern coast of Peleliu in Palau and north of Pagan in the Marianas before World War II (145). A temporary glut of precious corals depressed world markets after extensive new grounds were discovered near Midway in 1980 (63), However, the continued decline of other stocks and the rapid depletion of the Midway beds combined to raise world trade in precious corals to at least $50 million (U.S. dollars] in 1982. Excluding whaling, fishing in a commercial sense began only in the 20th century with the arrival of the Japanese and Americans. Most fishermen today are part-time, and almost all contribute heavily to the nonmarket sector (84,113,126). Semicommercial fishing is, however, developing. Problems of overcapitalization and habitat and resource degradation are apparent and become more complex as populations grow and a market economy penetrates into the lives and cultures of traditionally subsistence people.
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228 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Urban development generally has concentrated in coastal areas of the Pacific islands. Urban centers grow as rural, or outer island dwellers migrate to them for better education and employment opportunities. Commercial fish markets, commonly cooperatives, are established to serve the centers emerging cash economies. Increased subsistence and commercial fishing, along with habitat degradation, stress urban center nearshore resources. As marine products become scarce locally, on a seasonal and annual basis, market prices are driven upward encouraging even more intensive harvest efforts. As urbanization continues, reef resources are overharvested in an ever-widening area emanating from the urban center (118). The radius of depletion depends in part on the relative prices of fish in the district center markets and on costs of harvest and transport from rural and outer island areas. When urban fish prices rise (with depletion of resources), less expensive foreign imports begin to flow into island fish markets. Urban consumers benefit from cheap imports, but fishermen are trapped between a fixed price for their product and everincreasing costs of exploitation. Their only solutions are to turn to other occupations or to harvest more fish more efficiently. If governments subsidize such efforts, the circle of resource depletion widens. If the numbers of fulltime fishermen decrease, part-time fishermen begin to take over the fishing sector, joined eventually by recreational fishermen. In attempts to establish more equitable income distribution, island governments sometimes subsidize shipment of resources from outer islands to the urban center. The full-time subsistence fisherman becomes a part-time commercial fisherman whose efforts are tuned to rising market prices rather than to traditional reef tenure systems and subsistence needs. Old resource management systems are circumvented. With government subsidies for gear, ice, freezing, and transport, and the lure of participation in a cash economy, the fisherman may now harvest far more of the resource than he needs and otherwise would have. Modern, but often less selective equipment aids this effort. In the quest for those species most preferred by the urban dwellers, less commercially valuable resources may be unintentionally overharvested (23]. The above scenario is in various stages of realization throughout the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Guam (2), American Samoa (173), and the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas (CNMI) (126) find themselves in the later stages of the scenario. Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), and the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) seem to be in the earlier stages (23). Legislation has been passed to conserve and manage remaining nearshore resources, and national policies have attempted to redirect resource use away from the more heavily exploited nearshore areas toward comparatively underexploited outer reef and pelagic resources (151). The number of disputes over access to fishing grounds in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands also is growing as populations increase and pressures on resources push yield potentials to the limit. Unprecedented levels and kinds of waste discharge (104) pose still more problems. Although some reports exist that population densities of specimen shell species have decreased where tourism has developed in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI), it is not clear if the reduction is caused by overexploitation or by increased runoff and pollution associated with urban development (70). Because the tropical environment is near the upper tolerance limits of temperature for many reef organisms, thermal effluent from powerplants has disrupted reef communities in some areas (88,120). Chlorine, used to control biofouling in powerplants, is also very destructive in tropical ecosystems (14). Toxic chemicals such as pesticides and herbicides used in agriculture also enter coastal ecosystems via storm runoff. Nearshore resources are the social security reserve and unemployment insurance fund of many island people. Further damage to these resources, and/or resource depletion through overcapitalization of fisheries, may have an extremely high opportunity cost in terms of
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture 229 public assistance and food imports. Social costs include diminished self-esteem, which accompanies reduced self-sufficiency. Caribbean Caribbean waters have supported continuous subsistence-level exploitation since prehistoric times (64). There is ample evidence that fishing played a significant part in the lives of Amerindians who inhabited the Caribbean islands prior to European settlers, though fishing was never a major occupation during the colonial period (148). Fish was, however, an important food for plantation populations in the Danish West Indies. Planters and slaves dined on locally caught fish and shellfish, as well as on salt fish imported from Denmark and the United States in exchange for plantation produce (157). Commercial fishery development in Puerto Rico began in 1941 under the Department of Agriculture. Local demand for fish increased with the influx of military personnel and has been perpetuated by tourist hotels. After World War II, the program was transferred to the Puerto Rican Agricultural Development Corp. Fisheries Division which emphasized offshore fisheries; the program was terminated in 1947. Since then, the Puerto Rico Corp. for the Development of Marine Resources (CODREMAR) and the U.S. Virgin Islands Division of Fish and Wildlife have established fishing gear distribution centers, a fishery credit scheme, and constructed facilities for gear storage and landing of boats (94). Historically, coastal resources have shown a consistent pattern of use: exploration, discovery, exploitation, and finally, depletion (64,102). Between 1974 and 1976 some 30 modern fiberglass boats were introduced to the Puerto Rican fishing fleet. Between 1976 and 1982 the number of fishermen on the island rose from 1,230 to 1,872; the number of vessels rose from 865 to 1,449 (25,90). The multimillion-dollar nearshore fishing industry of Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) produced some 7 million pounds of seafood in 1982 (25), Harvest of nearshore marine resources takes place primarily near coral reefs and seagrass beds where it is relatively easy to deplete many stocks. Traditional fishery resources typically are harvested without true knowledge of resource levels so harvests in excess of maximum sustainable yield may occur (94). Combined technology transfer and increased market demand have accelerated harvesting pressure and pose potentially serious ecological consequences for tropical coastal ecosystems. Fiberglass boats, outboard motors, scuba apparatus, and (to a lesser extent) deep-diving submersibles not only have significantly increased harvesting within previously exploited habitats, but also have led to exploitation of entirely new habitats and organisms. Recent efforts directed toward deep reef resources in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands may have significantly depleted these stocks. In 1974, the waters of Puerto Rico were characterized as very nearly overfished and heavily exploited (90,92). Between 1975 and 1980, catch per unit effort declined at least by 50 percent: a classic indication of overfishing (25). Fisheries development efforts have been much less intensive in the USVI. But even modest increases in fishing effort coupled with technological innovations may have exceeded natural productive capacity, The growth of the fishing fleets in Puerto Rico and the USVI coupled with a small resource base has had a predictably negative impact on target stocks. While information is not adequate to permit definitive evaluation, spiny lobster and shallow reef fisheries [and possibly conch and some deepwater fisheries) in Puerto Rico and the USVI seem to be fully or overexploited. Important Eastern Caribbean fishery species such as the spiny lobster (Panularis argus) and queen conch (Strombus gigas) are highly vulnerable to overfishing. Stocks of spiny lobster in the USVI and Puerto Rico may depend on production in other locales. Major habitats, including coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds are threatened by development as well as exploitation patterns not
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230 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas consistent with sustained use. The Puerto Rico Coastal Management Program states that threequarters of the islands original mangroves have been destroyed (160). Water contamination and dredging and shoreline modification associated with tourist development are also a major threat to nearshore resources in Puerto Rico and the USVI. Levels of harvesting and exploitation of nonfood resources still are relatively low among the U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands as compared to the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands primarily because of the development pressures accompanying tourism, particularly on the Virgin Islands. However, the future of the habitats is by no means assured. Poaching in federally protected parks and recreation areas and smallscale personal collecting continue and ultimately may pose a serious threat to the sustainability of some aquatic populations. Traditional methods of extracting medicinal substances from shallow water organisms (mainly by boiling hand-picked algae) are giving way to large-scale harvesting using snorkeling, scuba, and remote or manned submersibles (168). Although laboratory synthesis of useful compounds has generally proved more cost-effective than continued large-scale harvesting, residuals are a problem in synthesized compounds, and organically grown compounds are desired at premium prices. Future economic conditions or biomedical demands could easily lead to large-scale harvesting of benthic organisms in the Caribbean. Finally, the tropical western Atlantic Ocean is only about one-tenth the size of the tropical western Pacific ocean, and so the Caribbean has a more regionally integrated marine species pool. The biota of the western Pacific shows a decrease in species diversity along a gradient between Indonesia and French Polynesia. Thus, ecological processes in the Caribbean, such as population blooms or die-offs, will have regional influence on marine resource management. For example, a recent mass mortality of the sea urchin Diadema antillarum had a widespread effect on benthic communities throughout the Caribbean. In contrast, mass mortality of the urchin Echinothrix in the Pacific remained confined to the Hawaiian Islands (15). COMMON CONSTRAINTS TO FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE DEVELOPMENT Constraints to Nearshore Fisheries Development The major constraints to nearshore tropical fisheries development include: inadequate knowledge of complex ecosystems, the inherently limited productivity of waters around tropical islands, and the vulnerability of tropical fisheries to a variety of natural and human disturbances. Equipment maintenance and servicing, and problems of transporting inputs and exports also hinder development. Inadequate Knowledge of Coastal Ecosystems and Species Although there has been intense interest in subtidal tropical marine communities for centuries, it has only been in the last three decadessince the advent of scuba gearthat rigorous field research was possible. As a consequence, less is known about these ecosystems than about any other of comparable extent and importance. Capture fisheries are based on resources which are ultimately finite, and no development strategy can result in an open-ended stream of benefits. Typically, greater pressure exists to develop than to obtain information on actual development potential. The complexity of coastal ecosystems, and our scant knowledge of the most basic ecological characteristics of their components, virtually preclude successful community manipu-
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture l 231 lations. Before communities or even single populations of benthic organisms can be manipulated predictably toward some desired end, further basic research on abundances, distributions, life history characteristics, diseases, and ecological interactions must be conducted. Progress in the comprehensive management of corals and other sedentary or sessile animals, for example, will depend ultimately on the acquisition of basic biological information on longevity, reproductive capacity, larval and population dynamics, and environmental stability. Scientific information on the current status of nearshore marine resources is fragmented and inconclusive, and generalizations about such a vast and diverse geographic area can lead to faulty conclusions. Concise information on resource distribution and abundance also is lacking. In the absence of such data, the concept of optimum sustainable yield is mere technical jargon. Most research and classical models of marine biological systems have been based on continental shelf areas of the Northern Hemisphere. The physical differences between reef slopes of oceanic islands and continental shelves, and the diversity and complexity of tropical fisheries reduce the applicability of these biological and bioeconomic models in tropical areas. The effects of selectively harvesting certain species, of fishing the same species at different depths, and the relationships between nearshore and offshore stocks, and the fish population dynamics, are less well understood in tropical than in temperate waters (95). Inherent Restrictions to Productivity The nearshore waters of many islands have high nutrient levels and are highly productive compared to the surrounding oceanic waters. The primary productivity of island nearshore waters is a function of several interacting factors including: island size, island height (influencing rainfall and terrestrial runoff), area of submerged bank, coastline complexity (e.g., embayments supporting mangrove forest growth) (111,118), and nearshore bottom communities (e.g., seagrass meadows). Barring disturbances (see below), the productivity of potential fisheries is assumed to follow a gradient related to the factors influencing primary productivity y of nearshore waters (118). Harvest in the nearshore marine environments of the U.S.-affiliated islands is also constrained by the limited physical size of productive nearshore areas. Puerto Rico and the USVI have a continental shelf of less than 3,000 square miles and less than half of this area is highly productive (116). The U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands are based on steeply sloping submerged mountains and reef slopes and have no continental shelves or substantial ledges. Potential harvest is correspondingly small. Lack of Economies of ScaIe The nonuniform distribution of highly productive habitats, the immense diversity and seasonality of reef ecosystems, and the mixture of high-value and less desirable species in most fishery stocks require great versatility of capital and labor for harvest and precludes the development of single-species fisheries. The rugged topography and potential for extensive degradation of coral reefs precludes use of nonselective, towed gear in many commercial fisheries. The need for versatility, coupled with geographic remoteness and small island size, results in high production, preservation, and distribution costs which are not easily reduced through economies of scale (23). Size and isolation are even more constraining in the Pacific than in the Caribbean. With a combined land mass less than one-half that of the State of Rhode Island, the FAS are analogous to oases in an oceanic desert. Vulnerability to Disruption Tropical ecosystems are vulnerable to a number of natural and manmade disruptions, and this vulnerability represents an impediment to resource management and development efforts. Natural disturbances result from both physical and biological processes. Physical disturbance agents include: hurricanes, earthquakes, extreme low tides, extreme water temperatures (e.g., El Nio), extremes of freshwater runoff
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232 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and terrigenous sedimentation. Biological disturbance agents include predator outbreaks (e.g., crown-of-thorns starfish), pathogen epidemics (e.g., black band disease in corals), fish poisoning (ciguatoxins), introduced competitors, and unusual drastic population pulses of ecologically important species (e. g., the recent Caribbean-wide die-off of sea urchins and the resultant destructive bloom of their algal prey). Coral reef communities are disturbed by natural events, such as the tropical cyclones common in the CNMI and Caroline Islands, so often that few develop a climax community (32). Episodic catastrophes have also been related to tidal phenomena (177). Rainstorms coinciding with spring low tides killed up to 92 percent of reef invertebrates at Enewetok Atoll, RMI (loo). Large-scale biological disturbances have been generated on coral reefs by population explosions of the coral predator Acanthaster planci, or crown-of-thorns starfish. Initial outbreaks of Acanthaster are associated with high islands and are probably related to increased terrestrial runoff (16). Recovery of the coral communities requires a decade or more, but may be interrupted by secondary outbreaks (30,31). Sources of human-induced disturbance include: increased sediment runoff from agriculture and construction; thermal and chemical effluents from industry; oil spills; ship damage (grounding and anchors); dredging and blasting during channel construction; nutrients and toxins from sewage and solid waste disposal; direct removal of exploited species; and indiscriminately destructive fishing methods (chlorine, dynamite, grenades, etc.) (168). Manmade disturbances, including cutting, clearing, and filling of the mangrove swamps, can be even more devastating than natural ones. Regeneration of mangroves in clear-felled areas of Southeast Asia has not been successful (146). (Sustained yield mangrove forestry, on the other hand has been quite successful, for example, in Malaysia.) The destruction of important fishing grounds and traditional fish pens has resulted from dredging and filling for airport extension in the absence of thorough environmental assessments (86). Similar patterns and similar potential for problems affect the Caribbean islands because of their small size and the small buffer capacity of ecosystems like reefs. Few or no adjacent areas exist to which fishermen or tourists can move when nearshore environments are seriously damaged. Although most major disturbancesnatural and humanare relatively rare, virtually any program of resource exploitation and management will eventually experience their effects (86). Knowledge is still being collected about rates or sequences of recovery processes, and will be essential to management plans dealing with disturbance. Constraints to AquacuIture Development Despite potential for aquiculture in the U. S.affiliated islands, progress in aquiculture development has been slow. Because of the physical and biological characteristics of the small islands, only certain kinds of aquiculture are practical, and some of these require a better base of scientific knowledge and more practical experience than exists today (58). The development of aquiculture in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific and Caribbean islands faces other common constraints, including: l l l l l l l l dearth of suitable land for pond construction; small freshwater supply; high energy costs for pumping seawater; low levels of nutrients in the sea (and consequent lack of food for filter-feeding species); scarcity of protected bays and estuaries for pen, raft, or rack culture systems; logistical problems and generally high costs of supplying inputs (feed, equipment, supplies, and technical assistance) and distributing the products to distant markets; potential for serious conflicts between aquaculturalists and other users of publicly owned areas (155). high cost of culture (materials, land, labor) relative to value of production (43,122), creating difficulty in competing with artisanal fisheries (162).
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. l l l Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture 233 lack of appropriate tested technology for many species; lack of security of cultured stock from poaching; lack of social and traditional context for aquacultural practices; and lack of trained personnel capable of operating sophisticated systems, These constraints are particularly severe on the smaller islands. American Samoa, for example, comprises an area of less than 100 square miles on three mountainous islands. Freshwater is scarce and lagoon/reef areas are communally held. Culture systems beyond the scale of small family or subsistence farms thus are ruled out in such settings. In areas like the CNMI, Yap, Pohnpei, Truk, Kosrae, and the RMI (all small volcanic islands or atolls with limited land and freshwater, low populations, and undeveloped infrastructure), aquiculture potential probably is limited to species which obtain their own food or can be fed on locally available feeds. The culture of dolphinfish, groupers, or snappers would be technically feasible in those islands with protected waters, but the cost of importing feeds and of transporting the product to distant markets could be prohibitive. (In some cases, fish not used for human consumption and fish scraps might be available for economical culture of these species.) Similarly, aquiculture in the USVI probably will be limited to marine species raised in the sea (e. g., marine plants, queen conch, dolphinfish, groupers, or snappers), or in coastal ponds (e. g., marine shrimp). Since none of these species have been grown in the USVI, a period of adaptive research and pilotscale testing would be needed in order to determine applicability of culture methodology used elsewhere. Other impediments to sustainable development of aquiculture include technical difficulties in applying the culture system to the selected site, lack of local sources of juveniles and post-larvae, prohibitive shipping costs, lack of aquiculture extension programs and marine advisory services, lack of regional planning and coordination, and lack of sustained aquiculture and mariculture research programs and funding. Cultural settings and levels of technological development, moreover, vary greatly among island groups. Increased activities in mariculture may cause degradation of the reef and lagoon environments from increased boat traffic, physical impacts on adjacent areas, impacts from placing structures on reefs, and intensive grazing by fish penned in shallow reef areas. Heavy supplemental feeding required by some intensive cage or pen culture programs also may increase the nutrient load in lagoon waters. The increase of suspended organic matter may have adverse impacts on adjacent reef areas (118). Further, there exists the potential for introduction of disease. Other Constraints to Marine Resource Development Risk Capture fisheries, based on multispecies resources, are inherently more flexible than aquiculture, which focuses on a particular product. Aquiculture, however, permits more control of production and harvest of a particular species, whereas capture fisheries generally depend on natural abundance. Risk is inherent in both activities, posing a common constraint to credit and insurance, and both activities are vulnerable to competition from imports. Many small-scale fishermen are unwilling to engage in capital risk-taking in order to achieve higher profits, preferring the comparative security and familiarity of simple, inexpensive methods even if they yield only subsistence levels of income. Those few fishermen who are willing and can afford to use improved technology may come to dominate the fishery, while the standard of living for the rest may stagnate or decline (81; app. F). Others may seek more lucrative or less stressful employment in nonproductive sectors. Equipment Maintenance and Servicing Fisheries and aquiculture development commonly are hindered by inadequate supplies and
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234 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas high cost of replacement parts (i.e., for freezers, motors, and other gear). Metal structures deteriorate rapidly in the tropics due to internal sweating, poor ventilation, corrosion, and electrolytic action (137), In addition, equipment maintenance sometimes is beyond the operators skills. Transportation Transportation in general is a problem in the Pacific islands (see ch. 8). Even routine mail deliveries are jeopardized at times by the lack of airline service. The costs of air freight within the region together with the general lack of airline services greatly hinders development of export fisheries and aquiculture in this region. In Guam, for example, export operations in the aquarium trade have been relatively short lived, primarily because of problems related to the airlines. Neglect and flight delays have resulted in losses of entire shipments, and shipping expenses are extremely high. SmalI Size or Lack of Formal Markets No formal market structure exists for the nonfood products of the Pacific islands. Collection, analysis, and dissemination of market information and trends are absent. Usually this means the islands receive less than market value for their resources (146). Although ornamental shell industries already exist in some U.S.-affiliated islands, most of the handicrafts sold in tourism centers are imported from the Philippines, where greater varieties of products are available at lower prices. Carleton (26,27,28) noted poor organization of handicraft industries in the Pacific. The major constraints identified were intermittent production and lack of business and financial expertise. Resource Use and Ownership Customs Fishing customs and rights are intimately enmeshed in local social and religious practices on some U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. This creates management impediments as well as opportunities that have often been overlooked by western-trained fishery managers (81). It is difficult for researchers and decisionmakers to predict and assess social impacts of development activities and projects objectively, since these may involve changes in the way of community life, perceptions, and values that are partly products of history and group culture. It is particularly difficult to assess the social impacts of changes in marine resource uses, It is difficult to observe fishing activities at sea, data on marine resources are scarce, and relationships between socioeconomic and marine resource systems are complex. In areas where traditional ownership and use systems have lapsed or never existed, it is very difficult to maintain exclusive rights to production from certain ventures (e.g., sea ranching and habitat enhancement) because these activities involve resources which are traditionally considered common property, Absence of Federal Agency Representatives Most Federal agencies with oversight responsibility for development of marine resources in the Pacific are not actually present. Federal representatives, usually based in Hawaii, make occasional visits to the islands, but may have little understanding of the islands needs. The lack of Federal officials to enforce Federal laws poses a severe problem for renewable resource management in many island areas (155). Budget constraints are cited as the rationale for this situation. Progress in tropical coastal management is handicapped by jurisdictional ambiguities created by incomplete and nonspecific laws and regulatory statutes (50,64,65,159), low levels of enforcement of current practices leading to overexploitation, insufficient recognition of the regional nature of ecological issues, and lack of scientific cooperation among Caribbean polities, Due to these limitations, many current or potential levels of exploitation already exceed the capacity to either analyze, regulate, or enforce resource management programs.
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture l 235 COMMON OPPORTUNITIES Significant opportunities exist for aquatic resource development in the U.S.-affiliated islands of the Pacific and Caribbean including: enhancement of artisanal fisheries, development of pelagic fisheries, development of smallscale collecting and gathering, and aquiculture. These opportunities result from substantial natural stocks, growing markets for fisheries products, the favorable climate which permits yearround growth of tropical species, and the availability of clean seawater. As with agriculture, opportunities include the three main categories of import substitution, increased production of domestically consumed products, and export promotion. Although clearly significant as a milliondollar industry, the fishing industry of Puerto Rico and the USVI falls far short of meeting local demand for fresh seafood. Demand has increased markedly with expanding tourism in the region. Nearly 60 million pounds of seafood valued at $48 million are imported annually to the islands (25). Some island products, besides serving a burgeoning domestic market, would likely find ready acceptance in mainland markets, Because Puerto Rico and the USVI import more from the mainland than they export, favorable haul-back rates are possible for island products. American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, and Guam also have been net importers of protein for some time. Guam annually imports at least 390 tons of fresh and frozen whole fish (23). The successful Japanese fisheries in Micronesia during the mandate period suggests that a great deal of potential for economic development of marine resources is currently unrealized. Expanded Use of Underexploited and Migratory Species Because nearshore fisheries of many U, S,affiliated islands seem to be near or beyond maximum sustainable yield, and nearshore marine ecosystems are vulnerable to and already adversely affected by inappropriate land and sea uses, developing these fisheries is likely to have a long-term negative impact. However, potential exists to maintain or enhance nearshore fishery productivity through such mechanisms as preservation of mangrove, seagrass bed, and coral reef ecosystems, placement of artificial reefs, restocking and reseeding programs, and development of markets for underused marine species. Species that currently seem underexploited include sharks, some outer-reef fish, deepwater shrimp and crabs, and migratory pelagic species. The latter form the basis for large commercial fisheries in both regions, but the islands are little involved in these industries. 1 Collecting and Gathering The islands of Micronesia and American Samoa lie within the Indo-West Pacific region which is characterized by having the most diverse fauna and flora in the world (46). For this reason the Pacific islands are also in a position to supply an expanding specimen market with species of shell and corals that are not available from other sources. However, extreme vulnerability to overexploitation requires harvest on a small-scale, selective basis. Long-term sustainable exports may not be justified, but coral and shells have some economic potential for small-scale, tourist-oriented sales. Bans on exports of coral and shells, some of which play a vital role in the health of coral reef communities (84,86), have resulted from reef destruction caused by overexploitation in some areas (27,28,110,172). However, the value of unprocessed deepwater precious corals ranged from $33 to $2,200/lb (U.S. dollars) in 1981 (63); thus even small beds of precious coral could provide important revenues when harvested on a sustainable yield basis. An examination of historical catch data indicates that the Micronesia reefs are capable of sustaining far greater numbers of topshell 1 An assessment of commercial fisheries development for migratory pelagic species is beyond the scope of this report.
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236 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas than presently are harvested. Parkinson (130) estimated that Palaus reefs should yield sustainable harvests of some 200 tons/year. However, the few records available for recent years indicate an average harvest of about 100 tons/year (146). Current supply does not satisfy demand in the aquarium fish trade, particularly in the United States. Demand worldwide is expected to increase 10 to 15 percent per year in the future (26). The Caribbean islands and those Pacific islands with direct flights to Hawaii or Japan are suitably located to establish small aquarium fish businesses to take advantage of this situation. When nondestructive methods of collecting are used, small-scale fisheries of this kind can be developed without upsetting the ecological balance on the reef. Aquiculture of high-value aquarium species may offer an alternative to capture techniques; however, the general constraints to aquiculture would still apply. Sea cucumbers offer some export potential today, as they did under the Japanese administration, although several past attempts to develop export industries have failed. Asian markets require a consistent high-quality product of a particular species, dryness, size, shape, and color. It has not proved possible to provide the required volume of that product; natural abundances may have to be supplemented with mariculture to provide long-term economic viability, but not enough is known of the biology of commercially valuable species to begin culture. Aquaculture While fishing is an important source of jobs and food protein in the pacific, the supply of fish is variable and sometimes small (163). Increases in population have resulted in a higher demand for marine resources than local waters often can supply on a sustained basis. Under these circumstances, opportunities to increase marine harvest become increasingly important in the Pacific and Caribbean regions. Aquiculture operations have been examined as an opportunity to remove some pressure from nearshore fisheries, reduce unemployment, and decrease dependence on imported seafoods. However, many aquiculture projects have been unsuccessful. Species that have been identified as having particular potential for aquiculture development in the U.S.-affiliated islands include sponges, freshwater prawns, marine shrimp, giant clams, pearl oysters, rabbitfish, milkfish, tilapia, and macroalgae (seaweeds). Much aquaculture research has been done on species such as bait fish which can be more profitably produced by capture fisheries. Attention also has been given to species, such as marine shrimp, that command high prices in foreign markets. However, the expense and logistical difficulties of transporting the product to markets may preclude culture of these species. Other factors that adversely impact on aquaculture include the high cost of imported inputs, difficulty in procuring juveniles, and lack of marketing and technological assistance. The potential for development of viable aquaculture also varies with the physical characteristics of the island groups, their location in relation to sources of inputs and markets, availability of suitable sites, cost of production, investment capital, and quality of project management. The phycocolloid seaweed industry is rapidly growing and, for the most part, is still limited by the supply of raw materials (the seaweeds) (39,40). The economic situation and the growth of the phycocolloid industry have resulted in a worldwide interest in seaweed cultivation, particularly those containing agar or carageenan. Such cultivation maybe well suited to remote islands, since the thalli can be sundried and stored for many months (119). The value of the world phycocolloid industry was reported to be about $1 billion (U. S.) in 1978, and gel extracts were estimated to be essential to some $22 billion (U. S.) in the U.S. gross national product. Pearl oyster cultivation and edible seaweed mariculture offer some export potential. The Japanese administration pursued both of these endeavors in Micronesia. Japanese technology and marketing participation would likely be re-
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture 237 quired for success in export markets today. Joint transport to market (in comparison with the ventures may warrant investigation. costs to competitors), considering the cost of The challenge is to select species and culture alternative uses of the resource, and evaluatsystems appropriate for subsistence or commering the social acceptability of this activity in cial use in a given area by: evaluating the local view of land and water requirements, It also environment, analyzing the labor and energy is important to evaluate the environmental imrequirements and the cost of production and pacts of aquiculture projects. POTENTIAL STRATEGIES FOR NEARSHORE FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT IN U.S.-AFFILIATED ISLANDS Introduction An increase in fishery production in the U. S.affiliated tropical islands can be realized in several different ways, including: l l l l l increased efficiency or intensity of nearshore fisheries; development of subsistence and small-scale commercial fisheries aimed at underutilized stocks; development of large-scale fisheries aimed at migratory pelagics; management of nearshore fisheries for sustained yields (fish aggregation devices, artificial reefs, restocking, conservation); and farming (aquiculture) of selected species (95). The technical capabilities of fishing communities are major determinants of the appropriateness of technologies. Sociological factors, such as the nature and strength of extended family systems, also play major roles in identification of technologies appropriate for development within the region. Increasing exploitation of marine resources may be seen by administrators as a method to alleviate some economic and social problems, through improvement of exports and balance of payments, increased local food supply, provision of employment, stemming of rural drift, increased profits for local entrepreneurs, and improved welfare of coastal communities. Thus, the identification and implementation of fishery technologies may be determined by the direction and priorities of local government policy objectives. The extent to which the needs and values of coastal communities are considered depends on the degree of interaction between administrators and coastal communities on such policy considerations (95). Potential Strategy: Increase Fishery Exploitation Efficiency To increase the efficiency or intensity of fishing efforts in the U.S.-affiliated islands, further improvements are needed in technology related to boat and gear design and construction, credit availability, subsidies for or reduced taxes and duties on fuel and supplies, landing and storage facilities, and local and foreign distribution and marketing capacity (151), However, care should be taken not to oversubsidize the commercialization of nearshore fisheries. An overcapitalized nearshore fishery will encourage depletionadding to the income of market participants while reducing the lifestyle of subsistence participants. Such income redistribution may not lead to desirable long-run results (174,175). Given the susceptibility of nearshore marine resources to overexploitation, technologies that would materially increase nearshore harvesting efficiency can be expected to have a negative long-term impact in the Caribbean and Pacific island areas. In most Pacific island areas, little potential exists for expansion of nearshore fisheries beyond that which may occur naturally as island populations increase (127), Increased pressure on the resource will occur if an increase in harvest efficiency is not met with a corresponding decrease in harvest effort (95).
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238 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas If currently harvested resources are being harvested at or beyond maximum sustainable yield (as seems to be the case in many localities), effort within the fishing fleet must either be reduced or diverted to other stocks. Evidence from Puerto Rico and the USVI strongly suggests that availability of harvest technology is not a problem. Rather the need is to apply appropriate technology at a level suited to the productive capabilities of natural systems. Continuation of a development style directed solely toward capitalization and harvest efficiency without regard for sustainable yields can only result in resource depletion and adverse socioeconomic impacts. A large proportion of total fishery production is lost to wastage in many tropical areas. Thus, methods to reduce waste of current harvest levels can offer an alternative to increased exploitation levels in boosting fisheries production. Avenues to reduce waste include improving storage and processing techniques, increasing efficiency in transportation to markets, and developing markets for bycatch (see ch. 8). Potential Strategy: Increase Support for Subsistence and SmaIlScale Commercial Fisheries Aimed at Underutilized Stocks The importance of small-scale fisheries lies in their incomeand employment-creating potential and their use of appropriate forms of technology. As nearshore resources come un-
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture l 239 der greater pressure, however, fishermen are increasingly moving offshore and/or making more use of migratory pelagic fish sometimes found in nearshore environments. Pelagic resources probably offer an opportunity in the U.S. Caribbean and Pacific for the expansion of small-scale island fisheriescommercial, recreational, or subsistence. Proper management of these resources can also provide opportunities for economies of scale. A relatively small number of marine organisms comprise the preferred fishery target in most countries. Commonly this occurs because the species are plentiful and easy to catch (e.g., a schooling fish which is easy to net), or because a social preference exists for a particular species (95). The identification and development of alternative underused stocks may be expected to increase economic benefits from the nearshore fishery. Current Puerto Rico and USVI fisheries development policy emphasizes underutilized offshore resources (e.g., swordfish) (24) and recreational fishing (61). Although the status of stocks is not known, it is expected that considerable amounts of pelagic swordfish can be harvested (45). This approach has considerable merit, and might help divert some fishing effort from stocks that currently are overexploited, thus increasing economic benefits from the nearshore fishery. However, while an increase in the harvest of underutilized species is possible, these species can support relatively few fishermen (94), and there is no reason to suppose that these stocks are less vulnerable to overexploitation than others if reliable estimates of sustainable yields are lacking (61). Similarly, Pacific island government agencies have encouraged commercial harvest of identified offshore resources as it has become clear that there are relatively few, if any, nearshore resources remaining underutilized in the U. S.affiliated Pacific islands (23). Further, nearshore schools of fish provide a food reserve for local populations in the event of natural calamities, making underexploitation preferable to commercial overexploitation. Sharks represent a potentially important and virtually underutilized resource in the tropical Pacific. In spite of the seeming abundance of sharks, Pacific islands supply only a small proportion of the market. Sharks are harvested primarily as a bycatch of Taiwanese tuna longliners landing at Pago Pago, and the fins are the only product currently retained (26). Markets for shark products are expected to continue a recent trend of gradual expansion (26,244). Market growth, particularly for shark leather, appears to be limited by the supply of hides (27,135). Novelty products such as jaws and teeth have a ready market in tourism, while new products such as artificial skin for burn victims are still in the development stages (3). Shark resources also are generally underutilized in the Lesser Antilles, but are particularly vulnerable to overexploitation because of low reproductive potential, slow growth rates, and greater age at maturity than other fishery stocks. They can quickly be depleted if commercially developed (61). Deepwater species beyond coral reefs may be suitable for development of new fisheries. The exact magnitude of the resource is not clear, and large-scale harvest and marketing problems have not yet been solved (23). Two species of deepwater shrimp (Heterocarpus ensifer and Heterocarpus laevigatus) are fairly abundant at depths of nearly 700 feet on the seaward faces of fringing reefs and probably barrier reefs and atolls throughout the U. S.affiliated Pacific islands. Rough terrain and the potential for habitat destruction make trawling unacceptable, and trapping has not yet proven economically viable. Pacific island fishermen recently have been encouraged to exploit forereef deepwater snapper (family Lutjanidae). The distance of these fish from ciguatoxin sources make them less likely to be contaminated with ciguatera (95). The development of new fisheries may require the introduction of new fishing technologies as well as the surmounting of social prejudices. It may be possible to develop export fisheries for species that have little local
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240 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas value but constitute a desirable export commodity, or to develop export fisheries for highly valued products. For example, holothurians (sea cucumber or beche-de-mer) are gathered in several Pacific island areas; a particular species (Microthele nobilis) of this family commands a high price in Southeast Asian markets. Fisheries based on tropical lobsters also have been developed on some Pacific islands (95). Squid and deepwater crab may be underexploited in the Caribbean (124). Potential Strategy: DeveIop Large-Scale Fisheries Aimed at Migrating Pelagics The Japanese have been lauded for achieving a sound degree of economic progress based on indigenous island resources in many of the Pacific islands during the mandate period (121). After more than 2% decades of Japanese fisheries development in Micronesia, exports from nearshore fisheries were relatively small. In fact, during the Japanese administration nearshore production was only sufficient for subsistence needs and supply of local markets for Japanese immigrants; at least 90 percent of the exports by weight and value were composed Photo credit: A. Vargo Pelagic resources around the U.S.-affiliated islands form the bases of many foreign commercial fisheries and could offer an opportunity for increased food production for the U.S.-affiliated islands. Except for a few tuna processing facilities in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, the industry remains largely in the hands of foreign operators. Shown here, a Korean tuna boat in Pago Pago Harbor, American Samoa. of pelagic species, primarily tuna (161). Any significant commercial fishery resource potential rests with offshore pelagic resources, not nearshore resources. Highly migratory speciestuna, dolphinfish (mahimahi), and billfishare the major commercial offshore resources in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Most of the worlds tuna stocks probably already are exploited close to maximum sustainable yields (61). An important exception are the huge Pacific skipjack tuna stocks which still apparently are not exploited at levels close to those they could sustain (80). Potential Strategy: Manage Nearshore Fisheries for Sustained Yields Although attempts at marine resource management were made as long ago as the Middle Ages (64), serious scientific concern for the consequences of uncontrolled and unplanned exploitation is a relatively recent development. Primitive efforts to manage coral and mollusk fisheries involved rotation of harvesting beds to allow recovery (64,65). Rigorous scientific efforts to manage these resources have emerged only recently. Management of marine fishery resources commonly involves regulatory measures to conserve individual fishery stocks and critical habitats. More recently, attempts have been made to increase harvestable stock through fish aggregation devices (FADs), artificial reefs, habitat restoration, and restocking programs, Opportunity: Develop Fish Aggregation Systems One promising technology for augmenting small-scale, nearshore pelagic harvests is the FAD; usually an anchored buoy placed a mile or more outside the reef. Buoys may be constructed of metal, wood, or even bamboo, and sometimes nets or short ropes are attached to the buoy and anchor line. It is well known that pelagic fish are attracted to and congregate around floating debris in the ocean (23). Tuna purse seiners commonly
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture l 241 search out floating logs and other debris and may stay with a particular log for some time, setting the net around the log. Floating debris clearly provide a reference point for excursions of highly mobile pelagic predators, Hundreds or thousands of fish may aggregate around a single log or other floating object, A variety of mid-water FADs are being used experimentally in the Lesser Antilles (61). Studies by the USVI Division of Fish and Wildlife have shown that catch rates are significantly increased by deployment of FADs. Units installed close to the edge of the coastal shelf are reported to attract many migratory pelagic species, but the impact of this technology on fish stocks, and sustainability of high catch rates have not been evaluated. Because of the limited nature of nearshore marine resources, the longterm impact of most innovations is likely to be negative unless implementation is consistent with the productive capacity of the stocks to be harvested (61), and unless there is adequate regulation of exploitation (12) 0 Manufactured FADs can be costly, which may preclude their use in some areas. Materials and placement costs for a raft can be as high as $8,000; most FADs to date have been installed through government subsidy. Life expectancy currently is between 12 to 24 months and FADs frequently break loose and are lost. Many fishing communities are reluctant to replace those initially provided under aid. Research efforts could be undertaken to increase longevity and lower the fabrication costs, allowing standardization and mass production of FADs (147). Other problems with FADs include: difficulties establishing ownership of FADs or of the fish attracted by FADs, conflicts between competing fishermen, presentation of navigational hazards, possible interruption of normal pelagic migration patterns, and attraction of fish away from customarily entitled nearshore fisheries (151). As knowledge is gained on the catchment areas of FADs, deployment methods that minimize their adverse impacts on nearshore fisheries will develop. For example, subsurface FADs, which do not hinder navigation, maybe as effective as surface FADs (78). Opportunity: Construct Artificial Reefs In recent years, efforts have been made to enhance the productivity of reef flats through the introduction of artificial habitats. It seems that natural production may be enhanced by the provision of suitable substrates for colonizing sessile species that provide food for nearshore fish, resulting in greater harvests than would be possible without artificial enhancement (23). Whether artificial reefs in fact enhance overall production or merely increase local populations by attracting fish from other areas is not yet known, although evidence exists supporting both theories. Old automobiles, ship salvage, and other scrap structures have been placed on Pacific island reefs over the years in an attempt to increase fish abundance. Wave action and siltation due to steep reef slopes limits the application of this technology beyond natural reefs (23). Prototype artificial reef projects in Montserrat, British Virgin Islands, and the USVI suggest that increased production of shallow-water fish is possible using scrap automobiles and tires. Another approach involves the use of structures designed specifically to increase production of selected species. A recent study in Florida indicates that fish biomass on Japanese designed reefs was two to six times greater than on scrap metal reefs (141). Opportunity: Restore Mangroves and Seagrass Beds Mangroves and seagrasses constitute important fish habitats and contribute to sediment stabilization in nearshore ecosystems. In many areas, including the U.S.-affiliated islands, natural and human perturbations have altered the species compositions of mangroves and seagrass beds, or seriously damaged and even denuded these habitats, Depending on the extent of degradation, natural or induced recovery may or may not be possible. Mangrove plantings to restore degraded mangrove habitats or to stabilize unvegetated areas is a management option. Planting large tracts is expensive; however, natural recovery of partially degraded areas can be accelerated at more
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242 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas modest costs by planting in bald spots. Stresses to the ecosystem must be removed for successful restoration. An acid sulfate condition may develop in degraded mangrove area soils that have been exposed to air and disturbed for agriculture or aquiculture. This condition further hinders reclamation of mangrove areas (68). Nearly three-quarters of Puerto Ricos mangroves have been destroyed (179), and little attempt currently is being made to restore them, Replanting mangroves has been practiced in Florida, however, at costs equivalent to reforestation on land). Successful rehabilitation of a mangrove area damaged by an oil spill has been carried out on Guam. Techniques for artificial seagrass restoration have been developed and used with some success in U.S. coastal zones. Recovery of seagrass beds may depend on such factors as cessation of stress, level of degradation, availability and quantity of seed or vegetative tissue, and turbulence level of site. Restoration methods include plugging; seeding; sodding; and planting of seedlings, sprigs, or shoots. While replanting may be possible, it is technically difficult to stabilize the bottom sufficiently to prevent the loss of plantings (35). However, information necessary for the understanding and use of restoration procedures has been inadequately reported. Recovery rates, both natural and artificial (e.g., transplants of root plugs, shoots, and turf), are poorly documented as are return rates of animal populations. Lack of knowledge about the physical environmental factors affecting seagrasses may impede successful restoration efforts (153). Costs of planting seagrass may vary depending on species selected, experience and source of labor, and type of equipment needed, as well as geographical factors. The cost of seagrass restoration may range from nearly $1,200 to $12,000/acre and, the success rate of past attempts has been less than 50 percent (153). From an ecological viewpoint, the best strategy is to protect mangroves and seagrasses from adverse impacts. They are valuable resources that take up to 100 years to reestablish naturally in many locations and may be impossible to reestablish in others. Where possible, restoration can be costly and success is not guaranteed. Opportunity: Restock Nearshore Habitats Farming of marine organisms (mariculture) may become important not only to supplement food resources but to remove pressure from and replenish depleted stocks of fish and invertebrates. For example, although attempts to mass-culture pearl oysters in the laboratory have failed in French Polynesia, recent success with artificial spat collectors is expected to end the harvest of wild stocks, permitting recovery of natural populations (29). As the nearshore resources of the Pacific and Caribbean regions are becoming overfished or degraded, the idea of regeneration and reseeding of these resources is gaining attention. Breakthroughs in the spawning and culture of trochus (Trochus niloticus) and giant clam (family Tridacnidae) offer the possibility of reef reseeding (see box 7-A) (71,73). Of course, without appropriate controls on subsequent harvests, a reestablished population may be exploited at a greater than optimal rate and possibly reextinguished (154). Giant Clams. Farming of giant clams for the purpose of restocking natural habitats has been compared to resource management in forestry (176). The meat and the large shells of the Tridacnidae family represent a potential export if reseeding and grow-out techniques can be perfected. In some of the Pacific islands, techniques and skills for limited husbandry of clams already exists and may have useful application for expanding clam mariculture (154). An Australian government-funded project to develop and transfer giant clam breeding to Pacific islands coordinated by the James Cook University of North Queensland is nearing completion (43). Giant clams, sometimes reaching weights of 220 pounds, have been overharvested by both local inhabitants and poachers from Southeast Asian countries to the point of extinction near
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 243 Box 7-A.Culture of Tridacnid Clams Considerable interest exists in the Pacific ~cm;~~ tha dams (Tridacnidae family) in order to r~plenish and manage nktu@ iittockit [II%] and *O ckmsity cultur e opportunity. Although most dams require adequeta -lies of @mMng cuiture in the tropical iskmds to cwtain areas with wleq@a tridwmids darive most of thei r s nutrfents from symbiotic id@ ~8u8 w@hl ~~ ~@#!!!.. WMA the@oN survive and grow on coral reefs with low populations of dg~e. R@$a_ in @*! ti~~ *m the f@@@WowinfJ bivalve mollush; they provide larga quimtitiea uf witb mi@mal input (74 ) = .. Tridacnfd cuhurecurrtmtlyis practkadma pilot scd~~n ~alau, Yap, and Pohnpei and is planned in Truk and Kusrae. At prwent ody exparimwtxd hwtc~er~ exist; development of local hatcheries is required for widespread application. ,. Metlmds for hatchery culture of four of fha six a--of Tridacnidao have been developed and transpkmts have been mada to Guam, Hawaii, M-pi, Yap, and the U.S. mainland; requests hav~ been received from governme nt h~~~ in American Samoa, Mexico, and the Caribbean ?egion [74), @tplanting of trial shiprn-ti of j~wniles produced in a hatchery in Palau appear promising, but the t~chmology far more intmwive of Ttidacnid clams has not yet been fully developed or tested. Clams require a suitable s@stmte md ~tM readily in off-bottom culture sys tems. Therefore clam farming of of cl@m~ VVOU~d ~quire careful site selection. Nevertheless, cbrnsrnightbegro~h vtmtwwain isolated island area s and contribute to local food supplies as well as income. some islands (95). The two largest clams, Tridacna gigas and Tridacna derasa, have been placed on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) endangered species list (154). Tridacna gigas still live in the RMI and Palau, but are no longer are found near Pohnpei or in the Marianas, although fossil shells have been seen in these areas (80). Giant clams are unique among farmed animals in that they are autotrophicthey feed themselvesthrough symbiosis with algae embedded in their mantle. Exposure to sunlight allows the algae to synthesize food for the clam, thus they do not require artificial feeding as do other species (154). This capability also makes giant clams well-adapted to the sunlit waters of low nutrient coral reefs, especially near atolls. The annual production of edible meat per acre from giant clams exceeds that provided by tilapia and nearly reaches that of mussels (75) 0 The basic technologies for both intensive and extensive giant clam farming now exist. Hatchery techniques developed at the Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center (MMDC) in Palau employ natural spawning of clam broodstock and rear clams to the juvenile stages (0.4to 0.8-inch shell size) in seawater raceways. By using plankton-rich lagoon water there is no need for feeding, but the success rate in breeding and rearing juveniles to the macroscopic stages varies. Little capital investment beyond the cost of juveniles and protective clam cages for the earliest stages is required for the ocean grow-out phase of giant clams, This phase seems technically simple and clams of growout size appear to have few predators. Tim-
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244 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Giant clams, immortalized incorrectly as diver-trapping denizens of the deep in childrens cartoons, have been overharvested throughout a significant part of their range. Research on culture techniques for giant clams are ongoing in a number of U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. ing of the outplanting of clams to maximize benefits of nonreproductive periods of major clam predators (e.g., the snail Cymatium muricinum) and, if required, manual removal of predators from nursery trays can ensure low predation mortality rates (145). Still, with a normal growout phase of 3 to 5 years, the effects of giant clam reseeding efforts will not be apparent for at least a decade (154). Trochus.Technology for mass culture of trochus also was developed at MMDC (72). It is being transferred to Pohnpei where it could be applied to reseed the regions depleted reefs through a program similar to trout fishing enhancement programs in the United States. However, reseeding trochus could conceivably lead to reductions in populations of herbivorous reef fish as a result of depletion of standing algal crops. Although trochus has been widely introduced without obvious disruptions, no data are available on interactions between populations of large herbivorous snails and herbivorous reef fish. Work to gather these data could be undertaken. Sea Turtle.All four species of sea turtle found in the U.S.-Affiliated islands are listed as threatened or endangered species; thus, exploitation is prohibited or regulated. At selected sites during the turtle nesting season, hatchlings could be captured and retained in mesh pens or tanks, maintained until they pass the stage of high vulnerability, and then released to the ocean. Turtles are raised for release at the MMDC. While wild turtles take between 20 and 50 years to reach sexual maturity, turtles in artificial culture systems may reach sexual maturity in 10 to 12 years (33). The ecological impact of releasing large numbers of young, sexually mature turtles to the ocean has yet to be studied. Queen Conch. Most reseeding efforts in the Caribbean have focused on the queen conch. Natural stocks have declined due to heavy fishing pressure throughout the region. Conch hatcheries have been established in the Turks and Caicos, Bonaire, Venezuela, Mexico, and at the University of Puerto Rico (Mayaguez). To date, the viability of restocking operations for queen conch has not been demonstrated, though it is technically possible to develop hatchery operations adequate to support a release program (143). Preliminary data indicate a possible positive impact of stocking, but only if the stocked cohort has adequate habitat and is protected from fishing pressure until after it reaches reproductive age (4,11,79). Coconut Crab.Populations of coconut crab (Birgus latro), highly prized throughout the Pacific, have decreased considerably and may be extirpated on some islands. The adult crab spends most of its life ashore, while the larval stages are thought to be spent in lagoons or within reefs. Thus, changes in these environments may affect the coconut crab. The mature animal possesses a large claw which it uses to open coconuts and extract the coconut meat. An on-going research program funded by the Australian Centre for International Agriculture Research (ACIAR), is investigating the potentials of farming this species and reintroducing it regionally (95). Opportunity: Conserve Nearshore Resources Ultimately, maximum economic yield cannot be attained in an open access fishery (129). Development efforts directed toward increas-
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture l 245 ing the catch without regard for sustainable yield in the Caribbean appear to have resulted in overfishing of shallow-water reef fish stocks, and probably of conch and spiny lobster as well, Black coral fisheries are currently under study and/or management in the USVI and Puerto Rico, and harvesting of corals and other sessile or sedentary animals is restricted in these islands by various Federal and commonwealth statutes. All four species of sea turtle commonly occurring in the islands are protected by living within Federal waters, or by their status as threatened or endangered species. Other methods of restricting harvest of particular species include: l l l l restricting access to fisheries; restricting efficiency of harvest efforts; restricting harvest seasons, sexes, or sizes; and restricting markets for products derived from certain species. In addition, many critical marine habitats fall within protected parks and recreation areas and, thus, certain populations are protected from overexploitation (168). Identification and protection of habitats critical to maintenance of important fishery stocks is a method of conserving nearshore resources to ensure a sustainable yield. Restrict Access.Action to prohibit a portion of current fishermen from further participation in local fisheries politically is not realistic; freezing participation at current levels might be more acceptable. More rigorous constraints such as fishing licenses could be applied to resources not heavily utilized now. Such restrictions could obviously be modified from time to time as better information became available on resource abundance, Common objections to limited entry measures are reduction in available jobs and possibly reduced supply of seafood due to decreased numbers of fishermen. These objections do not apply to the activities proposed here because: 1. the number of fishermen would be stabilized, not decreased; and 2. the supply of seafood should be expected to increase due to improved management of overexploited resources and identification of underexploited stocks. Restrict Efficiency of Harvest Efforts.-The Caribbean Fishery Management Council has jurisdiction over Puerto Rico and the USVI, and has prepared management plans for spiny lobster and shallow-water reef fish fisheries. These plans place restrictions on types of gear that may be used for harvest, and establish minimum permissible sizes for harvested individuals of particular species, (Other restrictions, e.g., closure of seasons or fishing areas, are also possible, but have not been enacted.) These plans provide an excellent starting point for sustained development of nearshore marine resources in Puerto Rico and the USVI. Their primary shortcomings have been that they are intended to focus on single species or groups of species rather than entire systems, and must address currently exploited species before consideration can be given to underexploited resources. Also, these plans must be adopted and enforced by the respective island governments (94). Harvest Restrictions. Experience with overexploitation has also led to measures to conserve marine resources in Micronesia. For example, a few years after discovery of topshell as a source of nacre, harvests began to decline in a pattern similar to that of pearl oyster. Island governments attempted to sustain populations at fairly constant levels by imposing regulations that controlled the length of the harvest season and the minimum size of shells that could be harvested (107,108). Although most island governments have regulations on the harvest of edible or other commercially valuable shells, few have enacted protective measures for species involved in the ornamental shell trade. Monitoring of this trade among FAS is nonexistent, Additionally, there is essentially no management of the aquarium fish trade, Restrict Market for Certain Species.Overexploitation of corals and shells in some areas have adversely affected the associated coral reefs and resulted in bans on exports of corals and shells (27,110,172), Most island govern-
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246 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas ments have legislatively restricted harvest of coral for commercial purposes, and only a few small-scale coral specimen enterprises cater to the tourist industry (70). There is now no commercial export of specimen corals from the U.S.-affiliated pacific islands. Harvest of precious corals in American Samoa and Guam is regulated by a fishery management plan under the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976. However, enforcement of regulations is rare. The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources has established permit requirements for coral harvesting and harvest site restrictions. Harvesting is monitored as closely as possible under current manpower restrictions (155). Protect Critical Habitats.Ultimately, some extremely sensitive areas and critical habitats may have to be given special status as marine parks and reserves. Coral reefs, which are highly vulnerable to degradation, are prime candidates for such protection. Mangroves, seagrass meadows, and other important fish spawning and nursery areas are also excellent site candidates. The establishment of protected areas for ecosystem preservation has long been applied to land areas. In recent years, interest in the establishment of marine parks and sanctuaries has grown. However, definition and protection of marine parks can be difficult because of the interrelated nature of island ecosystems. Marine park definition must consider not only the nearshore habitats (coral reefs, seagrass meadows, shallow bottoms, and mangrove and estuarine environments) but also the terrestrial habitats that are inextricably linked to and ultimately affect the reserves quality. Thus, watershed management becomes highly important to the integrity of the marine park (140). Additionally, sociocultural factors, including traditional use rights and subsistence gathering, may further complicate successful siting of marine reserves for some islands. Opportunities exist for developing flexible reserves that may ameliorate these constraints. For example, a rotating marine reserve has been established in New Caledonia. Parts of the barrier reef are closed sequentially for 3-year intervals, thereby allowing each area a 3-year regeneration period and continually maintaining an accessible reef area (36). Ideally, the marine park core area should be large enough to be self-replenishing for all species the reserve is designed to protect; the implication then is to establish a core area with the highest degree of diversity (140). If successfully sited, established, and managed, marine parks and reserves may not only protect critical habitats but also provide a source of recruitment for restocking exploited surroundings. As yet few such areas exist in the U.S.-affiliated islands. A wildlife preserve in Palau (Ngerukewid Wildlife Preserve or the Seventy Islands Park) contains considerable marine areas in addition to the Limestone Islands, and a federally designated marine sanctuary has recently been established in American Samoa (Fagatele Bay). Trunk Bay (St. John) and Buck Island (St. Croix) and the Virgin Islands National Park (St. John) have protected marine areas in the USVI, and several sites are proposed as Federal or State marine sanctuaries in Puerto Rico (e.g., Mona Island). Marine parks can serve numerous purposes. National marine sanctuaries are designated to serve the multiple purposes of research, public education, recreation, and preservation of ecological or esthetic values. Sanctuaries are designed to provide protection and beneficial use of distinctive marine resources that require comprehensive, geographically oriented planning and management (158). The Fagatele Marine Sanctuary in American Samoa may have considerable potential for environmental education and visitor recreation (9). However, the needs for nearshore ecosystem protection, public education, and research must be carefully balanced. Overuse, for whatever purpose, can degrade nearshore ecosystems. For example, tourism impacts in Trunk Bay, USVI, have resulted in severe degradation of corals. Regulations to control access and activities are extremely important. In the Pacific, such regulations may be patterned after tradi-
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture l 247 tional customs that effectively conserved the environment prior to westernization (81). While fishing efforts might be limited by any or all of the above methods, effective policing of domestic or foreign fishermen is extremely difficult (151), particularly in tropical areas where there is an abundance of species, large numbers of fishermen and boats per unit of catch (relative to western commercial fisheries), and a paucity of catch and market data. Biologists also know much less about tropical species than they do about temperate marine food fish and are thus poorly equipped to make useful decisions concerning their conservation. Government enforcement of environmental laws is lax in some U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands and may be further impeded by fishermen who may resent the loss of their traditional fishing rights and the imposition of strange new laws. In many cases regulatory regimes do exist, but control of fishing effort may require a more coherent arrangement than the existing pattern of fishing agreements (151). Establishment of the Forum Fisheries Agency Regional Register represents a major advance insofar as it has provided a regional sanction ensuring compliance by foreign vessels with the fisheries laws of island governments (151). Opportunity: Learn From Traditional Conservation and Management Systems Fisheries science is a relatively modern discipline in western societies; however, management measures have been traditional village activities in many Pacific islands (95). Fisheries regulations in developed countries usually are directed simply towards protecting the target species, whereas many traditional measures were designed to manage the species habitat and ecological relationships (95). Despite attempts to protect overexploited resources, western culture techniques may be inappropriate for management of multispecies tropical reef fisheries. Traditional use rights in fisheries (TURFS) is effectively the principle of limited entry traditionally practiced by the Pacific islanders. This developed almost certainly because they depended on the sea for most of their animal protein and because the marine resources around small, isolated islands are so vulnerable to overexploitation (81). Basic marine conservation measures associated with TURFS include closed seasons and areas, and gear size and catch restrictions (85). TURFS continue to play a major role in some island cultures (e.g., Yap, Palau, the outer Caroline Islands); a diminished but significant role in others (e.g., Truk, Samoa); and have lapsed entirely in others (e.g., Marianas, Pohnpei, Kosrae). Knowledge of these reef and sea tenure systems is fragmentary and studies performed as little as 10 years ago may not reflect adequately the state of affairs today because of the rapidly changing island economies. Traditional management and conservation systems have been seriously disrupted by the introduction of modern fabrication, harvest, preservation, and transport technologies. New materials and technologies have obviated the traditional long apprenticeship period. Consequently, the social status of fishermen has diminished and traditional teachings on the interdependence of men and the environment may no longer be passed on. This disruption has been accelerated by the economic pressures of commercialization which accompany fastgrowing urbanization. The public property, open-access philosophy embodied in U.S. marine law directly conflicts with traditional island conservation mechanisms; thus, the effectiveness of modern conservation legislation has been constrained from the outset and probably has been diminished in effectiveness (81). Regulations recognizing traditional marine tenure in the islands could be established. To be successful, management schemes must be socially acceptable. Furthermore, any legislation that weakens marine tenure laws also reduces the ability of the owners to police these resourcessomething they do voluntarily at no cost to the government if their rights are secure. Such legislation therefore would increase the governments regulatory responsibilities and place serious new burdens on already understaffed and underfunded fisheries departments (81).
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248 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Management schemes could formally recognize traditional marine tenure in the islands. Sea tenure and exclusive reef ownership underlie traditional island fisheries management, and private enterprises, such as seaweed and giant clam farming, pearl culture, and trochus fishing, probably would respond appropriately to exclusive ownership. Further, families, clans, and communities might be more willing to invest in the protection and acquisition of marine resources and might engage in more innovative resource development efforts due to a greater confidence in their chances for a return on investment (23). Where they currently exist, formal recognition of TURFS may contribute to fisheries conservation in the FAS, but they cannot guarantee it. Systems of traditional fishing rights are very diverse, and some are more useful in fisheries management than others. While TURFS work against maximizing employment in the short term, in their absence, employment might be affected much more severely in the long term. Where TURFS impede full exploitation of marine resources, but have strong community support (a characteristic of subsistence economies), it probably would be politically unacceptable to abolish them. Where weakly held TURFS impede full exploitation, they might be modified to facilitate greater harvests, but hastening their demise would rarely be justified. TURFS do pose an impediment to commercial tuna fishermen who obtain bait fish from TURFS. The formalities of requesting and granting permission take considerable time and some tuna fishermen have become so frustrated they have left valuable resources unharvested (83). TURFS also may impede nearshore harvest of migratory pelagic species. A fisheries progress report for Truk (133) reported that fishermen did not buy nets to catch abundant mackerel that traveled in schools in the lagoon because the ownership of fishing grounds prevented their pursuing the schools. One possible solution to this is to interest representatives of different TURFS in cooperative arrangements for example, in the joint purchase of a single net to be used cooperatively to harvest the migrating fish. Opportunity: Emphasize Local Management of Marine Resources Even in places where traditional authority does not exist, is faltering, or has disappeared, local management initiatives, if instituted, could have a positive impact not only on fisheries, but also on recreational and tourism sectors. Enforcement responsibilities probably would be assumed by villages and other local organizations if the groups firmly believe that the management strategy was beneficial. For example, village councils in American Samoa could take a more active role in conservation and management (170). Fisheries cooperatives are another possible means of using nontraditional but still local authority to pursue management objectives. The Japanese took this route, gradually transferring TURFS from traditional village leaders to village-based cooperatives. However considerable expertise cultural, biological, and economicis required to adapt cooperative forms of enterprises to island social settings (23). Of particular relevance are the activities of the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (cf:139), which is currently involved with developing management strategies for the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. A variety of potential benefits to nearshore fisheries are associated with this activity including improved information on major stocks and ecosystem processes, establishment of breeding reserves for heavily exploited or threatened species, and provision of information needed for rational development of underutilized species. Because of the commonality of marine resources, these benefits may also be significant to other Lesser Antillean countries, and prospects for a multisite regional Biosphere Reserve are being investigated. Summar y Considering the limited extent of nearshore resources in the U.S.-affiliated islands and indications of probable overfishing, credit, and incentive programs for purchase of vessels and
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 249 gear (e.g., the program for Fishery Credit conducted by the Puerto Rican Agricultural Credit Corp.) probably are not conducive to sustainable development of fisheries unless the fishing effort being capitalized is directed toward underexploited resources or areas (e.g., offshore banks or seamounts). The approach to nearshore fisheries development in the Pacific islands also has been shortsighted. Development has been viewed as being synonymous with the commercialization of the subsistence fisherman. Little attention has been paid to either the longor short-run opportunity costs of this development. Management and conservation regulations have usually pursued a species-specific, gear specific, or seasonal format. Enforcement costs have been high and results negligible, Introduction Aquiculture, the cultivation of aquatic organisms in fresh, brackish, or marine waters, began at least 2,000 years ago in China and developed into a widely accepted procedure for producing food in India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, and elsewhere in tropical and subtropical Southeast Asia (58). A primitive form of aquicultureholding juvenile fish in coastal impoundments, sometimes with supplemental feedswas practiced traditionally in various island groups, including Hawaii. The remnants of early fish traps and impoundments can be found on many islands, but few are currently in use (58), Aquiculture can range from the culture of simple (e. g., single-cell algae) to complex organisms (e. g., sea turtles). Similarly, systems range from nearly self-sustaining extensive ponds to high energy-, capital-, and labor-intensive hatcheries and raceways. Markets are as diverse as products: species may be maintained in ponds as a means of storing protein for subsistence consumption, or cultured to supply local demand (e.g., tilapia) or distant specialty markets (e.g., phycocolloids). Aquicultures history and range of potential uses, however, conceal a considerable number of modern failures; it should not be viewed as a ready solution for social and economic problems faced in the islands today (163). Most U.S.-affiliated tropical islands have an active interest in the development of aquaculPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment This experimental giant clam hatchery in Pohnpei employs culture techniques developed at the Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center i n Palau. Success of this experimental hatchery may lead to expanded operations in Pohnpei. ture. Goals commonly cited for aquiculture development include: 1. 2 3 4. 5. to increase the availability of animal protein to improve nutrition; to increase job opportunities and income generation in rural areas; to create an additional tax base to generate government revenues; to generate export dollars; and to supplement marine resources by providing seed stock for reseeding nearshore areas that have been depleted by overexploitation (163), and to compensate for decreasing fish catches,
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250 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Although benefits in total dollar value would be greatest on large islands like Puerto Rico and Guam, and least on the small islands and atolls, on a percentage basis a small increase in employment or food supply on the small islands might be of greater relative importance (58). A large number of tropical and temperate species have potential for aquiculture in the U. S.affiliated Pacific islands. A Pacific islands mariculture conference (69) was convened some years ago to advise in the development of aquaculture in this region. Notably, aquiculture has been proposed for food production, phycocolloid production, water treatment, and bait fish production. A number of Federal and local agencies and educational institutions have funded aquiculture research in each of these areas. Guam has even completed an Aquaculture Development Plan (52) and funded feasibility studies for the operation of a multispecies hatchery (cf:5,154). Neither Puerto Rico nor the USVI has an extensive history of aquiculture development, although both seem to have good potential for aquatic farming. Aquiculture development in Puerto Rico began around 1970 when research was initiated with tilapia, catfish (Ictalarus punctatus), and freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium rosenbergii). The island has excellent potential for development of viable aquaculture projects involving a variety of species (59,128). In general, it has a stable, well-developed infrastructure. Materials and services, including research, extension, and skilled and unskilled labor are available. Overall, Puerto Rico has a number of suitable sites for pond, pen, and raft production units for freshwater and especially marine species. The USVI seem to have much lower potential for land-based aquiculture development, being much smaller. In the USVI, research and development have largely focused on a project in St. Croix to evaluate the potential of using nutrient-rich deep ocean waters pumped to shore to grow algae for feeding to various species of shellfish (138). While technically feasible, the economics of the system and species were not promising. There does not appear to be any other significant aquiculture development in the USVI. However, the potential for development of saltwater hatcheries and cage/ pen culture of fish in coastal waters has not been adequately researched. In spite of the long-term interest and previous work, few commercially viable aquiculture ventures exist in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific islands at present. A few have developed in Guam, which has a relatively large local market and sophisticated technological base. Significant research efforts are under way to develop cultivation of phycocolloid-bearing seaweeds (Guam, Kosrae, and Pohnpei), freshwater prawns (Guam), giant clams (Palau), and rabbitfish (Guam and Palau) (119). Other species identified as having particular potential for aquiculture development in the region include marine shrimp, pearl oysters, milkfish, mullets, tilapia, and bath sponges. Many aquiculture projects have failed in the U.S.-affiliated islands. Many efforts were designed as research and development or demonstration projects and, as such, were not designed to show a positive cash flow, Others, although workable, were poorly executed and some projects have been supported even when impractical or when they exhibited a suboptimal use of available resources (33). Most resulting ventures have been unable to market products profitably, eventually develop cash flow problems and subsequently fold. Aquaculture projects supported by international assistance agencies commonly are developed by temporarily assigned, outside consultants. On their departure, projects may fold due to lack of follow-on assistance, or lack of local technical and business management skills (163). Components such as training, economic analysis, commercial development, and technology transfer often were missing in the failed aquiculture projects (163). Local residents who want to grow food or increase their income by raising fish or shellfish need ambition and a real interest in aquaculture, as well as a simple, thoroughly proven low capital cost system for growing the selected species, readily available low cost inputs (feed and
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. Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture l 251 labor) and a local market. Commercial-scale farms require a thorough feasibility study, sound business and financial management, adequate financing, enough land at an acceptable cost, identified markets, and adequate technical staff with culture expertise. The primary adverse impact of past aquaculture activities has been the introduction of exotic species, such as tilapia and the Malaysian freshwater prawn into the wild in Puerto Rico. The introduced Oreochromis mossambicus is now considered a pest because its inferior qualit y as human food has created consumer resistance to the cultured species (Tilapia nilotica). There may also be ecological consequences from introduction of exotics, such as the displacement and extinction of endemic species, particularly since island species generally evolved under less severe competitive pressures than continental species. Such scenarios are even more likely in the relatively fragile and little understood inland aquatic habitats of the islands. Pests or diseases also can be introduced along with the desired exotics, which can have significant effects on local related species. Therefore native species are preferred to introduced species for aquaculture whenever possible (119). Aquiculture activities require a source of juveniles for stocking. Juveniles can be supplied from broodstock matured and spawned in captivity or collected from the wild. Because most locally available species already are exploited to some degree by the local populace, hatchery production of young rather than collection from the wild is desirable for most aquiculture in the U.S.-affiliated islands. While hatchery, nursery, and grow out can be integrated for large operations, commonly hatcheries are centralized to provide juveniles for a variety of grow-out situations and farms (33), Potential Strategy: Develop Sea Ranching One form of sea ranching involves taking juveniles or other stock from the wild and growing them under managed conditions (154), Most species potentially suitable for restocking also are considered for sea ranching. Tropical invertebrates, mainly mollusks, are candidates for tropical island sea ranching, in contrast to the temperate zone where migratory fish (salmon) are the primary target (12). For example, in Manus (Papua New Guinea), giant clams are collected and held in walled reef areas until fishing is bad, providing a secure food source and a limited form of conservation. This form of culture does not promote growth, but it does establish property rights, which may result in the mollusks being held longer before harvest than if they were not in ranches (154). A 1982 review of recent conch mariculture efforts (13) indicated that commercial conch culture was not a viable proposition, but conch ranching may offer potential. However, success with this technology carries with it the risk that natural stocks will be collected at a rate faster than otherwise, leaving few for breeding in common areas (154). The success of sea ranching depends on the availability of wild broodstock, accessibility of individuals to collect and ranch, property rights to the species within an area, incentives to conserve breeding populations, and enforcement measures to protect wild and ranched populations from poaching. To foster success, such programs could be accompanied by strong measures to control fishery pressure, possibly with habitat protection and/or enhancement, Potential Strategy: DeveIop Extensive Culture in Natural Waters Low technology extensive culture systems may be most appropriate where available natural nutrient abundance is adequate, and minimization of capital expenditures and production costs are major concerns. However, the reduced inputs and lower stocking densities of extensive culture systems generally is accompanied by reduced yields, In a true extensive culture system all of the species nutritional requirements are derived from natural sources without human intervention. Thus, islands with greater terrestrial resources and therefore greater levels of available organic matter may 63-222 0 87-9 QL. 3
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252 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas have larger potential for extensive culture systems. A number of species have been identified as appropriate for extensive culture systems including oysters and seaweeds (58). Opportunity: Bottom and Near-Bottom Culture of Sedentary Species Intertidal or subtidal culture of high densities of sedentary species on or off bottom is attractive, but practical only where natural supplies of phytoplankton provide adequate nutritionboth quantity and qualityfor filter-feeding mollusks or substrates that are suitable for seaweed culture. This generally occurs only in areas receiving nutrients from the land (58). Aquiculture on coral reefs, or of reef-dwelling organisms, is in the early stages of development and few species of animals or plants are currently cultured on a commercial scale. At present, a red algae (Eucheuma sp.) is cultivated commercially in the Philippines and a few other areas for the production of carrageenin (39,40). Techniques for cultivating Trochus have been developed (72), and hatcheries are planned or operating on a pilot scale in Palau, Australia, New Caledonia, and the Cook Islands. Members of the Tridacnidae family can now be cultivated in sufficient numbers for commercial purposes (75,117). In the Bahamas, a significant recent development has been the recognition that the giant Caribbean king crab (Mithrax spinosissimus) is herbivorous, feeding mostly on algal turfs, is easily reared, and grows to at least 2.2 pounds in its first year (134). Oyster Culture. The culture of edible oysters is a traditional form of aquiculture throughout Asia, and methods now in use could be readily applied anywhere that the aquatic environment is satisfactory. Inputs are relatively simple since oysters obtain their own feed from the water. In most cases native species can be used, although some are too small for the market. The introduction of acceptable species from similar tropical environments may also be possible, although care should be taken to avoid introduction of parasites, diseases, predators, pests, or competing species. Oysters require substantial quantities of phytoplankton, and waters slightly less saline than those of the high seas. Thus the potential for their culture is higher in the temperate than the tropical zone. Nevertheless oysters occur in isolated tropical locations, especially near the large mountainous islands which provide substantial amounts of terrigenous nutrients and freshwater to nearshore areas. These areas may have considerable potential for development of family, collective, or commercial oyster farms. The establishment of oyster farms requires careful site selection and preferably pilot-scale tests. Also the method of culture will depend on the suitability of the substrate, the exposure to storms, and other biological factors. In some places, off-bottom culture is used to avoid predators and to increase growth rate. In this case the oysters can be suspended below fixed racks or floating rafts (59). Parasite infestations have terminated most oyster culture projects in the Pacific islands (162). Aquiculture in Puerto Rico includes a small oyster fishery and some low-technology efforts to develop oyster farming based on research in the 1970s (169). The limited suitable area, mainly in Boqueron Harbor, precludes the development of a large oyster industry. Pearl Oyster Culture.Potential exists for profitable farming of pearl oyster species at various places in the Pacific islands. These species have been important items of commerce in Oceania for centuries (123). This type of cultivation is especially suited to atoll lagoon environments. Spat are reared in polyethylene net baskets until they reach 3.5 inches in diameter. Then, they are affixed to strings suspended from underwater platforms where they are left to grow for 3 years (145). Research was conducted over a period of approximately 3 years by scientists at CNEXO (now EFRIMER) in Tahiti to develop technologies for the mass production of pearl oyster spat. However, oyster hatchery technologies developed for other species apparently were not successful when applied to the pearl oysters,
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture l 253 so the research was discontinued (119). Since hatchery techniques for pearl oysters have not been developed, seed stock is obtained from natural spatfall. One problem with this method is that spat of the desirable pearl oyster, P. margaritifera, is often mixed with and, at a small size indistinguishable from, spat of smaller, undesirable species (119). Although some attempts have been made to develop this industry in Palau, no pearl culture activities are ongoing in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands today. The success of this industry in Polynesia, however, and the research under way there indicates that the culture of pearl oysters has potential to contribute to developmental efforts in other areas of the Pacific, including Micronesia and American Samoa. The development of this industry in Micronesia or Samoa would require training in the techniques of inducing the oysters to form pearls. The Tahitian Government is sponsoring experts to train culturists in these techniques so, presumably, the technology could be transferred to other areas (119). Queen Conch. The most important edible mollusk in the eastern Caribbean, the queen conch (Strombus gigas), is seldom found below 100 feet, and is highly vulnerable to overfishing. There have been several efforts to develop technologies for conch culture, but a review of progress in the field (13) concluded that commercialization does not seem economically feasible and a similar conclusion was reached at the November 1985 meeting of the Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute (61). Seaweed Cultivation. Some 10 species of marine benthic algae reported from the U. S.affiliated islands may have the potential to yield harvestable commercial products (156). Seaweed cultivation may be particularly well suited to remote islands, since the thalli can be sundried and stored for many months. The red algae genus Eucheuma has been farmed successfully on a pilot scale in Pohnpei (41) and Kosrae (146), but no marketing has been conducted. Eucheuma is used as a source of carrageenin gel in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. As the phycocolloid industry is limited by the supply of seaweed, the market situation for seaweed cultivation seems promising. However, high freight costs restrain the financial return to growers, and Asian nations may have an insurmountable advantage over small Pacific islands in terms of scale economies and labor costs (95), that may affect the long-term economic viability of commercial seaweed mariculture. Some attention has been given to the cultivation of seaweed as food for other organisms (53) (i.e., rabbitfish grown in association with algal turfs), however, this is likely to remain only a peripheral activity. The Smithsonian Institutions Marine Systems Laboratory (MSL) has been active in mariculture research in Caribbean reefs. Research efforts have led to development of techniques for algal turf farming on artificial surfaces. While the harvested algae has a variety of purposes a primary interest exists in using it as a food source for the Caribbean king crab (Mythrax spinosissimus). The MSL and the Puerto Rico Corporation for Development of Marine Resources (CODREMAR) and the University of Puerto Rico (Mayaguez) will be cooperating in the Caribbean king crab mariculture demonstration project sited on Vieques. Puerto Ricos Secretary of Natural Resources has committed funding to the project. The U.S. Navy has given tentative approval despite the projects siting in a naval training area on Vieques. The techniques involved in Caribbean king crab mariculture also maybe applicable to culture of other marine species. Further, the demonstration project may provide information necessary for increased development of Puerto Ricos mariculture efforts (134). Potential $trategy: Culture of Marine Fish in Enclosures The culture of marine species in floating net pens or cages is applicable to any island where space can be obtained in estuaries or bays protected from storms. This system requires no pumping of seawater and has low initial costs (58). This culture method is used in many other coastal areas (i.e., Japan, Norway, Scotland, the United States, and Canada], and several tropi-
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254 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas cal species might be grown in cages or enclosures in the Pacific or Caribbean islands. However, the potential for conflict between mariculture practitioners and other reef and lagoon users exists (155), and may require development of mechanisms to ameliorate or prevent such conflicts. Dolphinfish, for example, could be grown at hundreds of sites on the islands of the Pacific and Caribbean, since it occurs throughout the tropical seas. Field trials indicate good potential for growing dolphinfish in large floating nets or cages. However, the viability of such culture has not been determined. The chief unknowns are the availability and costs of feeds, the feasibility of operating local hatcheries, and the logistics of supplying inputs and processing and marketing the products. Several species of grouper (Serranidae family) are grown commercially or for home use in enclosures or cages in Southeast Asia. Groupers occur throughout tropical and subtropical seas and are well accepted as food. A need exists for research to determine if methods used in Southeast Asia are applicable and to evaluate markets, availability and cost of feed and other inputs, development of locally produced feed, and wild stock availability. Puerto Rico has an extensive shoreline of nearly 300 miles with numerous inlets and small bays which provide protected waters that may be suitable for anchoring floating pens or cages. Guam, surrounded by a surf-swept fringing reef, has few such areas, precluding most forms of floating net pen cultures there. On the other hand, hundreds of narrow channels and bays exist between individual islands of Palau. There is potential there for floating net pen culture of several species; local experience with rabbitfish culture would provide a sound basis for culturing this species. Sites are available, but to a considerably lesser extent, in the USVI, the CNMI, FSM, and the RMI. Because of heavy reliance of some of these islands on fish imports, evaluation of this means of increasing domestic production could have merit. Most investigations of cage culture potential for Caribbean finfish appear to have been done in Martinique where preliminary results indicate that yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus), permit (Trachinotus falcatus), palmometta (Trachinotus goodei], and European sea bass (Dicentrarchus sp.) have commercial potential. Other species under investigation elsewhere and deserving attention for the U.S. Caribbean include redfish, epinephilid groupers, striped bass and its hybrids, tilapia, dolphinfish (Coryphaena sp.), and amberjack. Potential Strategy: Pond Culture Traditionally, freshwater fish and shellfish in Southeast Asia were grown in large shallow ponds supplied with fresh or brackish water. The modern version of this system is a series of ponds from less than 1 to as many as 50 acres each with a depth of 2 to 3 feet, supplied with freshwater at 10 to 50 gallons per minute per acre from wells (bore holes), streams, or irrigation canals (58). Freshwater ponds are used for growing various fish and crustaceans including freshwater prawns, tilapia, catfish, carp, ornamental fish, crayfish, etc., in monoculture or polyculture systems. Freshwater pond culture of eels, carp, and freshwater prawns has been developed on Guam and could be expanded (58). Since water is scarce, several species might be cultured in the same pond and the water reconditioned or reused. In Southeast Asia and in some of the Pacific islands such as Hawaii, marine or estuarine fish and some shellfish were grown in shallow coastal ponds which could be flooded at high tide. This technology has now been applied in many countries to provide low-cost ponds for aquiculture of marine shrimp and various marine or brackish water fish. Coastal farms should be sited on clay or other relatively impermeable soil. Many ponds built earlier in mangrove swamps were found to be unusable. The swamps acid sulfate soil made pond waters highly acid, which was detrimental to fish health and growth. To avoid this, ponds must be constructed inshore of mangrove forests, even though ponds must then be
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture 255 pumped full (58). Recent studies in the Philippines have developed methods of pond-building in acid soils (162). Freshwater Prawn.The culture of the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii on a small commercial scale has been accomplished in Guam, and pond production of the species has proven satisfactory (55). M. rosenbergii has also been cultured on an experimental scale on Palau. Areas especially suitable for Macrobrachium culture occur on Pohnpei and Palau as well as Guam, although freshwater is in severely limited supply during the dry season. In Pohnpei, freshwater might be adequate for small-scale prawn farming. Since the development of hatchery techniques for mass production of post-larval stages, interest in prawn culture has been considerable. However, no operating hatcheries exist in Guam or Palau at present, and pond operators have been dissatisfied with Hawaiian supplies of post-larvae. In addition, past trials have exhibited relatively poor performance and interest has waned (162). Although M. rosenbergii occurs naturally in Micronesia only in streams of Palau (112), several endemic species of Macrobrachium occur in freshwater habitats of the region, including another large species, M. lar. Work has focused on this species with the idea that ponds could be stocked with post-larvae and juveniles from local streams. The simultaneous introduction of predators and competitors poses problems (166), but to date no other source of the postlarvae exists. This species requires higher salinities than M. rosenbergii and is more aggressive, but is worthy of attention for cultivation on a cottage scale basis in areas where M. rosenbergii cultivation is not feasible. Because of rapidly increasing prawn culture within the Pacific region, prawn culture in Micronesia probably can be developed only to fulfill local demand. Prawn aquiculture in the Indo-Pacific area is predicted to triple by 1990, which may result in an oversupplied market. Only 100 tons of the total estimated 140,000 tons is expected to be produced on Pacific islands (95). Two early prawn farms failed in Puerto Rico, following extensive flood damage in 1975 and 1979 (58); a third discontinued operations in 1982, but was reactivated by Sabana Grande Prawn Farms, Ltd., and is now in operation with 86 acres of ponds and a hatchery (57). There is considerable interest in expansion with export to the United States and other markets. Marine Shrimp. Potential exists in Puerto Rico for farming marine shrimp (Penaeus sp.), but few large coastal tracts are available. Farms would need to include hatcheries with facilities for maturation of brood stock, since no wild stocks occur in the area. Adaptive research and pilot-scale tests to determine the applicability of Latin American technology for marine shrimp culture would be advisable, Technical potential also exists for marine shrimp culture in the Pacific; preliminary trials have been conducted in Guam and American Samoa (119). Juveniles are not available, however, and stocks of the shrimp in shallow nearshore waters are too small to supply a hatchery. There is some potential for growing marine shrimp on the island of Babelthaup (Palau). Although suitable land is limited, small-scale farms might be established for the local market and for air shipment to Guam, The technology of broodstock maturation is developing slowly for marine shrimp. The development of this technology will stimulate expansion of marine shrimp farming in the Caribbean islands, and possibly in the Pacific islands. The MMDC in Palau has facilities for marine shrimp culture and could be activated with new broodstock maturation technology development (33). Mangrove Crab. Another crustacean with potential for cultivation in the Pacific region is the mangrove crab Scylla serrata. Potential for its culture has been examined in Guam, but no commercial development has been realized and little interest in the species exists elsewhere in the region (119). This species is successfull y cultured in Taiwan and Japan (33). Rabbitfish.Several species of rabbitfish (Siganidae), a prized fish throughout the Pacific
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256 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas are attractive candidates for aquiculture (98, 103) in ponds, as well as in natural enclosures or cages, or in association with algal turfs. They are herbivorous, juveniles can be collected from reef-flats in large numbers (91), will readily accept and thrive on commercially available pelletized diets, and survive in brackish water as well as seawater. Research efforts currently are underway in Guam and elsewhere. Since the abundance of juveniles is extremely variable from year to year, the availability of stable supplies will eventually depend on mass production in hatcheries; the development of hatchery technologies is under way and several species have already been spawned and reared in captivity (89,132,167). Juveniles were consistently produced on a small scale at a hatchery of the MMDC in Palau for several years. Further work on reducing hatchery mortalities, and on the development of grow-out technologies is warranted since siganids bring a higher price than most other reef fish. Milkfish.Milkfish (Chanos chanos) are hardy and tolerate a range of environmental conditions from freshwater to saltwater, although they are most often cultured in brackish ponds. Milkfish have been successfully cultivated in several adjacent regions and are being cultured in ponds in Guam. However, wild stocks are too small to support a fry fishing industry. Areas with sufficient wild stock (e.g., Palau) have not developed milkfish culture, and export of fry from the Philippines, where milkfish culture is an economically important industry, has been banned by the government. Recently, however, aquaculturists have been able to spawn pond-reared broodstock, hatchery techniques are being developed (42), and it seems the availability of fry will increase, removing a major constraint to culture. Mullet.Several species of mullet may have considerable potential for development and have received some attention in Guam. Growth rates are slower than those of milkfish, but techniques for induced spawning and grow-out of the larger species such as the grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) have been well developed (142). The culture of juvenile mullet to market size can be economical because mullet feed largely on pond biota, requiring only fertilization. Mullet culture in the region deserves further consideration. Sources of fry need to be identified as an initial step. Redfish.The redfish (Sciaenops ocellata) is attractive as an aquiculture species since it can tolerate salinities from nearly 0 to as much as 45 parts per thousand. It can be grown in shallow ponds similar to those used for marine shrimp and prefers temperatures of 68 to 92 C. Although predacious in nature, redfish can be conditioned to feed on formulated pellets with acceptable conversion ratios. The redfish is highly esteemed as a food fish. Juvenile redfish could be obtained from a commercial hatchery in Texas and raised to adults at the site selected for the culture operations to provide brood stock (58). Tilapia.Tilapia, a staple food in many developing countries, are perhaps the easiest fish to grow in tropical aquiculture systems. They are extremely resistant to disease; withstand high density; and tolerate low dissolved oxygen, a wide range of salinity levels, and other adverse environmental conditions (58). Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Intensive aquiculture systems, employing supplemental feeding and high stocking density, may increase production significantly. Shown here is commercial tilapia aquiculture in Guam; peletized feed is discharged periodically from a homemade automatic feeder at the right edge of the pond.
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture l 257 Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) are cultured fairly successfully on a small commercial scale in Guam and will probably continue to serve the local market. However, this species can readily establish itself in a variety of aquatic habitats, and the introduction of tilapia into islands where it does not already exist may have undesirable consequences (119). Tilapia eradication projects are underway in Kiribati and Nauru (162). One commercial venture based on this species was started in Puerto Rico in about 1980 but was unsuccessful because of a poorly designed culture system. Research and development by the University of Puerto Rico has shown that tilapia culture with well-designed systems has much potential. Many areas in Latin America and the Caribbean islands are ideally located for large-scale culture of tilapia which might enter the world trade as frozen boneless fillets (58). The efficiency of tilapia culture on a commercial scale depends on establishing the natural biota which provides part of the food and supplementing this with artificial feeds containing about 20 percent protein. Tilapia can be grown at lower density in family or subsistence farms without supplemental feeds or fertilization with animal manures. Production can be increased to at least 6,000 lbs/acre/year by stocking at high density and providing supplemental feed (58). Ornamental Fish.Potential for growing various species of freshwater and marine tropical fish for the aquarium trade exists in the Caribbean and Pacific regions. While freshwater tropical fish commonly are cultured, marine tropicals usually are collected from the wild. Species already are imported from Guam, American Samoa, the RMI, and Hawaii. To be competitive, such ventures would need to undercut production and shipping costs from other countries and production costs in Florida. In practice, most tropical aquarium farms raise several species and carefully select the best specimens for breeding purposes to maintain high quality of the product. This requires considerable expertise and strict procedures. However, this form of aquiculture is attractive because of the high value of the product, the short time required to reach market size and the small quantity of feed required (58). Bait fish.Extensive efforts to culture bait fish have taken place in American Samoa with monies, and in the RMI and Kiribati with milkfish (58). Results of the work in American Samoa and test fishing at sea show that mollies are acceptable as live bait for skipjack and yellowfin tuna but culture has been uneconomical under experimental conditions (22,165). Similar results were obtained from the Kiribati experimental farm. The milkfish were acceptable for pole and line fishing for tuna, however, an economic analysis of the project indicated little or no profit margin existed (163). There also is the possibility of growing native marine species such as the nehu or anchovy (Stole@ orus purpureus), the apagons (Apogonidae), and the white goby (Glossogobius giurus) or other species which are captured in the lagoons by tuna fishermen. The emergence of purse seine fishing as the dominant technology for pelagic tuna harvest has reduced the importance of pole-and-line fishing, for which live bait is essential. If the technology for culture of native marine species could be developed, a stable aquaculture industry could be developed in many islands of the Pacific and the pole and line tuna fishery could be expanded. Again, this probably could expand only to fulfill local demands as the more efficient purse seiners are driving down international tuna prices (105). Alternatively, collecting fees for baitfish harvest may provide a source of income for bait ground owners and local governments, although this probably is hindered by difficult negotiations (95). Summary Freshwater and saltwater pond culture, culture in net pens, cages, and intertidal or subtidal culture (on or off the substrate) are all applicable to tropical environments and species of the U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean. Adaptive research will be required
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258 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas to test the applicability of culture systems to local environments and species. Although seawater is plentiful, site availability is still a problem, and economic feasibility uncertain. Logistical constraints plague nearly all island groups (58). Neither the U.S. Caribbean nor U.S. Pacific islands have the large expanses of low-cost coastal land and wild seed resources necessary to support significant extensive commercial pond aquafarms. Extensive aquiculture is characterized by low stocking density, little or no supplemental feeding, low yields per unit area, and high labor inputs. These systems are appropriate to Southeast Asia, where many developed, but are less suitable for the Pacific islands where marine farming is not a common traditional activity (95). Extensive aquiculture on a family scale may be possible, however, and could supplement family diets. Both island areas; however, have sites suitable for semi-intensive commercial operations, which are characterized by smaller, more engineered and managed ponds, supplemental feeding and fertilization, higher stocking density, and heavy or complete reliance on a hatchery for supply of seed. Some aquafarm development of this type is already under way in Puerto Rico (e. g., Sabana Grande Prawn Farms, Ltd.), and semi-intensive pond culture of various species is likely to be a major area of commercial aquiculture development for the island in the future. Intensive culture, involving a high degree of environmental control (i. e., tanks and raceways), high stocking densities, complete reliance on commercial feeds, high energy inputs, considerable technical expertise, and very high productivity per unit area remains in the experimental or pilot phases of development and probably is not yet feasible for most U.S. islands. In Puerto Rico, the lower elevations of the coastal plains are generally considered primary locations for aquiculture. Coastal lands near urban areas commonly are unavailable or prohibitively expensive, but large areas of agricultural and rural lands could be used for aquaculture. For example, property abandoned from sugar cane production may be suitable for aquaculture. The south and southwest coasts provide the most protected areas for onshore and offshore culture. Areas below 700 feet generally have high enough temperatures to support year-round production of certain warm-water species. More cold-tolerant species such as channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) could be reared at somewhat higher altitudes (58). In the Pacific islands, aquiculture operations which employ simple methods to culture highly desired species for local businesses (hotels and tourist facilities) or species to restock depleted areas may have the greatest potential. Production costs most likely would raise the price of products above the financial reach of many local islanders participating in market economies (95). However, aquiculture as a supplement to subsistence activities and contributor to nonmarket economies may be practible (33). It is apparent that the availability of technology itself is inadequate to stimulate development. The technology must be economically feasible and socially acceptable. Most aquaculture projects that have been initiated in the islands attempted to prove the technologya risky proposition and many did not address economic or social issues. Thus, even if technical difficulties were overcome, the project had little chance of developing into a sustainable operation (163). Unfortunately project failures have had an unfavorable impact on the development of aquiculture: in the long-run, failures discourage governments and agencies from going into aquiculture.
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture l 259 SUMMARY OF MARINE RESOURCE STATUS AND POTENTIAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT GOALS Few, if any, nearshore resources remain underused in the U. S.affiliated tropical islands. Based on past trends of fisheries development, future development of nearshore fisheries in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands might be guided by several underlying concepts: l l l that growth embody the idea of smallness and technical appropriateness, that import substitution and long-run selfsufficiency be the foremost development goals, and that export of nearshore marine products be fostered only when it does not have negative impacts on present or anticipated future subsistence activities and only when such exports result in a significant local retention of revenue (175). Management and conservation concerns are critical. An overcapitalized nearshore fishery will encourage depletionadding to the income of market participants while reducing the lifestyle of subsistence participants. Such income redistribution may not lead to desirable long-run results (174,175). A number of stocks appear to be overexploited in the U.S. Caribbean (61). Little empirical evidence exists of the present status of marine resources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands, but circumstantial evidence leads to the strong suspicion of an ever-growing sphere of resource stress surrounding population centers (17,127). Fisheries development and management could be carried out more in harmony with traditional social institutions. Cooperative organizations present a potential mechanism for accomplishing this. However, considerable expertisecultural, biologic, and economic is required to adopt the western cooperative form of enterprise to the island social setting. Optimum use of nearshore marine resources in the U.S.-affiliated islands probably requires attention to both aquiculture and capture fisheries. The climate and traditions of the tropical Pacific islands are well-suited to many types of aquacultural development. Although the potential for such development remains largely unrealized, a high level of interest exists in aquiculture and mariculture within the region. This method of food production is appealing as a result of the traditional reliance of the islands on the resources of the nearshore waters. Most island groups have operated experimental or pilot-scale culture operations of one form or another. Aquiculture ventures have had mixed success in the U.S. Caribbean, but with increasing domestic (including tourist) demand for seafood, opportunities exist for aquiculture development. While the USVI has little potential for land-based aquiculture, some sites might be available for culture of marine fish in offshore enclosures. Puerto Rico has much greater potential for both land-based and offshore aquaculture. Wild stocks are needed to supply seed or brood stock for many aquiculture operations; some aquiculture operations (sea ranching) are essentially manipulations of natural processes in the wild, Aquiculture can provide adjunct or alternative opportunities to fishing enterprises which currently are marginal, and may have the potential to rehabilitate overexploited stocks. While future development of nearshore fisheries is likely to continue to emphasize small operations, aquiculture may be developed as individual or commercial enterprises depending on the species being cultured. Certain economies of scale, for example, make small prawn
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260 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas farms less desirable than larger ones. Aquaculture projects have had a disappointing history in part because of the lack of site-specific pilot evaluations and logistic difficulties characteristic of small islands. Aquiculture development largely has focused on proving the technology, and paying little attention to financial, market, and socioeconomic aspects. Lack of attention to these aspects may result in failure of a technologically successful pilot project as it attempts to transform into a commercial operation (162). Adequate planning with thorough feasibility studies are needed to select appropriate species and sites and to reduce risks in new public programs or private ventures. Such planning studies should include sociocultural and institutional factors which often have a major effect on the success or failure of aquaculture projects. Positive impacts of aquiculture development include increased employment opportunities, strengthening of traditional subsistence economies, reduction of imports, development of export products, improved use of marginal agricultural land, and potential increases in standing stocks of certain commercial fishery species. The most probable negative impacts are possible removal of a few coastal areas from general public access, and introduction or inadvertent release of exotic species. Negative impacts may result from small or even unsuccessful ventures, while the magnitude of benefits will depend largely on the eventual scale of successful aquiculture operations. Introductions are best undertaken with caution and only after thorough studies of the potential impact on the native fauna have been completed. Local species are preferable to introduced species whenever possible. Research Resource management problems in the U. S.affiliated tropical islands are not only very complex at any one place or time, they also vary greatly with space and time. Resource managers are simply not in a position to solve them unilaterally; the biological and socioeconomic knowledge bases are too slim. There are two general responses to this problem, neither novel: 1) obtain additional information, and 2) encourage and support increased local involvement in marine resource management. Baseline BioIogical, Ecological, and Technical Research More baseline research on important marine resources and on ecological processes in tropical marine habitats is needed, particularly for resource management in the Pacific islands. Research projects that may not lead directly to commercial development still are valuable in that they may identify constraints to developments or indicate which fisheries or aquaculture activities are not feasible. Consideration of such information in project design may determine and will increase the likelihood of project success. Marine biological research in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands is centered at the University of Guam Marine Laboratory (UGML). This laboratory has a faculty of seven full-time researchers working in various fields within the discipline. Environmental impact studies, studies in aquiculture techniques and species potential, and resource assessment surveys have been performed by UGML personnel at various islands throughout the region. Cooperative research programs have been developed with Taiwan, Indonesia, and French Polynesia, and visiting scientists from around the world have conducted research at the facility. The Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources (DAWR) is active in marine resource management and to that end performs pertinent research related to Guams marine resources. The DAWR uses annual fishery statistics to assess pressure on nearshore to offshore bank aquatic resources resulting from recreational, subsistence and commercial fisheries (66). Additional marine research has been performed at the MMDC in Palau. Although there are no resident scientists at MMDC, a number of important advances in mass culture of trochus and giant clams have been made by researchers visiting this lab. Most islands of the Federated States of Micronesia have plans for
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture l 261 small giant clam and trochus mariculture laboratories which eventually will supply their reseeding programs. Fisheries biologists of the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center, Honolulu Laboratory conduct occasional island resource surveys. However, their work has focused primarily on commercial food species. Fisheries officers employed by local governments also have been involved in marine research. Generally these studies have been related to resource assessments of edible marine organisms and technologies such as artificial reefs. Local institutions in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands have demonstrated capabilities for undertaking much of the work needed to realize opportunities related to the sustainable development of marine resources. The College of the Virgin Islands through its Ecological Research Station and the U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs and the Fisheries Research Laboratory in Puerto Rico have undertaken a number of studies of local fisheries potential (cf:21,37,125, 152). Several activities of the Caribbean Fisheries Management Council (CFMC), comprised of the University of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands Marine Resource Management Cooperative are relevant to development and management of nearshore marine fisheries, and these institutions have the ability to gather information needed for preparation of development and management plans for nearshore marine systems (61). However, further research is needed. For example, the University of Puerto Rico and Medical University of South Carolina, in collaboration with other agencies and institutions in Puerto Rico and the USVI could expand the current research programs directed toward developing a field test for ciguatoxic fish (61). Based on the recommendations of the CFMC, local government, academic, and nonprofit institutions could prepare proposals to support relevant research activities under applicable funding programs, and could undertake these activities in coordination with the CFMC. Several general areas of biological research are relevant to decisions involving marine resources in both the Pacific and Caribbean regions: l life history characteristics of important organisms, l larval ecology, l ecological interactions among species, and l role of disturbance in community structure and development (168). For planning, even more detailed information is required. For example, in order to determine the potential for development of relevant aquiculture in each island territory or nation, sufficient information must be collected to establish a database, including: l l l l l l l l l l l l l identification of land or site availability and land use regulations; assessment of water availability and quality; recommendations for appropriate species; identification of current aquiculture projects; existing tax structures and financial incentives; availability and cost of transportation; inventory of local energy supplies and current costs; identification of legal or institutional constraints; identification of construction and operating costs; social, cultural, and environmental impact considerations; assessment of potential markets for relevant species; assessment of local technical capability and available institutional support; and consideration of the prospects for manpower training (164). Collection, assembly, and management of this information probably will require substantial external assistance (55). The research priorities of individual islands rarely correspond to U.S. national priorities.
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262 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas For example, research funds for aquiculture have been difficult to obtain on a sustained basis. Further, it requires several years to develop a project from the experimental stage to a commercially viable operation. Many Federal granting agencies restrict research proposals to short timeframes that are unrealistic for establishing a database, developing management models, and transferring technology to industry. Facilities are needed that could maintain a long-term financial commitment to an activity and focus on transformation from pilot to commercial scale (33). Academic institutions in Hawaii could assist aquiculture development in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands by conducting adaptive research to determine the applicability of culture technology used in other areas and by conducting research to solve problems during production. The logical roles of academic institutions are to provide such information and to train aquaculture scientists and operators of aquatic farms. Centralization of Federal support into regional approaches and regional research and development centers would lead to more costeffective expenditures. In many cases it would be helpful for governments to support pilot-scale tests and demonstrations of aquiculture systems conducted by local academic institutions. A program of adaptive research is, for example, needed to determine the applicability of culture methods for snappers, sea perch, breams, rabbitfish, and milkfish developed in Southeast Asia to the islands of the Pacific and Caribbean. If successful, this could facilitate the development of family, cooperative, and commercial aquiculture in many islands which lack adequate supplies of freshwater. Social, Cultural, and Economic Research The management of biological resources demands the expertise of social scientists and biologists, however, there has been almost no direct input from social scientists concerning the role of social and cultural factors in marine resource management in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific. More needs to be known about the current status of TURFS in the Pacific islands, especially American Samoa, Truk, and the outer Caroline Islands. Biologists, geographers, or anthropologists could carry out such studies. However, because resources within island fishing grounds are becoming increasingly valuable as human populations increase and transportation to export markets improves, the value of TURFS is increasing. Under the circumstances it is not surprising to find that villagers will invent traditional fishing rights. Information obtained from villages on their fishing rights and customs is thus likely to be more reliable if it is elicited prior to the introduction of plans for commercial fisheries development in their waters. Needed, along with improved information on the contemporary status of traditional sea rights practices, is more detailed local knowledge of the relevant aspects of marine resource use (locations, species, quantities harvested, methods used, distribution of the catch, the relation between the size of the fishery and of the resource base, the effects of adjacent or overlapping commercial fisheries, etc.). No substitute exists for detailed, locale-specific studies of current traditional sea rights and how they fit into the complex and varied sets of biological, political, economic, cultural, and geographic factors relevant to marine resource management. Assessment also is needed of the implications of TURFS for island aquiculture development. It should involve a review of the literature pertaining to other areas (Southeast Asia in particular) and field research in the islands. One main objective of field research could be to determine whether past failures or successes in aquiculture efforts were associated with traditional tenure systems. A thorough examination of TURFS and their implications for management also could form a part of the training for resource managers in the Pacific islands. A number of writers have called for studies of the causes for the failure of many artisanal fisheries development and management programs. Today, our understanding of those general causes has increased. More valuable might be the identification and evaluation of programs
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture 263 that have succeeded. Factors supporting success would be directly relevant to management and extension efforts. For example, it may be that charisma, empathy, and patience count for as much as or more than scientific expertise. Extension The ultimate value of information depends largely on the degree to which the affected public, legislators, and enforcement personnel appreciate the major ecological, social, and economic issues involved in management and development of coastal resources, and on extension of technical and managerial information to potential practitioners. Given the financial constraints on local enforcement (159), it is likely that public awareness and cooperation will prove as important as regulation in preventing overexploitation. The transfer of technology, often as part of fisheries aid projects, sometimes has not been successful or appropriate. The term appropriate could mean using materials that are locally available, with a retention of local ways; or it could mean using the most efficient methods available and adapting local conditions to these. Truly appropriate technology transfer may lie between these extremes. Introduced technologies should fulfill the requirements of the territory or country and should not greatly exceed the general technological level of the area (95). Additionally, training of personnel in the use and maintenance of equipment is integral in technology transfer. Imported technologies generally are more successful when they can be adopted by artisanal fishermen with a minimum of training. This is particularly so when the project is of real interest to the participants and where infrastructure levels are sufficient to allow the maintenance of imported equipment without creating an economic burden on the fishermen (95), While the technologies developed in Southeast Asia may be more appropriate for the Pacific islands than technologies developed in Western temperate countries, the Southeast Asian experience may not provide a good model for the Pacific islands with respect to markets and factors of production, Asia has large populations and markets that are easily accessible by reliable transportation networks. In the Pacific islands, small populations mean small markets with unreliable and expensive transport links. In Asia, the subsistence-level market is large, with people facing a real protein shortage. In the Pacific islands, the diet is nowhere near the crisis level of Asia; there are few starving Pacific islanders. In addition, land, labor, and water are abundant and cheap in Asia. In the Pacific islands, labor and land are limited and freshwater supplies may be critical (163). The typical fisheries manager in the U. S.affiliated islands, whether indigenous or expatriate, generally has responsibilities too numerous to allow much time to be spent on extension activities. Carefully chosen individuals whose sole responsibility is to serve as liaison between fishing communities and the government are needed. Often such work would require living in fishing communities for weeks or months at a time (cf:83 for a discussion of some of the practical aspects of such involvements). Many initially enthusiastic aquaculturists become discouraged as a result of management problems or inflated expectations. This problem could be alleviated through proper counsel from knowledgeable extension agents and marine advisory agents. Such services generally are lacking in most of the Pacific region. The only formal marine extension programs in the U.S.-affiliated islands are the Sea Grant Extension Service, at the University of Puerto Rico and the University of Guam Marine Laboratory (a cooperative project of the University of Hawaii Sea Grant College Program and the University of Guam). Staffed by a single agent, the latter program has concentrated on fisheries development, marine conservation, and public information and awareness. Local fisheries officers have been involved in extension efforts from time to time. A number of fishermens training programs have been
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264 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas conducted through marine resources offices. If significant development of nonfood marine resources is to occur, especially in the more remote islands, marine extension and advisory programs throughout the region will need to be strengthened. Marine extension agents could be established in major population centers, and could travel regularly to more remote fishing communities. Working closely with the islanders, the agents would transfer new and proven technical information from researchers to the harvest sector and facilitate research by relating problems encountered in the resource management sector to the appropriate researchers. It would be useful to educate extension agents as well as administrators, scientists, and resource managers from outside the area on local customs and cultures. To perform more efficiently, the extension agents could receive annual updates and training programs in technology and market developments. This effort could be coordinated on a regional basis through Sea Grant programs. The coordinator would be responsible for collection, analysis, and dissemination of this information through the extension network. Regional Coordination and Cooperation Clear advantages exist in establishing a mechanism to promote active cooperation between the U.S.-affiliated islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean, and among islands within each area. Since both areas rely on assistance from the United States, especially in technical areas, joint programs could be helpful. Regional coordination in the planning and development of aquiculture within the Pacific and the Caribbean regions might be highly desirable. Regional technical conferences could be convened for these purposes. Many island groups have common interests in aquiculture development which enhances the value of such conferences. These islands are under-represented at most international meetings dealing with aquiculture and other marine resources. One setting where the regional representation could be strengthened is the Coral Reef Symposium which is held every 4 years; another is the Pacific Science Congress. The contacts made and the information gathered at such international meetings could facilitate the development of aquiculture within the regions. Representatives could be sponsored to attend regional technical conferences and appropriate international meetings whenever possible. Collaboration with other Lesser Antillean countries on management and development activities is also of great potential use to Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Such collaboration could provide for improved access to developments in other areas and to regional markets and sources of supply; and help to improve economic, social, and political ties between the United States and the strategically important countries of the Eastern Caribbean. Many of the potentials and constraints to development of capture fisheries and aquiculture in the U.S. Caribbean also apply to most of the other Lesser Antilles. As a result, important opportunities exist for joint marine resource development ventures between the U.S. islands and the Eastern Caribbean countries. The U.S. territories might assist and benefit from efforts in other Caribbean countries to manage common nearshore marine species. Some fishery stocks (e.g., spiny lobster), for example, have long larval lives which makes it difficult to determine the origin of adult populations. Consequently, stocks in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands may depend on production in other locales. As is the case with dolphinfish fisheries, this potential interdependence offers substantial justification for collaboration with other Lesser Antilles countries in developing marine resource management strategies. Further, a regional approach to training for maritime industries would mitigate costs for developing territories which lack investment capital for expensive training facilities and equipment, and expedite reciprocal recognition of regional standards. However, difficulties may arise with this approach because of the varying levels of development within the region (101).
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquiculture 265 1. 2, 3. 4, 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14 4 CHAPTER 7 Abreu, V. B., Out of the Sea Came Magic, Of Sea and Shore 10(1):23-42, 1979. ln: Smith, 1986. Amesbury, S. S., and Callaghan, P., Territory of Guam Fisheries Development and Management Plan, funded under CZM Grant No. NA79-AA-D-CZ098, Mangilao, Guam, Department of Agriculture, Government of Guam, 1981, In: Callaghan, 1986. An Artificial Skin That Works, Discover June 1981, In: Smith, 1986. Appledoorn, R, S., and Ballantine, D. L., Field Release of Cultured Queen Conch in Puerto Rico: Implications for Stock Restoration, Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Institute 35:89-98, 1983. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Aquatic Farms, Ltd., Multiple-Use Options for a Prawn Hatchery on Guam, unpublished report of the Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, Kaneohe, HI, 1979. In: Nelson, 1986. Asano, N., A Report of Survey on Suitable Sites for Transplanting Trochus (Takasegai) I. Saipan Island, Nan yo Suisan Joho 1(5):123126, 1937 [in Japanese]. In: Smith, 1986. Asano, N., Information on the Fisheries of the South Sea Islands, Nan yo Suisan Joho 1(1):2229, 1937 [in Japanese]. In: Smith, 1986. Asano, N., On the Distribution and Variation of Topshells in Truk, Suisan Kenkyushi 32(5): 255-259, 1937 [in Japanese]. In: Smith, 1986. Auyong, J., and Tabata, R., Tourism Development and Sustainable Renewable Resource Management for U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Baker, J. T., Seaweeds in Pharmaceutical Studies and Applications, HydrobioZogia 116/117:29-40, 1984. In: Smith, 1986, Ballantine, D. L., and Appledoorn, R, S., Queen Conch Culture and Future Prospects in Puerto Rico, Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Institute 35:57-63, 1983. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Bardach, J,, Adjunct Research Associate, EastWest Center, East-West Environment and Policy Institute, Honolulu, HI, personal communication, August 1986. Berg, C. J., Report of the Evaluation Team on Conch Mariculture, Proceedings of the Gulf Caribbean Fisheries Insitute 35:135, 1983. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Best, B. R., et al., Effect of Chlorine on Some Coral Reef Phytoplankters and Invertebrate REFERENCES 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Larvae, Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila, 1:169172, 1982. In: Smith, 1986. Birkeland, C. E., Professor, University of Guam Marine Laboratory, Mangilao, Guam, personal communication, September 1986. Birkeland, C. E., Terrestrial Runoff as a Cause of Outbreaks of Acanthaster planci (Echinodermata: Asteroidea), Marine Biology 69:175185, 1982. In: Smith, 1986. Birkeland, C. E., and Grosenbaugh, D., Ecological Interactions Between Tropical Coastal Ecosystems (Mangrove, Seagrass, and Coral), a review of information for the South Pacific Regional Environment Program, University of Guam Marine Laboratory, January 1984. Bonham, K., Growth Rate of the Giant Clam Tridacna gigas at Bikini Atoll as Revealed by Radioautography, Science 149:300-303, 1965. In: Nelson, 1986. Braley, R., Reproduction in the Giant Clams Tridacna gigas and T. derasa in situ on the North-Central Great Barrier Reef, and Papua New Guinea, Coral Reefs 3:221-227, 1984. In: Nelson, 1986. Brewer, K., Micronesia: The Land, the People and the Sea (Singapore: Tien Wah Press (Pte.) Ltd., Rights reverved Mobil Oil Micronesia, Inc., 1981). In: Callaghan, 1986. Brownell, W. N., and Rainey, W. E., Research and Development of Deepwater Commercial and Sport Fisheries Around the Virgin Islands Plateau, Caribbean Research Institute, Virgin Islands Ecological Research Station Contribution No. 3, 1971. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Bryan, P., On the Efficiency of Monies (Poecilia mexicana) as Live Bait for Pole-and-Line Skipjack Fishing, Government of American Samoa, Office of Marine Resources, Technical Report 4-35-D, 1978. In: Glude, 1986. Callaghan, P., The Development and Management of Nearshore Fisheries in the U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Caribbean Fishery Management Council, Caribbean Fishery Management Council Newsletter, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico, December 1985. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Caribbean Fishery Management Council, Draft Fishery Management Plan, Regulatory Impact Review, and Environmental Impact Statement for the Shallow-Water Reeffish Fishery of
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266 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas 26, 27. 28. 29. Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico, 1984. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. Carleton, C., Development of Miscellaneous Marine Products in the South Pacific, INFOFISH Marketing Digest 3:18-21, 1985. In: Smith, 1986. Carleton, C., Marketing Studies on the Miscellaneous Marine Resources of the South Pacific, INFOFISH Marketing Digest 5:28-31, 1984. In: Smith, 1986. Carleton, C., The Production and Marketing of Topshell or Button Shell From the Pacific Islands, INFOFISH Marketing Digest 6:18-21, 1984, In: Callaghan, 1986; Smith, 1986. Coeroli, M., et al., Recent Innovations in the Cultivation of Molluscs in French Polynesia, Aquiculture 39:45-67, 1984. In: Smith, 1986. 30. Colgan, M. W,, Succession and Recovery of a Coral Reef After Predation by Acanthaster planci (L.), Proceedings of the Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila, Philippines, 2:333-338, 1982. In: Smith, 1986, 31. Colgan, M. W,, Long-Term Recovery Process of a Coral Community After a Catastrophic Disturbance, Technical Report 76, (Mangilao, Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1981). In: Smith, 1986. 32. Connell, J. H., Diversity in Tropical Rain Forests and Coral Reefs, Science 199:13021310, 1978, In: Smith, 1986. 33. Corbin, J. C., Manager, Aquiculture Development Program, Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources, personal communication, September 1986. 34, Curtin, M. E., Chemicals From the Sea, Biol 35. 36. Technology 34:36-37, January 1985. In: Smith, 1986. Dahl, A. L., Tropical Island Ecosystems and Protection Technologies to Sustain Renewable Resources in U.S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. Dahl, A, L., Future Directions for the Oceanian Realm National Parks, Conservation, and Development: The Role of Protected Areas in Sustaining Society, J.A. McNeely and K,R. Miller (eds.), Proceedings of the World Congress on National Parks, Bali, Indonesia, Oct. 11-12, 1982 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1984). 37. Dammann, A. E., Study of the Fisheries Potential of the Virgin Islands, Virgin Islands Ecological Research Station Contribution, No, 1, 1969. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. 38. Dance, S. P., Shell Collecting: An Illustrated 39 40 41 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50 History (Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1966). In: Smith, 1986. Doty, M. S., Realizing a Nations Potential in Phycology, Proceedings of Republic of ChinaUnited States Cooperative Science Seminar on Cultivation and Utilization of Economic Algae, R.T. Tsuda and Y.M. Chiang (eds.) (Mangilao, Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1982). In: Smith, 1986. Doty, M. S., Worldwide Status of Marine Agronomy, Proceedings of China-United States Cooperative Science Seminar on Cultivation and Utilization of Economic Algae, R.T. Tsuda and Y.M. Chiang (eds.) (Mangilao, Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1982). In: Smith, 1986. Doty, M, S., The Diversified Farming of Coral Reefs, Harold L. Lyon Arboretum Lecture Number Eleven (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1981). In: Smith, 1986. Duray, M., and Bagarinao, T,, Weaning of Hatchery-Bred Milkfish Larvae From Live Food to Artificial Diets, Aquiculture 41:325332, 1984. ln: Nelson, 1986. Dutton, I., Research and Monitoring Section, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia, personal communication, September 1986. Eaton, P., Land Tenure and Conservation: Protected Areas in the South Pacific, Topic Review 17 (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, 1985). In: Smith, 1986, Ehrhardt, N. M., Associate Professor, University of Miami, Miami, FL, personal communication, September 1986. Ekman, S,, Zoogeography of the Seas (London, England: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1953). In: Smith, 1986. Eldredge, L. G., University of Guam Marine Laboratory, personal communication, September 1986, Faulkner, D, J,, Biomimetic Synthesis of Marine Natural products, International Symposium on Marine Natural Products, R, Thomson (cd.), Aberdeen, Scotland, 1976. In: Wahle, 1986. Fenical, W., Marine Plants: A Unique and Unexplored Resource, Plants: The Potentials for Extracting Protein, Medicines and Other Useful Chemicals, Workshop Proceedings, U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, OTA-BP-F-23 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983). In: Wahle, 1986. Fishery Management Plan, Final Environ-
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture c 267 mental Impact Statement for Coral and Coral Reefs, Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Fishery Management Councils, 1982. In: Wahle, 1986. 51. Fitt, W, K., Fisher, C. R., and Trench, R. K., Larval Biology of Tridacnid Clams, Aquiculture 39:181-195, 1984, In: Nelson, 1986. 52. Fitzgerald, W. J., Aquaculture Development Plan for the Territory of Guam, Department of Commerce, Government of Guam, June 1982. In: Nelson, 1986. 53, Fitzgerald, W, J., Environmental Parameters Influencing the Growth of Enteromorpha clathrata in the Intertidal Zone on Guam, Bot. Mar. 21:207-220, 1976. In: Nelson, 1986. 54. Fitzgerald, W. J., and Nelson, S. G., Development of Aquiculture in an Island Community Guam, Mariana Islands, Proceedings of the World Mariculture Society 10:39-50, 1979, In: Nelson, 1986. 55. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Report of the FAO WorZd Conference on Fisheries Management and Development, Rome, June 27 July 6, 1984. 56. Gawel, M., Chief of Marine Resources, Federated States of Micronesia, personal communication, July 1986. 57, Glude, J, B., Glude Aquiculture Consultants, Inc., personal communication, August 1986. 58. Glude, J. B,, Aquacuhure Development in the U.S.-Affiliated Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 59. Glude, J. B., A Plan for the Development of Aquiculture in Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources, Corporation for the Development of Marine Resources, unpublished, 1980. In: Glude, 1986. 60. Glynn, P., Aspects of the Ecology of Coral Reefs in the Western Atlantic Region, l?iology and Geology of Coral Reefs, O. Jones and R. Endean [eds.) (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1973). IZI: Wahle, 1986. 61, Goodwin, M. H., and Sandifer, P. D., Aquiculture and Fisheries Development in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 62, Grigg, R. W., Resource Management of Precious Corals: A Review and Application to Shallow Water Reef Building Corals, Marine Ecology 5(1):57-74, 1984. IrI: Smith, 1986. 63. Grigg, R, W., precious Coral in the Pacific: Economics and Development Potential, INFOFISH Marketing Digest 2:8-11, 1982. In: Smith, 1986. 64. Grigg, R. W., Fishery Management of Precious Corals in Hawaii, Proceedings of the 3rd International Coral Reef Symposium, Miami, FL, 1977. ln: Wahle, 1986. 65. Grigg, R. W., Fishery Management of Precious Corals in Hawaii, Sea Grant Technical Report, UNIHI-SEAGRANT-TR-77 -03 (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1976). In: Wahle, 1986. 66. Guam Environmental Protection Agency, TweZfth Annual Report 1984-1985, G. Stillberger (cd.), Agana, Guam, 1985. 67. Gwyther, J., and Munro, J, L., Spawning Induction and Rearing of Larvae of Tridacnid Clams (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae), Aquiculture 24:197-217, 1981. In: Nelson, 1986. 68. Hamilton, L. S., and Snedaker, S.C. (eds.), Handbook for Mangrove Area Management, United Nations Environment Programme and the Environment Policy Institute East-West Center, 1984. 69. Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, Pacific Island Mariculture Conference, Feb. 6-8, 1973, (unpublished report), Coconut Island, Kaneohe, HI, 1973, In: Nelson, 1986. 70, Hedlund, S, E., The Extent of Coral, SheZZ, and Algae Harvesting in Guam Waters, Sea Grant Publication UGSG-77-1O, Technical Report 37 (Agana Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1977]. In: Smith, 1986. 71. Heslinga, G. A., Recent Advances in Giant Clam Mariculture, Proceedings of the Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, vol. 2, Tahiti, 1985. In: Callaghan, 1986. 72. Heslinga, G. A., and Hillmann, A., Hatchery Culture of the Commercial Top Snail Trochus niZoticus in Palau, Caroline Islands, AquacuZture 22:35-43, 1981. 73. Heslinga, G. A., and Perron, F. E., Trochus Reseeding and Production of Giant Clams, 1984 Annual Report, Republic of Palau, Micronesia Mariculture Demonstration Center, Marine Resources Division, 1984. In: Callaghan, 1986. 74. Heslinga, G. A., and Perron, F. E., The Status of Giant Clam Mariculture Technology in the Indo-Pacific, South Pacific Commission Fisheries Newsletter 24:15-19, 1983. 75. Heslinga, G. A., Perron, F. E,, and Orak, O., Mass Culture of Giant Clams (F. Tridacnidae) in Palau, Aquiculture 39:197-215, 1984. 76. Hill, H, B., The Use of Nearshore Marine Life as a Food Resource by American Samoans, Pacific Islands Program, University of Hawaii,
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Ch. 7Management of Aquatic Resources: Nearshore Fisheries and Aquaculture l 269 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107, 108. 109. 110. 111. 112. ments, Training Equipment, Costs, Concepts and Issues for the Marine Industry, paper presented at the Australian National University Workshop on New Marine Technology and Social Change in the Pacific, Mar. 12-13, 1985. MacInnes, A., Saving the Queen, Marine Biological Laboratory, Science Bulletin 1(1):1112, 1984. In: Wahle, 1986. Macintosh, D. J., Fisheries and Aquiculture Significance of Mangrove Swamps, With Special Reference to the Indo-West Pacific Region, Recent Advances in Aquiculture, J.F. Muir and R.J. Roberts (eds.) (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1982). In: Nelson, 1986. Mates, C. A., Marine Pollution in the South Pacific, Topic Review 11 (Noumea, New Caledonia: South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, 1981). In: Smith, 1986. McCoy, M. A., Micronesia Maritime Authority, personal communication, March 1986. McCoy, M. A., Man and Turtle in the Central Carolinas, Micronesia 10(2):207-221, 1974. In: Smith, 1986. McGowan, J. A., The Trochus Fishery of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands: A Report and Recommendations to the High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, unpublished draft report, April 1958. In: Smith, 1986. McGowan, J. A., The Current Status of the Trochus Industry in Micronesia: An Interim Report to the High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific ]slands, unpublished draft report, 1956. In: Smith, 1986. McKoy, J. L., Biology, Exploitation, and Management of Giant Clams (Tridacnidae) in the Kingdom of Tonga, Fisheries Bulletin 1 (Nukualofa, Tonga: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, 1980). In: Nelson, 1986. McManus, J. W., Philippine Coral Exports: The Coral Drain, ICLARM Newsletter 3(1):1820, 1980. In: Smith, 1986. McRoy, C. P., Nutrient Cycles in Caribbean Seagrass Ecosystems, Coral Reefs, Seagrass Beds and Mangroves: Their Interaction in the Coastal Zones of the Caribbean, J.C, Ogden (cd.), report of workshop held in St. Croix, USVI, May 1982 (Montevideo, Uruguay: United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, 1983). McVey, J. P., New Record of Macrobrachium rosenber~ii (de Man] in the Palau Island s (Decapoda, Palaemonidae), Crustacean 29 (1):31-32, 1975. In: Nelson, 1986. 113. Milone, P,, et al., Potential for Fisheries Development in the Marshall Islands, paper submitted to the Trade and Development Program (Washington, DC: International Development Corporation Agency, 1985). In: Callaghan, 1986, 114. Minale, L,, Natural Product Chemistry of the Marine Sponges, International Symposium on Marine Natural Products, R. Thomson (cd.) (Aberdeen, Scotland: 1976). In: Wahle, 1986. 115. Motoda, S., Useful Shells in the Palau Islands, Journa/ Sapporo Society Agriculture and Forestry 30(146):315-324, 1938. In: Smith, 1986. 116. Munro, J. L., Actual and Potential Fish Production From the Coralline Shelves of the Caribbean Sea, FAO Fisheries Report 200:301321, 1977. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986. 117, Munro, J. L,, and Heslinga, G. A., Prospects for the Commercial Cultivation of Giant Clams (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae), Proceedings of the Gulf Fisheries Institute 35:122-134, 1983. In: Nelson, 1986. 118. Munro, J. L., and Williams, D. McB., Assessment and Management of Coral Reef Fishers: Biological Environmental and Socio-Economic Aspects, Fifth International Coral Reef Congress, Tahiti, May 27-June 1, 1985. 119, Nelson, S. G., Aquiculture and Mariculture Development in the U.S. Pacific Insular Areas, OTA commissioned paper, 1986. 120. Neudecker, S., Effects of Thermal Effluent on the Coral Reef Community at Tanguisson, Technical Report 30 (Agana, Guam: University of Guam Marine Laboratory, 1976), In: Smith, 1986. 121. Nishi, M,, An Evaluation of Japanese Agricultural and Fishery Developments in Micronesia During the Japanese Mandate f 19141941, Micronesia 4:1-18, 1968. In: Callaghan, 1986. 122. Ogden, J., Director, West Indies Laboratory, Christensted, St. Croix, USVI, personal communication, September 1986. 123. Oliver, D. L., The Pacific Islands (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press, 1962). 124. Olsen, D. A., et al., Portunus spinimanus Latreille, a Portunid Crab With Resource Potential in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Marine Fisheries Review 40(7)12-14, 1978. In: Goodwin and Sandifer, 1986.
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272 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas 173. Wendler, H. O., Draft Recommendations for Fisheries Development and Management in American Samoa (mimeographed) (Portland, OR: Pacific Marine Fisheries Commission, 176. 1980). In: Callaghan, 1986. 174. World Bank, Sociocultural Aspects of Developing Small-Scale Fisheries: Delivering Services to the Poor, World Bank Staff Working Pa177, per No. 490 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1981). In: Callaghan, 1986. 175. World Bank, Rethinking Artisanal Fisheries Development: Western Concepts. Asian Experiences, World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 423 (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1980). In: Callaghan, 1986. Yamaguchi, M., Conservation and Cultivation of Giant Clams in the Tropical Pacific, Biological Conservation 11:13-20, 1977. In: Smith, 1986; Nelson, 1986. Yamaguchi, M., Sea Level Fluctuations and Mass Mortalities of Reef Animals in Guam, Mariana Islands, Micronesia 11(2):227-243, 1975.
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Chapter 8 Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development
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CONTENT S Page Introduction . . . . . . . ........................275 integrated Development of a Food and Kindred Products industry........276 Food Preservation and processing . . . . . . . ....277 Marketing Development . . . . . ....................285 Integrated Production, Processing, and Marketing ...................28 8 Transportation . . . . . . . ....................292 Intersectoral Integration . . . . . . . . . ........296 Integrating Agriculture and Aquiculture With Energy Development .. ...296 Integrating Tourism and Resource Development .....................30 2 Integrating Urban Development With Resource Management ...........309 Chapter 8 References . . . . . . . ................311 Bo x Box Page 8-A. Zeolite Refrigeration Systems . . . . . .............279 Figures Figure No. Page 8-1. Modern Food Industry Components. . . . . . . . ..276 8-2. Common Island Food Industry Components .................,.....277 8-3. Organizations Supporting Food Industry Development . ...........277 8-4. Components of On-Farm Biogas Systems . . ..................299 Tables Table No. Page 8-1. Effects of Food Irradiation . . . . . . . . ......281 8-2. Primary Resources Used in Craft Production in U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands. . . . . . . . ..................306
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Chapter 8 Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development INTRODUCTION Consideration of the ecological integration of island resource systems is integral to island renewable resource management and development and to optimum use of human and natural resources. Two other kinds of integration are important as well: 1) integration in the development of the various components of food and kindred products industries, and 2) integration of resource development with other forms of economic development. Little is gained from increasing agriculture or fisheries production if what is grown or caught is not purchased, if a substantial part of it is lost to pests or deterioration before it can be purchased, or if no means exist to get it from the producer to the consumer. Thus, integrated development of food and kindred products industries requires that attention be given not only to the modes of production, but to preservation or enhancement of product quality and value (preservation and processing), fulfillment of product specifications determined by consumer demand (marketing), and product storage and transportation. Conversely, integration of the provision of basic human services (e.g., water, energy, and waste treatment) with resource management and development is not a required component of resource development and is not commonly practiced on continents. However, such integration can provide double-duty from government infrastructure investments on small islands. Airstrips and even roads can be used as passive water catchments on water-poor islands. Residential wastes can be a source of nutrients for farms or forests. Aquiculture of certain plants can even aid water purification allowing reuse by humans. Development of tourist attractions could include efforts to preserve endangered species or habitats of critical importance to fisheries in multiple-use protected areas, and development of the handicrafts industry associated with tourism can provide a means for rural people to earn income and to maintain traditional skills. Agriculture, aquiculture, and fisheries production systems also can be integrated with energy production technologies. For example, intensive mariculture farms need large quantities of seawater to supply oxygen to and flush wastes from ponds, and pumping is an energyexpensive operation. Such farms could be built around powerplants which pump large quantities of cooling water daily from the sea. In the future it may also be possible to integrate aquiculture with ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) systems, passive seawater energy systems, biomass conversion systems, and solar pond systems. On-farm production of energy from animal and/or crop wastes, using digesters, can reduce energy costs to farmers. Such systems may help islands reduce their reliance on imported oil. Both of these forms of integrated development commonly involve comprehensive planning and broad government involvement, For example, development of the various components of food industries may require government incentives to entrepreneurs to enter lagging sectors so that their services can be provided to growing ones. Similarly, determining the potential for investments in large public infrastructure to provide secondary benefits probably will require considerable detail in project planning, specification of engineering design, facility siting, etc. Analysis of such factors must occur on an island-by-island basis. 275
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276 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT OF A FOOD AND KINDRED PRODUCTS INDUSTRY A commercial food and kindred products industry includes not only food and fiber production activities (see chs. 6 and 7), but also processing (the biological, chemical, or mechanical transformations of products subsequent to harvest), distribution, and marketing (figure 8-l). In the United States, before agricultural commodities reach consumers, they must be assembled, processed, packaged, warehoused, stored, transported, and distributed through the institutional food trade wholesale and retail outlets (93). In a well-developed food and fiber industry, each of these components commonly is undertaken by different private individuals, businesses, or cooperative organizations. With each successive step, value is added to the product through transformation or distribution. Prices are raised, but revenues also are captured within the local economy. (For example, the nonfarm activities provide as much as 85 percent of the value added to the U.S. food and fiber systems output (93)). Food and feed processing technologies essentially transform raw materials into higher valued products with uniform marketing characteristics and longer shelf lives than the source materials. Such technologies tend to augment interdependence, encourage specialization, and are subject to economies of scale (82). They also promote the transformation from a barter economy to a cash economy. Finally, because convenience foods are preferred on many islands, increased local processing of foods has substantial potential to replace products currently imported. On most U.S.-affiliated islands, fresh food is marketed directly by the producer (farmer or fisherman) to the public through roadside or harborside stands and open air markets. Thus, the producer is responsible for transporting, marketing, and maintaining the quality of the product. Some food may be sold to government food distribution centers, a small amount is sold to small retail stores, and still less is distributed to supermarkets or off-island (figure 8-2). Only Puerto Ricos food industry approximates that of the United States or other developed countries. In the absence of complementary private sector development of the components of food industries, the processing, marketing, and distribution components can be centralizedthrough government-supported cooperatives or organizationsuntil private sector entrepreneurs take over (figure 8-3). Besides raw materials, resources critical to processing include skilled people, information, and supporting infrastructure such as energy, water, and transportation facilities. Marketing, in particular, depends on reliable transportation systems. Figure 8-1 .Modern Food Industry Components Producing Processing Marketing In a well-developed food industry different private sector individuals, businesses, or cooperative organizations commonly are responsible for each segment of activity. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986,
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development l 277 Figure 8-2.Common Island Food Industry Systems On most U.S.-affiliated islands, fresh food is marketed directly by the producer (farmer or fisherman) to the public through roadside stands In the absence of private sector development of the roles of food industries, processing and marketing components can be centralized, via cooperatives or centralized organizations, to provide these services until private sector enterprises can take over. SOURCE: Office of Technology Assessment, 1986. Food Preservation and Processing Several methods of preserving and processing traditional foods for subsistence use exist in the U.S. Pacific islands. These include drying or smoking of fish, coconut meat, Pandanus fruit; fermenting coconut sap for coconut wine; and, in some areas, preserving breadfruit by storing it in the soil (2). The primary objective of traditional food preservation/processing was to ensure continuous food supplies during warfare, natural disasters, and off-seasons. Today, the major goals of preservation/processing are to increase product storage life and quality, to minimize crop wastage and spoilage during peak production seasons, and to ease shipping and marketing (82). Food processing also may increase market demand (e.g., by increasing ease of food preparation). Furthermore, local processing of food may provide substitutes for products currently imported. Primary and secondary processing and preservation methods range from simple and smallscale to complex, large-scale operations. Primary processing involves the preservation of crops and other products, whereas secondary processing deals with more complex processes such as extraction of plant oils, fermentation, or manufacturing of food products. Food and feed processing methods throughout the U.S. Pacific territories are generally un-
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278 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas developed. In Puerto Rico, the food processing industry is a strong manufacturing sector, primarily processing raw material imported from the United States and foreign countries (77). The strength of this sector may be due, in part, to the existence of a Food Technology Laboratory established at the University of Puerto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. Primary Food Processing Methods Primary processing and preservation methods include refrigeration and freezing; dehydration (sun-drying, smoking, hot-air drying, and freeze drying); retort processing; irradiation; and hot-water bath treatments. Several of these processes can be combined or conducted sequentially. Refrigerated Storage.Proper storage facilities are needed to reduce postharvest losses from spoilage, insects, rats, or other pests. On most U.S. Pacific islands, storage facilities are inadequate because it is costly to provide modern storage facilities for the many small islands that are scattered throughout vast expanse of ocean. Low-temperature storage can provide protection from pests and spoilage and extend the shelf-life of perishable fresh products such as fruits, vegetables, and fish. However, lowtemperature storage generally is not economical for most island crops because of the high energy cost. Furthermore, for most Pacific islands the use of cold storage is constrained by lack of or irregular power supply, Refrigeration of foods for short-term storage (freezing for long-term storage) is nonetheless desirable, as it is safe, maintains flavor, and is suitable for many foods. Controlled atmosphere refrigeration (using carbon dioxide gas) can preserve certain fruits and vegetables for up to 21 days (82). Easy processing and packaging and acceptance of products worldwide make the potential for frozen tropical food excellent (cf: Bacardi frozen concentrate tropical fruit mixers). While refrigeration is common in the U. S.affiliated Caribbean, refrigeration and food freezing facilities other than household refrigerators largely are limited to larger hotels and restaurants throughout the U.S. Pacific. An American Samoa tuna cannery has a large, commercial refrigeration and freezing facility. Icemaking and refrigeration are essential if fish are to be sold at other than dockside locations. High temperature is the single most significant factor leading to loss of quality. Fish that can be stored for 2 weeks frozen may last only a day or two at 500 F. It is generally recognized that a large part of the growing demand for marine products must be met through improvements in fish utilization, not just expanded catches (54). Losses of fish may be heavy even on board, and in the period after docking and before marketing. Keeping fish alive in wells until landing, shaded, or covered with wet seaweed or other such materials may also enhance preservation. Losses could be reduced from the beginning by keeping vessel surfaces clean and cooled with seawater, and by careful handling (48). If transport to markets is required the catch is further reduced from exposure as well as insect infestation. For many fisheries use of ice during transport is not possible; icing can, however, be delayed up to about 6 hours if the fish is consumed soon thereafter. Rapid chilling can be efficiently achieved by layering ice (preferPhoto credit: Office of Technology Assessment Packing fishery products in ice remains a primary preservation technique on many Pacific islands despite irregular ice availability. Shown here, fish are being removed from ice packing and displayed for sale in a local market.
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development 279 ably in flakes or small pieces) and fish in a covered box or hold area. Only sanitary water should be used to make the ice, and ice should not be reused once fish have been stored in it. Ice machines that do not require gasoline, diesel oil, or electricity are being developed in some areas. A low maintenance biomass-fueled icemaker has, for example, been developed at the Asian Institute of Technology in Thailand. Ice forms as heat is extracted from water in a closed container during the conversion of liquid ammonia to gaseous ammonia. A compact solar refrigeration system uses the same technology but the ammonia-water solution is heated in the pipes of a solar collector (48). Solar-powered zeolite refrigeration systems are now being developed and may have particular relevance for use in small remote island areas (86). Dehydration. Food dehydration is a common, relatively simple, and inexpensive primary processing technology. Depending on the product, sun-dried items can be placed on racks or on iron roofs. Sometimes wire netting is placed over drying racks or platforms to reduce dirt and insect contamination (82). Although sun-drying is simple, cheap, and easily transferable, it is limited by the availability of sunny days. In some areas, in fact, peak crop harvest coincides with the rainy season. Sun-drying alone, moreover, frequently will not reduce the moisture content of products to a level low enough to prevent fungal or bacterial growth (82). Thus, while sun-drying is suitable for home use, for initial preservation, or for nonfood items, handling and sanitation problems render it less suitable for most volume processing for sale (65). Fish commonly are preserved in rural areas of the tropics by sun-drying, but significant losses result from spoilage, contamination, and insects. Drying on raised structures could reduce some of these losses. Solar fish dryers can be made simply and inexpensively with wood (to form a frame) and plastic or glass (to provide cover), A wide variety of solar dryers have been designed with these and other inexpenbut the energy requirements of conventional absorption refrigeration systems pose a constraint to the application and use of this technology Solar coolers, using natural zeolite minerals as the adsorbant, are now being developed (86) that show promise for use on small tropical islands to extend the life and therefore the potential markets for perishable food products. Because of several unique, properties of zeolites, they can be used to provide efficient refrigeration with low-grade energy such as solar heat. Once fully developed and available for purchase, zeolite-based solar coolers have the potential to provide food refrigeration or freezing; refrigerated transport; and space conditioning (heating and cooling, depending on seasonal need) for livestock and for commercial and tourist facilities. The solar refrigerator and walk-in cooler are the technologies of most immediate application and widest possible use. Coolers can be used onsite or installed on flat bed trucks or on boats for field use. One technology being developed uses waste heat from internal combustion engines, significantly reducing the weight of the system as compared to solar based~systems. Zeolite solar technology is initially highly capital-intensive, thus those people who most need it probably cannot afford it without government or private subsidy. However, where such technology is used to market more produce than could otherwise be saved and sold, increased income can be expected to result, and Low-interst might be repaid in a reasonable time. Nonsolar zeolite systems have low initial costs and can be used without subsidies wherever waste heat is available.
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280 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: D. Tchernev This small-scale solar-powered zeolite refigeration system may be particularly appropriate for remote areas or roadside markets where energy availability prevents the use of conventional refrigeration systems. sive and readily available materials (including old oil drums, thin metal sheeting, and even sun-dried mud). Fish exposed to the flow of heated air in such structures dry very rapidly, and high temperatures reduce spoilage by mold and bacteria. Low-cost agrowaste-fueled fish dryers and combined agrowaste/solar dryers have also been designed and constructed in the Philippines (48). Hot-air drying and smoking are accomplished by placing the product on drying shelves or racks in ovens using natural-draft smoke or forced hot air. Hot-air dryer designs vary depending on the crops, on the types of dried products desired, and on the type of available fuel (82). Hot-air drying and smoking may be limited by fuel availability and cost. Dryers can be made from simple wooden or bamboo racks, steel racks, or durable steel drums. Forced hotair dryers have been used effectively for drying various island products such as copra, black pepper, chili peppers, and herbs. Smoking is a traditional method of preserving fish products. Smoking dries the product, and certain substances in smoke kill bacteria, particularly in the presence of salt. Simple smokers consist of trays hung in the column of smoky air above a fire. A variety of ovens and kilns have been developed in Africa and the Philippines (48). Smoking, hot-air drying, and sun-drying may be used in combination for drying products. Dehydration also is frequently combined with other processes such as salting (used for thousands of years to preserve fish) and sugar curing. Spices, seasoning, tropical fruit flavors, and other specialty products seem to offer primary areas for expansion of dehydrated products. In addition, byproducts and waste products of dried foods can be added to animal feed formulations (82). Dehydration also may be accomplished by freezing and drying at the same time. Freezedrying technology may be applied to selected, high-valued products, provided reliable electric power is available (82). Freeze-drying maintains the flavor and helps protect the cellular integrity of the food. However, this technology requires high amounts of energy and skilled labor, and therefore cannot be applied economically on many islands. Retort Processing. Retort canning or pressure cooking is a common method of preserving fruits and vegetables, and can be used on some fish and meats. The goal of such thermoprocessing is to heat the product to microbekilling temperatures of around 100 F. Traditional canning equipment is readily available and systems have been developed for lesser developed areas of the world (82). Acid fruit products are easily canned without substantial health hazards as the acid level prevents spoilage by most toxic organisms. Retort canning of nonacid foods such as vegetables and meats, however, can be a health hazard if quality-control procedures are not followed. The retortable poucha multilayer adhesively bonded package that will withstand thermoprocessing temperaturesmay maintain higher quality foods than those retorted in conventional cans and may require less energy due to shorter cooking times at lower temperatures (97). Further, retort pouches have an improved
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development l 281 product-to-package weight ratio compared to cans, providing savings in transportation. This saving may be reduced by secondary packaging used to increase product durability in transport. Irradiation. Irradiation for preserving food and crops has been used both experimentally and commercially in many countries (69). Irradiation is considered an alternative to chemical preservation of foods and crops, or where refrigeration and retort processing are not feasible (table 8-l). Low doses of radiation prevent sprouting of tubers, destroy insects, and inhibit mold on fruits and vegetables. Medium to high doses of radiation can preserve foods for long periods of time (69,70). Low doses of radiation for spices, hog carcasses, and some fruits and vegetables have been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (83). Use of high doses of radiation for control of insect pests on produce, and for preserving fruit and vegetables recently has been approved. Irradiated mangoes have been exported from Puerto Rico to the U.S. market (60). Irradiation could reduce the use of pesticides and inhibit maturation and spoilage of crops, thus extending shelf life and possibly making Table 8-1 .Effects of Food Irradiation Dose Rads Purposes Low-dose . 1-1oo Control insects in grains kilorads and flour Inhibit sprouting in potatoes Sterilize trichina worms in fresh pork Inhibit decay, control insects in fresh fruits and vegetables Medium-dose. 100-1,000 Destroy Salmonella and kilorads other bacteria in meat and poultry High-dose . 1,000-3,000 Control insects, microkilorads organisms in dried spices and enzymes used in food processing; destroy botulism spore Dose: Dose is calculated by knowing the energy given off by the radiation source, the distance between the energy source and the target material (food and its packaging) and the duration of treatment. Rad stands for radiation absorbed dose. 1 kilorad = 1,000 rads. SOURCE: S, Sachs, Q & A Irradiated Food at the Supermarket, USDA Food News for Consumers 3(1): 14-15, 1986. some foods more available or less expensive. Application of irradiation technology, however, requires the availability of electric power, skilled personnel, and a high initial capital cost making it an unlikely prospect for use on most islands. Hot-Water Bath Treatments.Hot-water bath treatments are an alternative to fumigation or irradiation to eliminate pests, especially fruit flies, in fruits. It has been used as an alternative to fumigation with ethylene dibromide, which recently was banned from use on all fruit and vegetables for trade in the United States. Fruit, such as papaya, are immersed in water for 40 minutes at 108 F followed by a 20-minute immersion in water at 120 F. This treatment killed all eggs and 99 percent of insect larvae in commercial-sized lots of papaya in Hawaii. In general, hot-water bath-treated papaya maintains its quality, including the flavor, texture, absence of blemishes, and absence of hard spots on fruits (98). This method holds promise for wide application on islands because it is simple, inexpensive, and does not depend on expensive imported materials. Secondary food Processing Methods Secondary food processing systems, in general, involve more complex techniques, higher capital investments, and more energy-intensive technologies than primary processing. On U. S.affiliated islands, secondary food processing systems include fermentation, oil extraction, and starchy crop processing. Except for coconut oil extraction, commercial secondary food processing methods are undeveloped in U.S. Pacific islands. However, in Micronesia a traditional coconut wine (toddy) is made by cutting the stalk of a coconut flower and allowing the sap to drip into a container to ferment naturally. Secondary processing is common in Puerto Rico; for example, brinefermented citron is one of the oldest fruit processing operations on the island (77). Fermentation. Fermentation of fruits is a common method of preservation and flavorenhancement, and is used in many cultures to derive alcoholic beverages. Fermentation of fish
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282 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas and shrimp was originally developed in Southeast Asia as a means of flavor enhancement. Since this generally involves hydrolysis in the presence of high salt concentrations, products (generally a liquid or paste) have good keeping qualities. Nutritive quality is maintained, and the process is simple (48). Plant Oil Extraction Methods.Chemical and physical extraction methods are available for extraction of oils from plants. Depending on the products, oil extraction ranges from simple, inexpensive, small-scale techniques to complex, capital-intensive extraction methods. Basically oil extraction involves drying the product, chopping it into small pieces for pressing and/or chemical extraction and fractionation to obtain the desired oil (82). Coconut oil can easily be extracted from dried coconut meat (copra), by pressing or boiling. This can be accomplished using common kitchen implements or in a factory setting with proper quality control and precise extraction procedures (67,82). Oil from the ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) flower is extracted through similar procedures. Starch-Crop Processing Methods.A number of relatively simple processing technologies for making flour, chips, and pellets from common starchy island crops such as rootcrops, coconuts, breadfruit, plantain, and banana are available. These are relatively simple technologies which basically involve chopping and/or shredding the crop into small pieces and drying it or grinding it into flour. Flour may be processed into pellets and packaged in various ways (21,77). A simple cottage-scale flour-grinding operation has been in operation for several years at Macheweichun Xavier Society in Truk. It involves the use of wood-fired dryers, a flour grinder, a drum shredder, and miscellaneous hoppers, trays, and containers (21). Summary Although U.S.-affiliated islands offer opportunities for food processing development, the pacific islands in particular are constrained by high energy costs, small markets, and relatively small and unreliable domestic production of raw materials. The energy requirements for certain processing technologies, such as freezedrying, refrigeration or freezing, irradiation, and retort processing, can be substantial. This may seriously handicap application on U. S.affiliated islands where energy is costly and irregularly available. Availability of fresh water may also be a constraint for resource poor islands such as atolls. Although Puerto Rico has the capability for processing most food products, it is constrained by the limited quantities and the high prices of raw materials produced locally. Hence, food processing industries are forced to import raw materials from neighboring islands or from the mainland United States (77). Establishment of regional or local cooperative food processing centers may overcome the constraints provided by the small size and fragmentation of islands of the U.S. Pacific territories. A processing center could provide a strong link between processing and production, and may provide technological support to producers and marketers thus facilitating commercialization of local products (82). Cooperative processing and preservation centers could absorb crop surplus not taken by the fresh produce market, preventing waste and providing intermediate products for further food and feed formulations. Local producers might be encouraged to expand crop production if processing facilities guaranteed a market for excess products: sustained levels of production above local subsistence needs can take place when a stable cash market exists to absorb the surplus (70). It is estimated that between 30 to 50 percent of fruits and vegetables produced in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) have been discarded because they have no market outlets (87). Development of cooperative food processing facilities will require coordinated development of marketing services, island infrastructure, agriculture production, and managerial skills. Government cooperation and support probably is necessary.
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development w 283 Opportunity: Expand Research in Postharvest Technologies for Island Products Postharvest technology research commonly is biologically or physically oriented, thus complementing production research. Some postharvest technology research focuses on the biological or chemical properties (e. g., composition, quality, safety, nutritional value) of products that affect the handling, storage, transportation, preservation, and effective use of such products. Other postharvest technology research focuses on the mechanical technologies used to assemble, process, package, warehouse, store, transport, and distribute products. A 1983 OTA assessment concluded that public sector research in postharvest technology and 1. 2. 3. economics can be justified because: benefits are distributed beyond those who bear the costs, and substantial social advantages are derived from both public and private research; in the absence of public sector support and guidance, postharvest research might be biased strongly toward mechanical and chemical technologies, since economic returns can be extracted in the short run; and for those situations where private research might be detrimental to industry competitiveness, a mix of public and private research may best preserve competition or reduce market power. Some areas of research, such as: 1. 2, 3. new food sources and their development, naturally occurring food contaminants, and yields in relation to productivity versus nutritional components, might best be undertaken by joint public sector/private sector organizations. Three research agencies in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA] conduct and fund postharvest research: the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Economic Research Service (ERS), and Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS). Although ARS conducts some postharvest research, including some in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI), it is not organized to manage, conduct, or be responsive to regional research needs (93). ERS has International Economics Divisions which identify trends in food demand in foreign countries (on a regional basis) and draw implications for export markets in those countries. Its National Economics Division primarily assesses the organizations and performance of the major U.S. commodity subsectors (animal products; crops; and fruits, vegetables, and sweeteners). AMS is an action agency primarily devoted to distribution of market news to the agricultural community, inspection and grading of food products, and other regulatory activities and some research. AMS has responsibility for the conduct of studies of the facilities and methods used in the physical distribution of food and other farm products; for research designed to improve the handling of all agricultural products as they move from farm to consumers; and for increasing marketing efficiency by developing improved operating methods and facilities (93) 0 The Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto Rico has developed a Food Technology Laboratory devoted to fostering the development of processing industries. An associate degree in Food Technology is offered at the Universitys Utuado Regional College. Product research since its inception in the late 1940s has included: canned sweet potatoes, canned fruit nectars, frozen fruit concentrate, canned soups, frozen root crops, jams, jellies, and marmalades. Although many of these efforts failed to reach commercialization, and others failed to survive (primarily due to economic reasons), the food processing industry showed rapid growth between 1960 and 1970 in diversification and sales volume (77). However, because quantities of acceptable quality fruits and vegetables were not reliably available from local producers, the Puerto Rican food processing industry shifted to the processing of imported raw materials. 63-222 0 87-10 QL. 3
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284 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Opportunity: Develop New Products From Extant Crops and Catch Local processing of crops can provide higher returns to growers than exporting raw materials, and can provide import substitution opportunities. Major opportunities for development of new products from locally available crops are coconut oil products; fruit juices, jams, jellies, and marmalades; and animal feeds. Coconut Products. The major commercial crop in the U.S. Pacific is coconut, from which copra is made. Copra oil processing plants exist on Majuro, Moen (Truk), and Pohnpei. Yap is in the process of building a plant. The Pohnpei Coconuts Products plant has developed a line of productslaundry and bath soap, dish soap, cooking oil, body oils, and shampoofor the local and tourist markets. Plants on Truk and Yap will offer similar products, mainly for import substitution. Copra oil also is a potential substitute for diesel oil, but its cost ($4.00/ gallon) compared to imported diesel oil ($1.50/ gallon) is prohibitive at present (73). Fruit Products. Surplus fruit crops can be made into jams and jellies, juiced and bottled, or used in production of fruit ices, currently popular in areas having refrigeration. Smallscale juicing machinery, suitable for small quantities, are available and are employed on some Pacific islands. Through a successful Yap government-sponsored radio campaign, coconut milk has replaced large amounts of imported canned beverages; similar campaigns could promote locally produced juices (73). Animal Feed.Another major avenue for substitution of imports with locally produced and processed products is animal feeds. Feeds for livestock come from a variety of sources depending on the kinds of livestock raised and the husbandry methods. Livestock feeds include green forage, pasture grasses, hay, silage, feed concentrates and, for some livestock such as pigs and chicken, left-over food or crop wastes, In Puerto Rico and the USVI, most cattle are raised on improved or unimproved pastures. Dairy cattle are supplemented with feed concentrates (5), and silage and green forage such as Leucaena leucocephala are used occasionally to supplement cattle feed. In Puerto Rico, hay is fed to horses and calves during the dry season. About 10,000 tons of hay are produced yearly on about 2,000 acres and another 4,000 tons are imported (101). Although the demand for animal feed is high, practically all feed concentrates are imported to U.S.-affiliated islands. Pohnpei imports about 400 tons of pig feed concentrates annually (85) and Puerto Rico imports about 500,000 tons of raw materials for livestock feed concentrates annually. None of the latter incorporate ingredients that can be produced locally (5). High costs of imported feed concentrates constrain development of livestock industries on most islands. Imported feed concentrates are expensive and may represent one-half to twothirds of the total cost of producing meat and dairy products in the U.S. Pacific territories (38). Furthermore, unreliable shipping has caused shortages of feed forcing farmers on small islands to ration and substitute feed. Rationing and substituting local materials for feed have resulted in decreased livestock production and reduced feed conversion efficiency. Shortages may also cause a feed shortage mentality on the part of unsophisticated farmers resulting in rationing of feed even when an adequate supply of concentrates is available on islands (5). Establishment of plants that process local raw materials for feed may minimize crop waste, provide a market for crop surpluses during peak production seasons, and make use of currently underutilized resources. Such plants could also provide substantial benefits to farmers by increasing market demand and absorbing supply not taken by the fresh produce market (38). Development of alternative markets can moderate supply fluctuations and contribute to increased market efficiency. Many attempts have been made to produce feed concentrate from local raw materials. For example, a feed processing plant on Palau, using copra meal, fish parts, and imported rice hulls, grain, and vitamins, was established in 1976. However, the plant was forced to close when the copra oil mill closed down (45). In
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development l 285 general, ingredients such as fish meal, vitamins, and mineral supplements still must be imported (5,85). An animal feed processing plant currently is operated on Guam, but low-quality feed hinders its ability to compete with imported products (65). On U.S. Pacific islands, a variety of local raw materials offer potential as feed components, such as copra meal, breadfruit, banana, rootcrops, and various agriculture wastes. Leucaena leaves, which contain up to 30 percent protein (49), can be dried and used as an ingredient of feed concentrate. Excessive feeding of Leucaena to nonruminant animals can cause hair loss and ill health and poor feathering in poultry, because it contains a harmful chemical called mimosine (49). However, the toxic effects of mimosine are reversible and can be neutralized when certain micro-organisms are inoculated into cattle feed (79). Mimosine content in Leucaena leaf meal also can be reduced by adding ferrous sulfate to rations, soaking it in water overnight, or boiling it for a few minutes. In Puerto Rico, byproducts from local pharmaceutical companies, tuna or pineapple canning plants, rum breweries, and sugarcane refineries can be used as ingredients for animal feed concentrates (72). Quantities of these byproducts, however, are limited and only seasonally available. These products could substitute for only about 10 percent of currently imported feed concentrates (5) and are not sufficient alone to support a feed processing facility. Although the use of local produce for ingredients in animal feed is technically feasible, it is seriously constrained by the high production costs for small-scale operations and by the unreliable and seasonal availability of local raw materials (5,67,82,85). Because of these constraints, local raw materials generally can only be used as an extender for imported animal feeds (67). However, in most cases it is cheaper to import finished feed from large foreign operators than to blend imported and domestic raw materials (5,67,85). High fuel costs, costly maintenance of equipment, and difficulty in getting spare parts are also major hindrances to operation of local processing plants in most U. S.affiliated Pacific islands. Marketing Developmen t Opportunities for market development exist despite small local markets and highly competitive export markets. In addition to the small size of local markets, marketing on U.S.-affiliated islands is constrained by low levels of production, lack of marketing skills, and for small producers primarily on U.S. Pacific islands, by the inability to meet marketing demands (e.g., consistency in quality, quantity, and pricing). Under certain circumstances, however, cooperatives may overcome these constraints (102). Another way to facilitate marketing, is linking small-scale satellite farmers and fishermen to large-scale, well-established, producers. This system has been effectively instituted for ornamental plant producers in Puerto Rico (6). Although increased penetration of export markets is possible, it is considerably more difficult than developing local markets. In either case, government intervention may be needed. Development of Local Markets Farmers and fishermen use a variety of marketing methods to sell their product. In general, local markets are small relative to agriculture production potential. The absence of alternative market outlets, such as export markets and food processing plants, and inefficient distribution and marketing of fresh produce, lead to unstable prices, unnecessary product losses and spoilage, and inability to meet the demands of institutional buyers. The local market in Puerto Rico, although relatively small for most commodities, is stable. Although local marketing methods in Puerto Rico are not as advanced as in the mainland United States, they appear adequate. Local produce such as plantains, bananas, pineapples, and others are sensitive to market fluctuations; even small surpluses can depress prices, since surplus crops cannot be readily exported offisland. Thus, some crops, such as coffee, are protected against competing imports by local
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286 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Large open-air markets, where the majority of locally produced agriculture and fishery products are sold directly from the producer to the consumer, are typical of many island areas. regulations (47). On the other hand, the local market for some crops is, in a sense, protected by relatively high transportation costs of imports from the mainland United States (about 2.5 cents/lb for grain and 6 to 7 cents/lb for refrigerated products) (101). About half of the food tonnage consumed in Puerto Rico is produced locally (100). The percentage of the local food market that can be captured by Puerto Rican food producers is limited by local production potential and by consumer preference for supermarket convenience food produced mainly by mainland U.S. food processing corporations (40). In the U.S. Pacific islands, food imports are substantial. However, imported commodities are mainly sold in the major urban centers (38). Only a small fraction of the urban populations consume imported fresh food. Therefore, only a small amount of imports can be substituted by locally produced fresh food. Opportunities to develop the local markets on U.S.-affiliated islands and reduce imports are based on the potential for supplying various sectors of the local markets such as government-sponsored programs (e.g., school lunch, food stamp, and old age programs), tourist, and military markets. Currently, most food products for the military and tourist markets in the Pacific are imported from suppliers outside Micronesia, thus, the potential for import substitution is great, However, hotels and military facilities require regular supplies of high-quality produce currently unavailable on the islands. Even if only part of the fresh produce requirements can be
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development 287 supplied locally, it could make a significant difference to local economies. Opportunity: Substitute LocaIly Produced Food for Imports in FederaIly Funded Food Assistance Programs In American Samoa, Guam, and the CNMI, opportunities exist to increase gradually the use of locally produced commodities in federally funded food assistance programs. Part of block grant funds (e.g., for school lunch or old age programs), could be used to purchase locally produced commodities, including processed items, instead of imports. The CNMI Food Stamp program requires that 25 percent of food stamp expenditures go to the purchase of locally produced commodities. These requirements increase the use of local products and benefit local producers (38), Gradual increases in the required percentage could result in additional benefits to producers and consumers. Opportunity: Develop the Tourist Market Tourism represents potential demand for agriculture and fisheries products where significant tourist industries have developed, such as in Guam, Palau, the CNMI, Puerto Rico, and the USVI. For Puerto Rico, the impact of tourism on agriculture development is not known. In the USVI, however, certain small-scale agriculture ventures are directly dependent on the tourist industry (13). Tourism in the Freely Associated States (FAS) and American Samoa is hindered currently by weak airline linkages with major Asian/Pacific markets and relatively expensive fares (38), but has the potential to become a significant market as it develops. In Guam and the CNMI, tourism provides the major private sector income generating activity; about 450,000 tourists visit Guam and Saipan annually (38) and prospects for continued growth in visitors is high (3). Although large numbers of tourists visit the CNMI and Guam, local producers can take little advantage of this market because of the monopolistic practices of tourist facility (e. g., hotel) operators. Japanese interests control most of the tourist industry and have set up a number of barriers for local suppliers to access this market. Only small amounts of commodities such as food and locally made handicrafts enter into the tourist market (102). Opportunity: Supply Military Markets The military presence on Guam and Kwajalein represents potential demands for local agriculture and fishery products. Military personnel and dependents in Guam make up roughly 20 percent of the resident population. In the Marshall Islands, the Kwajalein Missile Base has a population of about 7,500, most of whom are Marshallese employees and dependents living on nearby Ebeye Island (35]. Although these populations represent potential markets for fresh produce, most food is currently imported from suppliers outside Micronesia. While local farmers could supply at least part of the fresh produce requirements, irregular and limited supplies of local produce make it impractical for satisfying the military markets (see app. c). In addition, accounting advantages accrue through military dependence on centralized supply of warranted products. Only if the centers do not carry a particular commodity, or fail to meet minimum quality standards, are local commanders encouraged to procure locally. A Department of Defense team recently was sent to Guam to evaluate prospects for greater reliance on local markets, particularly of fresh foods. However, only small amounts of local products are likely to be bought by military employees, dependents, and civilian employees in the near future (35). Opportunity: Develop Interisland Markets Trade in selected agricultural commodities within Micronesia also is possible. The potential for intraregional trade depends both on coordinated development planning and strengthening surface and air transportation services among the islands (38), The most direct step to developing markets for Micronesia crops would be to conduct a pest and disease survey of Micronesia to provide a basis for U.S. Fed-
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288 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas eral quarantine regulations affecting Guam and other potential markets. If quarantine regulations were revised, some traditional crops could be exported to Guam and other areas where demand for traditional foods is unfulfilled (15). Development of Export Markets Export potentials for the U.S. Pacific differ from that of the U.S. Caribbean islands, due to differences in geography, and the socioeconomic conditions. Puerto Rico and the USVI have ample opportunity to export fresh produce due to the cheap and frequent ocean transport to major east coast markets (60). Currently Guam and CNMI have the best prospects for agriculture exports outside of Micronesia. Guam and Saipan islands have good air transportation links to Japan, a potential overseas market. Wide-body passenger aircraft serving Micronesia have the capacity to ship air freight containers. Japan seems to be the most promising export market, because of its high per capita income and already large volume of imported fresh produce. A recent study concluded that avocados and papayas had the best export potential in the Japanese markets, with other possible exports being tomatoes, sweet corn, bell pepper, melons, and ornamental plants (12). However, Japans strict quarantine regulations preclude most fresh produce exports from Micronesia. Until the fruit fly is eradicated on Guam and the CNMI and effective methods for treating fresh produce are found, Japanese markets will remain closed to Micronesia exports. At present, only copra and green bananas can be freely exported into Japan (app. F, 65). Removal of U.S. import tariffs on produce from Caribbean Basin countries as a result of the Caribbean Basin Initiative, has not seriously affected the local market for Puerto Rican products. However, import tariff reductions seriously hurt the potential for export of fresh produce from Puerto Rico (101). Exporting Caribbean countries have a competitive advantage in lower wage structures ($2 to $4 daily as compared to $16 to $26 in Puerto Rico), which results in lower product prices even after addition of transportation costs. To increase food exports, Puerto Rican producers must both reduce production costs and improve the quality of their produce, thus reducing competition between Puerto Rican products and foreign substitutes. Integrated Production, Processing, and Marketing Neither production nor marketing can be developed in isolation and one cannot be successfully developed without attention to the other. Without viable markets, production will stagnate or decline. Without regular and reliable sources of product, market development and expansion cannot occur. Many opportunities exist for integrating production and marketing to make these activities more efficient and mutually supportive. Such integration can remove certain constraints that affect each sector in isolation. For example, commercial smallscale operations may be handicapped by small and unstable markets or inadequate transportation services; small producers commonly are not able to produce uniform quality products, do not have access to adequate capital and, generally, lack marketing skills. Cooperatives and/ or vertical integration of agricultural systems (linking smallholder farmers with large producers or processors) may help mitigate such constraints and provide enterprises capable of capturing economies of scale. Cooperative s 1 Cooperatives are known to be a useful way of organizing and mobilizing capital and people in developing communities. Cooperatives offer an alternative when conventional corporations are unable or unwilling to enter markets because of inadequate return, high risk, or lack of capital. A producer cooperative provides some economic benefit to individuals as they earn a livelihood. A consumer cooperativein essence, a buying clubhelps individ1 This section is summarized from N. Nathanson, The Suitability of Cooperative Enterprises for the Production of Food on the Territorial Islands of the United States, OTA commissioned paper, 1986.
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development l 289 uals pool their resources to obtain products not otherwise available on acceptable terms. The return on the members investment is almost always of secondary importance; the desire for a particular type or quality of product is paramount, While small farmers face real difficulties purchasing small quantities of supplies competitively, and can ill-afford expensive equipment, farmer co-ops can competitively purchase supplies, services, and equipment and market produce for the benefit of the entire group. Groups of farmers may even purchase a sizable tract of land and work it together, either by subdividing the land or sharing in the production of the entire tract. The more highly organized food producer cooperatives provide fully integrated programs for their members. These may arrange bulk purchases of supplies, lease planting and harvesting equipment to individual members, process and market the finished product, provide financing for members, and even conduct research and development in new crops or techniques. Other co-ops are more limited in purpose. Advantages and disadvantages to co-ops exist relative to capital enterprises. One major advantage is the built-in incentive for members to use services offered, increasing the cooperatives revenues, However, members generally lack incentive to purchase more than one share; this limits cooperative capital and can ultimately necessitate debt financing. There also is a danger of short-sighted decisions by members with diverse interests or limited knowledge of market economies. Some argue that not enough profit motivation exists in a cooperative organization to assure sufficient earnings for future growth. Nonetheless, the cooperative structure seems, in some cases, to be encouraging increased agricultural production on the islands. In Puerto Rico and the USVI, some tradition of market-oriented agriculture exists, but there is little modern, competitive agriculture in the Pacific under the control of indigenous populations. Exceptions occur with the help of cooperative enterprises, whose member-investors have a direct need for the produce or service supplied. A Successful Small-Scale Cooperative: SFCA.Only about 5 percent of the land in the Northern Marianas is suitable for agriculture, and much of that requires irrigation. Public resources and private capital directed at the preparation of farmland have been very limited. Nevertheless, the Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association (SFCA) is demonstrating that, with competent management, and a modest amount of public and private capital, small-scale agricultural co-ops can have a measurable impact on food supply. With nurturing, SFCA could become a model for agricultural development in other Pacific islands. SFCA has 85 producing farmers as members. Its principal activity is the retail sale of member produce; a secondary activity is the procurement of supplies and animal feed for sale to members. Chartered in 1972, SFCA was nearly bankrupt by 1980, but since new management took over in 1982, it has been far more successful. Sales have increased from $133,000 in 1982 to $575,000 in 1984. The co-op has little capital but a $10,000 line of credit allows it to pay members cash for products. SFCA does not guarantee members a fixed price, or purchase products that are below a market standard, but it has been able to purchase most of what its members produce, Most products sold are fresh fruits and vegetables along with some locally processed and baked goods, eggs, and honey. No meats or fish are sold. A major problem in earlier years was spoilage, but with more attentive management and a higher sales volume, this has been greatly reduced. SFCA sales, while growing, still represent only a small fraction of the market potential. To serve more of Saipans dispersed population, SFCA will need more retail outlets. A Struggling Multiservice Cooperative: FEDA. The Federation Para El Desarrollo Agricola de Puerto Rico (FEDA) is a complex federation of some 20 producer associations in Puerto Rico. It operates a tropical fruit juice
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290 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas processing and marketing plant and provides financial and technical assistance to 600 regularly participating and 600 intermittently participating member-farmers who supply the fruit. FEDA has developed all the elements of a fully integrated agribusiness program, including a modern processing plant, new techniques to raise productivity, a revolving loan fund to finance plantings, and a functional organizational and management structure. The average member earns about $4,000 per year farming, and through FEDA can increase the farms income by at least 50 percent. The primary product of the federation plant is passionfruit juice, but seven fruits are processed. FEDA also raises rabbits and pigs for sale as food, using the waste from the juice plant for animal feed. FEDA also has spawned a nonprofit institute which conducts botanic research to improve productivity and trains farmers to grow tropical fruits. FEDA enjoyed considerable success in its early development years, but with an enormous debt load and high overhead costs, it is not yet financially self-sustaining. FEDAs obligation to purchase the product of participating farmers places a tremendous demand on its financial resources. Member farmers who set policy through their elected directors tend to set the price they receive above market price, further taxing FEDAs resources. To assure financial success and to use the plant fully, new off-island markets for fruit juice must be developed. Major U.S. distributors require enormous quantities of product, more than FEDA can now provide. Ultimate success will depend on the ability to market an estimated 10 million pounds of fruit annually. FEDA is attempting to market to local distributors in South Florida and New York where large Caribbean populations live. It may be, however, that greater returns to the farmers could have been realized by concentrating on locally used foods rather than specialty export products. Cooperatives That Failed: USVI Fishery Cooperatives. The Farmer Cooperative Service of USDA, between 1975 and 1978, partially financed fishery cooperatives in St. Thomas (with 44 fishermen) and St. Croix (with 51 fishermen). The cooperatives were formed to provide a more organized and sanitary method of selling catch and to help members purchase supplies such as fuel and ice. Most members were part-time fishermen who had been selling their catch on street corners. Spoilage and fish poisoning were common. Each proposed cooperative called for the eventual construction of a waterfront supply and receiving facility with a cooler, freezer, fuel pumps, cleaning area, and retail sales area. The co-ops would also sell fish to hotels and restaurants. Both co-ops appear to have been wellplanned technically, but both failed. Several factors contributed: l l l members were required to sell their catch to the cooperative at a price well below street market price, and the volume available for sale was consistently below projection due to overfishing, theft, and damage to the fishermens traps; both operations were substantially in debt as a result of their financing structures, expensive overheads, soaring fuel prices, and inflation; and the fishermens association never became a strong, cohesive organization and had difficulty setting operating policy, maintaining market discipline, and selecting competent management. A Potential Cooperative in Koror, Palau. At least one-half of Palaus population lives in the capital city of Koror, where traditional foods largely have been replaced by canned imports. Although consumers seem to prefer fresh local produce, interest in farming has declined. Residents of some outlying communities recognize the market potential of island crops, and have steadily increased production of fruits and vegetables since 1977. Primary factors limiting further growth in local food production appears to be related to distribution problems: bad roads, lack of refrigeration during shipment, rats, and handling all take their toll.
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development l 291 All farming is done on individual plots, but some rudimentary cooperative associations have formed. One group of Melekeok farmers shares the cost of shipping produce from their island to Koror. Two small retail outlets have developed to market the produce of certain suppliers on an informal cooperative basis. With some assistance, these associations could develop a formal cooperative similar to the Saipan Farmers Cooperative Association. Opportunity: Support Cooperative Organizations.Few local government agencies or private organizations on the islands actively encourage the development of agriculture or fisheries cooperatives. Although the Government of Puerto Rico has established financing and technical assistance programs to encourage the development of cooperatives, the emphasis has been in housing development and retailing. Despite attempts for at least 3 years, FEDA was unable to obtain local financing, although it secured almost $3 million off island. Only after FEDA obtained considerable mainland attention was it able to obtain local support. Local governments can encourage development of cooperatives by investing in infrastructure (e.g., roads) and providing tax benefits and technical assistance. Production and marketing specialists may be particularly needed. Guaranteed contracts for the purchase of locally produced items by schools, welfare and social service programs, or tourist facilities could provide market stability. The CNMI governments preparation of a 56-acre plot of land for lease to local farmers has contributed to the success of SFCA; continuation and expansion of such actions could bring the local economy sizable benefits. A number of mainland-based organizations could become involved in development of cooperatives on U.S.-affiliated islands. The National Cooperative Bank chartered by Congress in 1978 provides financing and development assistance for cooperative business and housing. A nonprofit subsidiary, the Consumer Cooperative Development Corporation (CCDC) has the specific mission of assisting low-income development cooperatives. CCDC will provide advances to promising organizations to develop business plans or marketing programs, and could provide term financing for projects like SFCA or FEDA, but probably should not be considered a primary source of startup or development capital. The National Cooperative Business Association provides education and information-sharing services to cooperative businesses through publications, conferences, seminars, and direct technical assistance. The Agricultural Cooperative Service (USDA) helps farmers maintain successful cooperatives by performing studies on the production, marketing, financial, organizational, legal, social, and economic aspects of cooperative activity. The service also provides technical assistance (based on applied research findings) in running cooperatives, organizing new cooperatives, cooperative merging, and in developing strategies for growth. The service collects and publishes statistics on cooperative activity in U.S. agriculture, and its monthly Farmer Cooperatives magazine reports on developments in the field of cooperative development and management. Verticality lntegrated "Contract" Systems The formation of integrated food production/processing/marketing systems is likely to be a successful method of increasing food production on U.S.-affiliated islands. Contract farming is one method of vertical integration which extends benefits to small farmers as well as to large producers. Under this system, businesses contract with small farms to raise a specified amount of raw materials at a guaranteed price (and may produce materials themselves]. To coordinate this system, the company determines product quantities required to fulfill identified consumer demands and maintain desired market prices, Commonly, the company provides farming inputs (e.g., fertilizer), some production assistance (technical and financial), and central processing facilities and marketing services. Thus, the farmers own and operate their farms, the central operation unit buys, processes, and sells the product, resulting in an integrated enter-
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292 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas prise capable of capturing economies of scale (6). Integrated contract farming provides significant benefits to both producers and consumers: l l l l l small farmers can capture the benefits of economies of scale in processing and marketing and so obtain greater returns than as independent producers; because pricing decisions are made prior to delivery of the product to market, price uncertainties are shifted from farmers to consumers; farmers receive greater access to markets, which may be expanded through advertising and promotion underwritten by the central company; consumers are assured of more standardized product quality and, perhaps, access to a range of product quality at varying prices; and consumers receive relatively stable product availability and price (71). Numerous examples of successful vertical integration of agricultural enterprises exist in Puerto Rico (71). For example, the Puerto Rico Department of Agriculture provides financial assistance to both the processing and distribution facilities and to satellite farmers supplying the broiler and ornamental plant industries (6). Black pepper production on Pohnpei initially was similarly integrated, although farmers were not under contract and the central processing and marketing unit was a government-run agriculture station. Since high quality is essential to market Ponape pepper successfully, the state government subsidized quality control by supplying staff and processing equipment to the Agriculture Station. Farmers brought mature pepper to the station for weighing and processing by agriculture division staff. The close control of the drying process and prompt packaging by agriculture division staff helped to ensure a uniform, high-quality product (19). After sale of the processing equipment to a nongovernmental organization, pepper quality and exports have declined. The Pohnpei State government plans to repossess the processing equipment (73) and, presumably, return to the integrated production/processing/marketing system originally established. Transportation Good transportation services are essential for marketing produce as well as for agricultural and aquacultural development. In the Pacific islands, sea transportation services are inadequate to provide farmers with access to markets within Micronesia or to Hawaiian or Asian export markets (38). Inter-island transportation problems most often exist in the frequency and expense of transportation services, as well as the absence of any scheduled transportation service to some outlying islands. Intra-island shipping services are few and roads connecting outlying areas to urban centers commonly are unpaved and irregularly maintained. Scattered location of islands, great distances between producers and markets, and small volume of product constrain increased transportation services. Because of inadequate road systems, farmers from remote villages are unable to bring their products to markets in the urban centers (19,38). The U.S.-affiliated Caribbean islands generally have adequate and regularly scheduled, reliable transportation services. Puerto Rico and the USVI have close contacts with the U.S. mainland and many island residents frequently travel there (101). The Caribbean islands have long been a tourist haven and thus airline and cruise ship transportation is readily available. Additionally they lie within major shipping routes and historically have been transshipment points between South and Central America to Europe. Transportation related difficulties in these islands are more often related to expense rather than availability. Even where sea transportation services are adequate, e.g., between the U.S. mainland and the U.S. Caribbean islands, the costs are high. This is partially due to U.S. Federal regulations requiring the use of U.S. carriers for interstate commerce and Federal Government negotiation of air routes between the United States (in-
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development 293 eluding U.S.-affiliated islands) and foreign countries. The availability or frequency, quality, and cost of transportation in island economies is generally dictated by: distance and geography, market size or demand, and technology. In the Pacific, the general pattern is one of substantial distance, small markets, and technologies that make transportation an expensive service (25). Technological advances have increased the transportation options available; however, costs and investments required to use these technological opportunities also have risen substantially. For example, with increases in aircraft size and carrying capacity providing greater passenger/cargo and distance capabilities, operating costs have risen and larger airport facilities are required. Newer aircraft are cheaper to operate than older designs when fully loaded, but can be significantly more expensive if not full. If cargo carrying capacity is to be increased, vessel/aircraft size and/or trip frequency must generally move upward. with this increase, freight costs and attendant business risk would likely also be higher (25). Economic risks for transportation businesses are compounded in small markets where the potential for local fluctuations are greater. Maintenance and enhancement of international transportation infrastructure is a particularly difficult economic development task. The major capital assets of transportation providers, ships and aircraft, are unlike other corporate capital assets: airplanes and vessels can be rapidly relocated to other markets. Even when a transportation company is financially solvent or is making a modest profit, the level of business success is often measured against standards other than local or corporate gains. Profitability and business risk are measured not only within the local economy, but also are compared with other markets (25). Many producers will assume transportation costs in order to become or remain competitive in a market: this is frequently the case for outlying producers. It should be noted that these outlying producers begin with a cost disadvantage, attributable partially to transit expenses for inputs. where production cost, including transportation, is a key determinant in the success of a producer, the transport equation is a major factor in economic development. The value of the products needing transportation, and their perishability or sensitivity to transport risks must be carefully assessed prior to investment. In a large transportation market, a canceled flight may mean a delay of several hours, while it could well mean a several day delay or total loss of goods in a small market. Intra-island and Inter-island Transportation In many Pacific islands, inter-island and intraisland surface transportation typically is inadequate to provide producers with reliable market access and inputs, such as animal feed and fertilizers, are difficult to obtain. Inter-island shipping services and associated harbor docking/storage facilities need to be upgraded to enable an expansion of renewable resource-based enterprises. For example, the general logistical problems of supplying feed, equipment, and supplies and transporting the products to markets, as well as expense imposed by current transportation systems, hinder aquiculture development (20) and often preclude significant commercial livestock production (38) in many of the U.S.-affiliated islands. Intra-island Transportation. -Lack of farm and other secondary roads on many Pacific high volcanic islands inhibit accessibility to currently unused agricultural land and hinder market access from existing farms. Fostering of agricultural and aquatic enterprise development will necessitate construction of secondary roads where this deficiency represents a significant constraint, such as in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) and Palau (38) and the south side of Pohnpei (19). Although infrastructure development generally is given high priority in development plans, the amounts allocated to road construction may not be adequate to address farm needs. The dirt and coral roads of Micronesia are notoriously poor and heavy rains result in im-
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294 Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas passable mud, ruts, potholes, and sometimes washouts. In addition, poor roads result in high vehicle repair costs and can reduce the productive lifetime of vehicles already shortened due to salt-air corrosion. The expense and expertise required to maintain roads in good condition may be beyond some local government capabilities (19). In addition, while roads bring access to markets, they also expose formerly traditional communities to outside influences and accelerate the departure from the traditional lifestyles to which some people prefer to adhere (27). In some cases alternative transportation might be considered. For example, for several years, a locally built shallow-draft barge has transported lumber successfully from Pohnpeis southern mangrove forests into Kolonia. while the use of draft animals for transportation is not a viable alternative for most islanders, the practice exists in some rural areas. Carabao (a Southeast Asian water buffalo) are used by some rural families for transport of such items as building materials. The number of carabao in the FSM islands in 1983, and 16 on Palau in 1982is so small that use trends cannot be determined (85). Inter-island Transportation: Remote Islands to Population Centers.The remote or small coral islands and atolls provide a special set of management problems. The infrequency and often unpredictable transportation service sometimes result in occasional food and supply shortages in the outer Marshall Islands (67). Many outer islands, and particularly atolls, lack basic infrastructure and transportation facilities necessary to future economic development activity such as medium-draft docks or harbors for export and import trade, to support fishing fleets, or airstrips to facilitate emergency evacuation in case of storms, injuries, or epidemics. A dilemma in interisland transportation is the cargo capacity limitation imposed by airstrip size. The length of most outer island runways precludes economically efficient cargo airplanes; conversely, the short-takeoff and landing (STOL) craft used have minimal cargo capacity and, thus, the cargo space tends to be relatively costly (25). Many development activities on outlying islands currently are determined by the availability and frequency of sea-going transportation services. On many small atolls and remote islands, boat visits are infrequent and often unpredictable. Part of the frequency problems are attributable to the lack of appropriate ocean infrastructure compounded by the natural roughness of the Pacific Oceans high seas. Relatively loose scheduling of calls is commonly required because narrow, dangerous channel passage or anchorage/cargo handling often is achievable only at certain tides (25). Some islands within this category rely on copra production, which requires little support infrastructure. Copra transportation within the Marshall Islands is well organized, though logistically it is not a simple task. Sailing canoes or small boats (20 to 30 feet) with small outboard motors or inboard diesel engines transport the copra to a common collection point within each atoll (67). Copra from the outer islands is transported to Majuro for processing by small transport vessels which carry trade goods, cargo, and passengers throughout the Marshalls. Four field trip ships currently are operated by the Republic of the Marshall Islands Government and privately owned ships have occasionally provided similar services in recent years. A typical roundtrip voyage from Majuro lasts 2 to 3 weeks and includes stops at four to six atolls. The length of each stop and duration of the entire trip is unpredictable because departure and arrival times and transit of reef passes must be adjusted daily to tides and weather conditions. This unpredictability can compromise the quality of the copra, since it deteriorates if it is stored too long, and may prevent the product from reaching buyers in a timely manner (67). Opportunity: Upgrade inter-island Air Links Each of the FAS governments has devoted considerable efforts to upgrading inter-island air links. For example, 19 runways have been constructed on the outer Marshall Islands since 1980. These can accommodate small 14to 16-
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development l 295 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment This Airline of the Marshall Islands (AMI) aircraft and airfield on Ailinglaplap (Marshall Islands) are typical for those remote atolls having airfield facilities. passenger planes operated by the Airline of the Marshall Islands (67). Recently, a missionary organization, Pacific Missionary Aviation, organized villagers in the outer atolls of the FSM to construct short airfields for emergency air evacuation, improved communication, and mail service. Today, airfields have been completed on Pingelap and are being constructed on Mokil and Ngatik in Pohnpei (39). The construction of small airstrips on other outer islands (that can afford the loss of productive copra land) could help to stimulate economic activity, tourism, and communication, and facilitate government administration (39). lntraregional and International Transportation potential for intraregional and international commodity exports in the Pacific islands are hindered by inadequate transportation services, particularly in the FAS and American Samoa. Little or no regularly scheduled surface shipping exists between the FAS or American Samoa and Asian-Pacific markets (38). Even where transportation services are available, the expense often hinders tourism and export potential of certain commodities. Rates for air cargo from U.S.-affiliated islands are based on international schedules rather than domestic rates, making shipping expenses extremely high (80). An additional factor is the nature of most Pacific markets. Generally, the markets are importheavy, with very limited out-bound cargo. The one-way traffic is a contributing factor to high cargo carrying costs; in Pacific markets, these rates must amortize the costs of virtually empty cargo holds on the out-bound voyage (25). Opportunity: Coordinated Regional Transportation Development Strategies to increase resource industry development would necessarily involve developing adequate land and water transportation and, in some instances, air shipment (30). The potential for intraregional trade depends on strengthening surface and air transportation services among the territories and on coordinated development planning (38). Quarantine and inspection services must be upgraded concurrently with transportation to reduce the risks of accidental introduction of harmful pests into the islands (88). Coordinated regional development of the transport network is one means to address the problem of virtually empty back-haul. Experience in the deregulated air industry has shown that focus of commercial carriers on the more lucrative parts of the Pacific regional market has generally left the smaller Pacific points with reduced service (25). Another strategy for increasing cargo capacity and reducing freight costs is a passenger/ freight mixed load approach. Dedicated air cargo services have had little success in the pacific due to the economic context. The mixed use approach probably would increase revenue/ load potential while reducing business risk. This strategy, however, does not overcome the problems of converging seasonal peaks of passengers and cargo.
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296 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas Opportunity: Subsidization of Air Transport General transportation problems in the Pacific islands may restrain development of certain enterprises which require imported inputs or export capacity. For example, the high costs of air freight within the region, together with the general lack of airline services, make it difficult to obtain needed equipment and supplies. The high cost of transportation also reduces or eliminates the profit margin on products destined for export. Some form of government subsidy for the shipment of supplies and products (56), or government-sponsored identification and/or research into more cost-effective forms of transportation for the U.S.-affiliated islands, could be considered to help remedy this situation. Another approach would be to amend the Essential Air Services program, which guarantees a minimum level of service to small communities, to include cargo movement needs in the service level determination process. Although this would increase Federal liabilities by raising minimum guarantees, carriers may fulfill minimum requirements without subsidy as island economies develop. INTERSECTORAL INTEGRATION Some basic human services required by island people as by those elsewhere are clean water, energy, and safe disposal of wastes. In addition, development trends of U.S.-affiliated islands require that the services required by tourists and increasingly urban populations be provided. These services commonly require large government investments in infrastructure and dedication of land and other resources to their operation. However, these forms of economic development are not necessarily competing with resource management and development. In many cases, they can be designed and developed to provide long-term secondary benefits to agriculture, aquiculture and fisheries. For example, the airstrip on Majuro (RMI) also serves as a passive water catchment, collecting the rainwater that falls on the cement surface and directing it into a holding pond that can be tapped for use. Roads can be similarly designed. Although analyses of the potentials for combining such developments with renewable resource development must be performed on an island-by-island, and probably case-by-case basis, which is beyond the scope of this report, a number of means to derive benefits for resource development from infrastructure development can be suggested, including: l integrating agriculture and aquiculture with energy development, l integrating tourism and resource development, and l integrating urban development with resource management. Integrating Agriculture and Aquaculture With Energy Development Energy is a major limiting factor to economic development, particularly in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Fossil fuels must be imported and the operating and maintenance costs for oil and gas energy production systems are high. Thus technologies conserving imported fossil fuels or using renewable energy sources are preferred. The energy demands in Micronesia are small but increasing; in aggregate 5.8 million barrels of petroleum fuels (excluding jet fuel) are imported annually. The cost to local governments is high. Metered rates, where they exist, usually have little correlation to the cost of production. Local governments often subsidize use by at least 50 percent (91). Given policies of not actively collecting bills, this can rise to 100 percent (24). Puerto Rico and the USVI have well-developed networks for electricity production and distribution. It is unlikely that development of
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development l 297 renewable resources (e.g., for processing plants) may be hindered by the lack of electricity. The cost of electric power, however, is high (77). In the past, the rural poor in Puerto Rico depended on cheap, accessible wood for cooking, but today that demand has diminished considerably and firewood is only used occasionally (68). However, charcoal commonly is used for backyard barbecues and roadside food stands, Energy availability and cost will continue to be a major economic development problem in the Caribbean and the Pacific. In the short run, energy conservative activities and technologies not dependent on expensive fuels are needed. In the long run, renewable sources of energy, based primarily on the sun and the oceans, must be developed. Although this energy has been considered free, establishment and maintenance of the infrastructure required to tap it are costly and can require long payback periods. Alternative energy sources are being explored in all of the island areas. These sources include energy from biological processes, thermochemical processes, ocean-related energy generation, and hydropower. 2 Each of these can be developed to include components mutually beneficial to agriculture, aquiculture, and energy. Agriculture and Energy Development Agriculture can be integrated with several other technologies to conserve and recycle resources and energy, increase production efficiency, and improve island environments. Opportunities exist for generation and use of biomass for energy generation and biogas energy from animal and crop waste and residue. Energy from the conversion of wood and other plant matter represents an important, potentially underexploited resource for the islands. As renewable domestic energy resources, these can help the islands reduce their dependence on imported oil. Energy could be derived from numerous types of biomass, including wood, grass and legume herbage, crop residues, animal manure, food-processing wastes, oil2 A complete analysis of these technologies is beyond the scope of this assessment. For further information see (50,51,52,53, 55,94,96). bearing plants, seaweed, and many other materials (50,95). Wood Fuels.Fuelwood, including coconut husks and shells, is the most plentiful and least expensive source of energy in Micronesia, and on most atolls the only source. Most of this fuel is used for cooking and sometimes for creating smoke to repel insects from homes and gardens. Fuels used in cooking largely are byproducts of the food production system: dried husks of mature coconuts, husks of Inocarpus nuts, and wood from secondary vegetation generally from fallowing garden sites (15). Charcoal is not widely used, though species that make high-quality charcoal (Leucaena spp., casuarina, and mangroves) occur commonly on the high islands (24). Conversion to wood-fired electric plants in Micronesia is not foreseeable in the near future. Labor and capital investments are generally higher for fuelwood plantations than for conventional stands due to higher stocking densities (often 20 to 40 times as high) which in turn affect the cost of seedling production. More mechanized harvesting and processing methods are also required. Converting electric plant facilities and adjusting existing grid sizes also would be costly. Coconut-Derived Energy Products.A number of coconut palm products traditionally have served as primary fuel sources in the U.S.-affiliated Pacific islands. Coconut husks and shells have been the major Marshallese cooking fuel for centuries. Husks and shells also fuel copra dryers; distillation of salt from seawater; melting of lead for fishing weights; and bleaching of the Pandanus leaves used in woven sleeping mats and fine handicraft items (67). Coconut shell charcoal has been considered as a possible byproduct of copra making in the Marshall Islands. High shipping costs, relatively high labor costs, and small potential output would make centralized processing prohibitively expensive, although decentralized processing on the outer islands (where there is excess labor) might be possible (67). The use of coconut palm biomass to fuel larger scale activities such as steam generation
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298 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas is technically possible (16). Difficulties lie in in collecting, storing, and handling the quantities needed for such uses. In the Marshall Islands, husks could be gathered in large quantities on Majuro Atoll. However, husk shipments to Majuro from the outer islands are not possible given current shipping capacity; the sheer volume of whole nuts or husks would be 10 times greater than the volume of copra from an equivalent number of nuts. The costs of expanding service and of acquiring new ships probably would be prohibitive. If husks were gathered in large quantities for fuel, moreover, they would not be available for decay and return to the soil. Atoll soils are very sandy and organically poor, and loss of this nutrient input overall could have a negative impact (67). The use of coconut oil as a substitute for diesel fuel is being examined in a number of countries. Tests conducted in Western Samoa have shown that coconut oil can be used alone or in a blend with diesel fuel without affecting engine power. Particulate matter in the coconut oil, however, clogged fuel filters after a few hours of operation. Injector coking and residue accumulation on other internal parts were expected to be serious problems (63). Further research may reveal a way of avoiding these by pretreatment of the coconut oil, modification of engine design, fuel blending with petroleum products or ethanol, or a combination of approaches (67). Successful coconut oil-fueled engines also could be used for power generation, thus eliminating the supply problems inherent in basing petroleum-fueled generating systems on remote islands. A 1983 cost comparison in the Marshall Islands showed that a 10-kW coconut oil-fueled, generator-expeller combination would be cheaper than a photovoltaic system of the same size (28). Neither system, however, is affordable by outer island standards, and they were not compared to standard diesel-powered systems. Moreover, the comparison did not account for fluctuations of coconut oil prices or declining costs for photovoltaic systems as the efficiency of that technology improves. These factors could drastically affect the comparison (67). Biogas. Considerable interest exists in enhancing agriculture production through new and sometimes innovative integration of diverse technologies into one production system. These include waste recycling by anaerobic digestion to derive energy and nutrients energy-integrated farming. By adding simple components, this system also can be integrated with aquiculture or residential waste disposal. This innovative system has not been used widely for commercial application, perhaps due to lack of support by local practitioners, continuity in technical assistance, or social or economic analysis. The major objective of energy-integrated farming systems is to transform animal or crop wastes cheaply into useful products and, thus, effectively recycle a wasted resource. The core of the system is a digester: an oxygen-free container in which organic matter is fermented by micro-organisms producing biogas and a thick slurry (l). Biogas is comprised of about 60 percent methane and 40 percent other gases principally carbon dioxide. The same fermentation process occurs in nature whenever organic matters decompose in the absence of oxygen, e.g., in animal digestive tracts or in swamp muds. The organic matter for recycling need not be animal wastes. Crop residues, leaves, grasses, straw virtually any organic material suitably preparedcan be used independently or in conjunction with manures to produce biogas. Induced fermentation processes in digesters can be made more efficient by controlling the variables such as quantity and quality of organic materials and temperature (l). The quantity of biogas and residue produced in the digester depends on the amount and types of organic matter, the capacity of digester, and ambient temperature. Completely fermented slurry has reduced harmful organisms, is virtually odorless, and retains the fertilizer value of the original material. Solids can be manually or mechanically separated from the liquid. The resulting sludge can be processed and used for various purposes, such as potting soil or as an animal feed additive (1,11). Slurry and sludge also can be used for fertilizing agricultural lands or to fertilize
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development l 299 Figure 8-4.Components of On-Farm Biogas Systems Conversion and products I t d I l Kitchen refuse Y I I i 1 J Slurry cleanup Water subsystem Aquiculture Irrigation t I t Solids Fertilizer Aquiculture Feed recycle SOURCE A.G. Alexander, Assessment of Energy-Related Farming Technologies for U S Insular Areas, OTA commissioned paper, 1986 aquiculture ponds. Biogas can be used to fuel a variety of gas burning appliances such as lights, stoves, refrigerators, or even to run modified gas-fueled engines (1,32). Although each system is different, the basic components of an energy-integrated farming system are the same, with three basic units (figure 8-4) (l): 1) a collection and blending system in which organic matter (manure and wastes) is collected and mixed with water before fermentation, 2) a biogas digester wherein anaerobic fermentation of organic matter takes place and biogas is produced and stored, and 3) slurry and wastewater storage or separation. Effluent can be used directly or the solids can be separated from the liquid and used separately. Social, economic, and environmental benefits derived from the digester system include: l reduced fuel, fertilizer, and/or animal feed use; avoided costs of waste disposal to achieve compliance with Environmental Protection Agency regulations; l l l l l sales of farm products which are otherwise wasted; increased yield and quality of traditional farm commodities; reduced production costs; decreased purchased fuel or fuelwood use through substitution of biogas; and reduced health hazard and environmental pollution caused by improper treatment of wastes (l). In addition, water is needed to wash wastes into the system on a daily basis. Thus, a program to build biogas systems could result in improved water systems for families as well as improved sewer systems which could help alleviate health problems (15). Biogas production lends itself to a broad scope of applications ranging from single-household, manually operated digesters with little need for high efficiency, to huge, costly, corporationsustaining complexes totally reliant on high technology and having closely calculated payback scenarios that dictate their ultimate success or failure (1). Currently, a viable biogas plant requires a minimum of four to five confined pigs or cattle (53). Development of energy-integrated farm technologies in the near term (6 to 7 years), probably will affect comparatively few farmers having existing large manure supplies and pressing need for its disposal. In the longer term (8 to 20 years), smallfarm and household-level biogas units could be implemented that could contribute to the general welfare of insular communities. Small-Scale Operation. In small farm operations or rural family farming, biogas can be used for lighting or cooking. The solids can be separated from the residual liquids by coarse sieving or merely by gravity separation in a small settling pond designed for periodic draining and cleaning (l). Wastewater can be used for garden irrigation, or can be cleaned by an inexpensive aquiculture of organisms such as tilapia and water hyacinths that thrive on the rich suspended organic matter still contained in the digester effluent. The major constraint for increased application of small-scale operations is the strong cultural resistance of many
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300 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas islanders to handling animal wastes. Furthermore, the initial capital cost is outside the capacity of most small farmers. Large-Scale Operation.Although opportunities for large-scale integrated farming systems exist, implementation and widespread application are seriously constrained by: 1) lack of large livestock operations that can produce enough recoverable wastes, 2) lack of expertise in design, installation, and operation, and 3) lack of capital support (1). The largest commercial application of energy recovery of wastes using fermentation principles was recently installed by the Bacardi Corp. in Puerto Rico (84). Benefits derived from large-scale operation include potential direct substitution of purchased utility power and periodic sales of excess power to local utilities. Indirect substitutions include the recycled mineral nutrients contained in the digester solids and wastewater, in protein recycled to farm animal feed, in imported dry-feeds and feed concentrates substitution with greenfeed, and on-farm production of plants and aquatic organisms produced in the aquiculture subsystems (l). Aquaculture and Energy Development Aquiculture can be integrated with irrigation and other agricultural support systems, as well as with wastewater treatment and energy development, to the mutual benefit of each development component. Because power is a basic commodity in developed and developing economies, and most power-producing plants are constructed in coastal zones, powerplants
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Ch. 8Technologies Supporting Agricultural, Aquacultural, and Fisheries Development 301 Photo credit: Office of Technology Assessment Slurry derived from this large-scale biogas system is directed through aquiculture tanks containing tilapia and water hyacinth before being discharged through an irrigation system, thus, providing several benefits in addition to energy generation. and mariculture systems could be designed to be mutually beneficial. The oceans of the world, and the Pacific in particular, are a reservoir of potential energy. There currently is no available low cost and simple means of exploiting this potential in substantial quantity. Numerous technologies being researched may one day change this situation although, with the exception of wind-powered shipping, this does not seem likely to occur for several decades. Major ocean energy systems potentially suitable for the tropics are ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC), passive seawave energy systems, and biomass and solar pond systems. Integration of aquiculture with these technologies may improve their economic feasibility and make productive use of ocean energy wastes. OTEC systems use large quantities of cold water pumped from deep ocean areas to the surface, similar to natural upwellings of cold waters along some continental coasts (94,96). OTEC uses the surface water as a heat source and the cold deep water as a heat absorber. The fuel is free, but low efficiency means that very large volumes of warm and cold water must be circulated through the system. The energy and material cost of pumping large volumes of cold water from considerable depths effectively precludes the development of small-scale OTEC systems. A byproduct of OTEC schemes is artificial upwelling of deep, cold waters. Tropical surface waters are nutrient poor, but the deep water is nutrient-rich. Such water, after its temperature change has been used to generate energy, can be used for mariculture. The culture systems use the upwelled, nutrient-rich water and abundant sunlight for primary productivity (mainly phytoplankton) on which other organisms are cultured in sequence. Such technology may be applied wherever the land borders deep seas (e.g., atolls and volcanic islands) primarily along the equatorial belt, where solar radiation is plentiful. Artificial upwelling mariculture systems have been demonstrated on St. Croix and in Hawaii. The USVI project has since closed and is considered a failure due to a need to supplement upwelled water with additional nutrients and rapid spread of infections and disease within the monoculture organisms (59). Since 1981, a number of mariculture experiments have been conducted at the Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii (NELH), an alternate energy research, development, and demonstration center. Some species demonstrated higher growth rates in comparison to natural rates or those in other aquiculture systems. Currently kelp and abalone are being commercially cultured using NELHs artificial upwelling, and plans are underway to grow algaes to produce a nutritional additive, pharmaceuticalgrade biochemical, pigments, vitamins, and fertilizers. Indications are that development of artificial upwellings do not need to be involved in power generation to be financially attractive (9). Wave energy systems are a more steady and predictable energy source than the winds from which they draw their energy, yet variations in wave size and energy are substantial. Wave energy is concentrated at the sea surface, consequently a wave energy collection device needs to be of substantial extent, hindering its applicability to small islands (14). However, sedentary
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302 l Integrated Renewable Resource Management for U.S. Insular Areas species can be cultured in much of the area otherwise reserved for energy generation. Biomass energy generation systems have primarily focused on using kelp, a large, coldwater seaweed. Submerged reef areas and lagoons are probably available near the U.S.-affiliated islands where other macroalgae could be grown, but the nutrient-rich water required is largely lacking in tropical areas. In several places in the Caribbean, including St. Croix, pilot programs have studied the feasibility of converting raw algal biomass into methane gas and other sources of cheap, nonpolluting energy (17). Algae are grown on enclosed (often floating) artificial substrates, harvested periodically, and converted chemically to gas. Two major problems influence the success of this process: 1) the relative scarcity of large, fleshy algae in island waters, particularly in light of intense fish grazing; and 2) the cost of nutrients and processing chemicals (103). This technology probably is more suitable for open ocean culture rather than nearshore systems (14). Solar ponds use a strong salinity gradient to suppress convective mixing of a body of water heated by the sun (55). A substantial supply of salt is needed to maintain the required highly saline bottom layer. Hypersaline ponds in Puerto Rico and the USVI and Pacific atoll lagoons may lend themselves to solar pond energy generation. The cleanliness of the air on small islands and the clarity of the sea water would greatly reduce one of the problems with landbased ponds: heat-absorbing leaves, dirt, etc., accumulate in the surface layer reducing the heat collected by the highly saline lower layers. Certain salt-tolerant species, such as brine shrimp (used in livestock and fish feeds) probably can be cultured in these ponds with little detriment to energy generation. Integrating Tourism and Resource DeveIopment Tropical island environments not only encompass a variety of economically important renewable resource systems, they also attract tourists. The integrated development of renewable resource uses and of tourism will require careful planning, but is preferable to isolated and possibly conflicting approaches to these two opportunities for economic development on the islands. Economic benefits and negative environm |